MATERIAL SCIENCE

 Material science
Study of relationship between
structure and properties of engineering
material.
 Structure
Arrangement of internal
component of matter in a material.
 Properties
Defined as quantitative indices
(index) of response or behaviour of a
material subjected to external stimuli
(response to an environment).
Relevant Structure for Mechanical
Engineering
 Microstructure
It Is define as the internal structural
feature of a material which can be observed
at higher magnification of order more than
or equal to 100X or more.
 Macrostructure
It is define as the external geometrical
characteristics of a material which can be
observed at lower magnification of 100X
 Crystal Structure
We can’t see this by microscope but it
denotes crystal system and lattices put
together.
 Crystal structure of unknown materials
are determined by x-ray diffraction
technique.
 Unit cell
It’s a smallest representative group of
atom.
 Crystalline material is one in which the
atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic
array over large atomic distance.
 All metals, many ceramic and certain
polymers form crystalline material.
 Sometimes the term lattice is used in the
context of crystal structures; in this sense
“lattice” means a three-dimensional array of
points coinciding with atom positions (or
sphere center).
Engineering material based on
existence of crystal structure
Crystalline material Amorphous Material
 Which exhibit  Do not have regular
 3D,long range repeated orderly
arrangement of atoms, Ions,
 Periodicity of
Molecules.
arrangement.

 Crystalline and amorphous

Atoms Ions Molecules are interchangeable by the
application of pressure and
Atomic Ionic molecular heat e.g. vulcanisation
bond bond bond

