PHYSICAL AND

GEOTECHNICAL
PROPERTIES
OF SOILS
Second Edition

Joseph E. Bowles
Consulcing EngineerfSoftware Consultane
Engineering Computer Software

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION

l
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
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 CONTENTS

Preface xi

Chapter l Introduction to Geotechnics, Statistics,

and SI
1-1 Generai Introduction
1-2 The Study or Soil Mechanics 2
1-3 Text Objectives 4
1-4 Some Typical Soil Problems 4
1-5 H istorical Development or Soil Mechanics 5
1-6 Soil Failures 9
1-7 Sources or Inrormation for Geotechnical Engineers 13
1-8 Elements of Statistics and Probability 16
1-9 SI Units 23

Chapter 2 Soil Proper ties- P hysical and Index 26

2-1 Introduction 26
2-2
2-3
Soil Composition and Terms
Basic Defini tions and Mass-Volume Relationships
- 26
27
2-4 Noncohesive and Cohesive Soils 39
2-5 Atterberg (or Consistency) Limits _40
2-6 Soil Moisture 41
2-7 Indices of Soil Consistency 42
2-8 Specific Surface A3
2-9 Specific Gravity 44
2-10 Soil Texture 46

-- 2- 11
2-12
2-13
2- 14
2- 15
2-16
Soil Phases
Grain Size
Uni t Weight of Soils (Dry, Wet, and Submerged)
Effective or Intergranular Pressures
Intergranular Pressures in Partially Saturated Soils
Summary
46
48
50
52
59
60

v
 ,.
vi CONTE-;TS COI'TEI'TS vii

Cbapter 3 Geologie Propertie:;, Formations of 6-4 Determining Subsurface Conditions 174

Natura! Soil Deposits, and Groundwater 64 Location, Spacing. and Depth of Borings 177
6-5
Sampling 179
3-1 Introduction 64 6-6
Water Table 184
3-2 The Earth 65 6-7
Sample Quality and Engineering Practice 184
3-3 Physìcal Properties of Minerals 66 6-8
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) ...___-- 185
3-4 The Rock and Soil Cycle 67 6-9
3-5 Igneous Rocks 9 70 6-10 SPT Correlations 186
74 6- 11 Boring Logs 188
3-6 Sedìmentary Rocks
Cone Penetration Test (C PT) 189
3-7 Metamorphic Rocks 79 6-12
Rock Drilling 192
3-8 Crustal Movements 80 6-13
Seismic Exploration 194
3-9 Rock Weatheringand Soil Formation - - 85 6-14
Resistivity Exploration 199
3-10 Generai Considerations in Rock Weathering 92 6-15
The Total Stress Cell and Dilatometer 200
3-1 1 Soil Formations Produced by Weathering,...t- 92 6-16
,3-12 Running Water and Alluvial Deposits _. 96 6-1 7 Summary
202
3-13 Glacial Deposits 100
Compaction and Soil Stabilization 204
3-14 Wind Deposits 106 Chapter 7
3-15 Gravity Deposits 109 7-1 Generai Concept of Soil Stabilization _ \\_, 204
3-16 Subsurface Water~ 109 Soil as a Construction Materia!--------------- 205
7-2

Cbapter 4
3-17
3-1 8
Sources of Geologie Information
Summary

Soil Classification Tests and

Common Systems
116
117

119
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
Soil Stabi1ization
Soil Compaction
--
Tbeory of Compaction
o-.._