Metals Ceramics Polymers

Atomic Arrangement in Structure
 Simple cubic structure
 Body centred cubic
 Face centred cubic
 Base centred cubic
Imperfection:
Types of imperfection-
o Latticevibration
o Point defect
o Line defect
o Surface defect
Lattice vibration-
 Atoms are not stationary on their
specified location but are vibrating about
their mean position and the frequency of
vibration depends on temperature.
 It effect certain properties like specific
heat and electrical resistance of the
material.
Point defect-
 All the atoms in the solid posses
vibrational energy and at all the
tempertaure above absolute zero.
 There will be a no. of atom which have
sufficient energy to break the bond.
 Once the atoms are free from the lattice
site, they give rise to point defect.
 Also due to presence of the impurity
atom point defect are likely to come in
the crystal structure.
o If an atom is missing from its regular site
the defect produced is Vacancy.
o Self interstitial denote a parent metal
atom existing at an interstitial site.
o Interstitial impurity denotes a smaller size
of impurity than the parent metal.
 Substitutional impurity denotes a
bigger/smaller sized impurity then the
parent metal, existing in the parent metal
lattice.
For ionic Solid-
 An atom may leave its regular site and
may occupy nearby interstitial site of the
matrix giving rise to 2 defect-
Vacancy + Self interstitial = Frenkal defect
 This can occur only for cations because of
their small size as compared to the size of
the anions.
 Schotty defect denotes a pair of vacancy
formed by cation and anions in ionic solid.
Line defect-
 Edge dislocation-A part of a line of atoms
will be missing from its regular site and
this missing row of atom is called as
dislocation.
 This dislocation line can be considered as
the defect due to the insertion of an
extra half plane atoms.
 If this extra half is above as shown than it
is positive dislocation & vice-versa.
Screw dislocation-
 Screw dislocation is shearing one part of
the crystal with respect to the other.
Surface defect-
 It is arise due to change in the stacking of
atomic planes during solidification.
 Grain boundary-Formed during
solidification.
Dendrite- It is a randomly growing phase in
a molten metal.
Nucleues- First point which solidify.
 Grain boundary is a junction between
two randomly growing dendrite.
Stress-Strain Diagram
 Proportional stress-It is the highest
value of the stress up to which stress is
proportional to strain.
 Elastic limit-It is the highest value of the
stress up to which the deformation of
material can regain its original shape and
size. This stress is slightly higher then the
proportional stress. This cannot be
accurately found out from the stress-
strain curve. This should be done several
times with slightly increasing load at every
time till the sample does not show
permanent deformation.
 Ultimate tensile stress-It is the highest
valve of the stress that the materail can
bear without fracture.
 Fracture/Breaking stress-It is the
stress value at the point of fracture or
failure.
 Yield stress-It is the stress at which the
material yields i.e., show appreciable
plastic deformation at almost constant
stress without any strain hardening. This
stress exists in some material like low
carbon steel and mild steel.
The lower yield stress is used in the design
of the component because of the lower
value of the stress show the component
safety may increase.
 Proof stress-Proof stress is reported for
those material which do not show yield
point or well defined straight line on their
stress-strain diagram and is an equivalent
term to the yield stress or elastic limit
stress.
 Resilience-It is the total energy
absorbed by the material during its elastic
deformation .
 Modulus of resilience is the energy
absorbed by the material in the elastic
region per unit volume.
 Modulus of resilience = Resilience/volume
 High value of resilience is necessary for
certain component like shock absorber,
spring etc.
 Toughness-It is the energy absorbed by
the material prior to its fracture.
 It is the sum of elastic and plastic energy.
 Modulus of toughness=Toughness/volume
 Stiffness-It is the resistance of a material
for elastic deformation and is expressed
by modulus of elasticity.
 Modulus of elasticity=True stress/True strain
 Modulus of elasticity of a metal does not
get affected by alloying or change of a
structure.
 Ductility-It is ability of a material to
exhibit large plastic deformation prior to
fracture under tensile loading condition.
 It is also defined as the ability of a
material into fine wire.
 Malleability- It is the ability of the
material to berolled out into thin sheet.
 Phase: It is a homogeneous portion of a
system that has uniform physical and
chemical characteristic. For example,
Every pure material is considered to be a
phase.
 If more than one phase is present in a
given system each will have its own
distinct properties, and a boundary
separating the phases will also exists
across.
 When a substance can exists in one or
more polymorphic form (having both
FCC & BCC crystal structure) each of
these structure have different phase
because their respective physical
characteristics differ. Some times, a single
phase system is termed as homogeneous
and two or more phases are termed as
heterogeneous.
 Ordinarily, the phases interact in such a
way that the property combination of
multi phase system is different, & more
attractive than, either of the individual
phase.
 Equilibrium: it is best described in terms
of thermodynamic quantity called free
energy. In breif, free energy is a function
of the internal energy of the system &
also the randomness or disorder of the
 atoms or molecules.
 A system is at equilibrium if its free
energy is at minimum under some
specified combination of temperature,
pressure and composition.
 In macroscopic sense, this means that the
characteristics of the system do not
changes with time but persists indefinitely,
i.e., system is stable.
 A change in pressure temperature and/or
composition for a system inn equilibrium
will result in an increase in the free
energy & in a possible spontaneous
changes to another state, whereby the
free energy is lowered.
 A1 line is called as lowered critical line,
located at 723C. This line signifies the
transformation of pearlite to austenite upon
heating of eutectoid steel.
 A2 line known as curie point line
temperature line located at 768C. This line
signifies the magnetic to non magnetic
transformation which takes place upon
heating of iron carbon system of alloy.
Carbon content has no effect on curie point
temperature.
 A3 line is upper critical temperature line.
This signifies the transformation of ferrite
into austenite.
 Ferrite, Pearlite, Cementite are phase
structure of austenite at room
temperature.
 Peritectic reaction(1492C,0.18%C)
+L
S1 + L  S2
 Eutectic reaction(1147C,4.3%C)
L   + Fe3C
(This is not a phase, it is a mixture name
as Ledeburite)
 Ledeburite is defined as a eutectic
mixture of Austenite And Cementite.
 Eutectoid reaction(723C, 0.8%C)
   + Fe3C (Pearlite)
S2  S4 + S3
Pearlite is defined as Eutectoid mixture of
ferrite and cementite.
Upon cooling, solid phase transform into
two other solid phase.
 The feature distinguishing eutectoid from
eutectic is that one solid phase instead of
liquid, transform into two solid phase at a
single temperature.