Compaction of Cobesionless Soils

205
207
:208
212
7-7 Structure and Properties of Compacted
4-1 Generai 119 Cohesive Soils 213
4-2 Soil Tests for Classification.L.., 121 7-8 Stabilization of Expansive Clays · - . 215
4-3
4-4
The Unified Soil Classification System
The AASHTO Soil Classification System
v 128
135
7-9 OtherCommentsonSoilCompactio~216
7-1 0 Excavation and Compaction Equipment
217
4-5 Generai Description of AASHTO Soil 7-11 Compaction Specifications 223
Classification Subgroups 137 7-12 Fie!d Contro! of Compaction 225
4-6 The AASHTO Group Index 138 7-13 Statistica! Field Unit Weight Contro! 230
232
4-7 Field Identification Tests 140 7-14 Deep Compaction of In Si tu Soils
4-8 Summary 234
141 7-15 Static Stabilization
234
7-16 F abric Stabilization
Ch~pter 5 Soil Structure and Clay Minerals _g__ 145
7-1 7 Soil-Cement and Lime-Fly-Ash Soil Stabilization 236
5-1 Soils and Soil Formation .-. 145 7-1 8 Special Problems in Soil Compaction 238
5-2 Soìl Structure and Fabric 146 239
7-19 Summary
5-3 Soìl Cohesion and Friction ~ 146
5-4 Granular Soil Structure 147 Chapter 8 Soil Hydraulics, Permeability,
5-5 Capillarity, and Shrinkage 24 1
Other Considerations of Granular Soil Structure;
241
Relative Density ~ 149 8-1 Water in Soil ~
5-6 Structure of Cohesive Soìls Permeabilìty L 242

q/
154 8-2
5-7 Clay and Clay Minerai' 158 Soil Water Flow and the Bernoulli Energy Equatìon 245
8-3
l
5-8 Generai Clay Minerai Properties 163 8-4 <
Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability 249
252
5-9 Summary 167 8-5 Lìmitations and Other Considerations in Determìning k
Chapter 6 8-6 Effective Coefficient of Permeabilìty of 4.-
Soil Exploration and Sampling 170 254
Stratified Soils
6-1 Introduction 170 Capìllarity and Capillary Effects in Soìl 257
8-7
6-2 Site Investigation 171 Seepage Forces and Quick Conditions 267
8-8
6-3 Site Geology 172 274
8-9 Summary
 ,.
COl'TEl'TS ix
viii COKTE:-:TS

11 -5 Preconsolidation and Estimation of the

Chapter 9 Seepage and Flow Net Theory 277 Preconsolidation Pressure 365
9-1 Introduction 277 11-6 The Compression Parameters 367
9-2 Seepage Flow through Soil- The LaPlace Equation 278 11-7 Compression Parameters fo r Arithmetic Plots 369
9-3 Flow Nets 280 11 -8 Empirica! Approximations for C, and C~ 370
9-4 Fio w ets for Sheet-Pile C ut-Oif Walls 282 11-9 Soil Structure and Consoliaation <! 372
9-5 Flow N ets fo r Ea rth Dams 286 11- 10 Settlemen t Computations 373
9-6 Methods for Obtaining the Phreatic Line !l - li Secondary Compression (Creep) Senlemems 374
for Earth Dams 289 ll -12 Illustrative Examples 376
9-7 Flo w Net Construction 293 ll - 13 Controlling Consolidation Settlements 382
9-8. Direct Computation of Seepage Quantity 296 11- 14 Reliability of Consolidation Settlement Computations 382
9-9 The Flow Net When kx f k, 297 11- 15 Su mmary 383
9-10 Contro) ofSeepage through Dams 299
9-11 Sudden Drawdown and Seepage Forces 301 Chapter l2 Rate of Consolidation 387
9- 12 Piping and Contro! of Piping 302 12-l The Coefficient of Consolidation ~ 387
9-13 Other Methods fo r Seepage Quantities 304
9-14 Elements of Weli Hydrau lics 12-2 Percent Consolidation 391
305
9-15 Summary 307
12-3

12-4
Methods of Obtaining the Time of
Interest for Computing c,. <
Rate of Consolidation Based o n Strain
393
396
Chapter 10 Stresses, Strains, a nd Rheological Concepts 310 12-5 Illustrative Examples 402
IO-l Generai Considerations ~ 310 12-6 Consolidation Rates for Layered Media 410
10-2 Generai Stresses and Strains at a P oint 312 12-7 Three-Dimensional Consolidation 411
10-3 Theory of Elasticity Concepts Used in ~ 12-8 Summary 411
Soil Mechanics Problems 313
10-4
10-5
Octahedral Stresses
Stress-Strai n Modulus and Hooke's Law
31 4 Chapter 13 Shear Strength of Soils -< 414
10-6 Anisotropie Soil
320
325
13-1 Introduction ~ 414
10-7 Two-Dimensional Stresses a t a Poi m 13-2 Shear Strength Parameters c and <P 41 6
<::--"' 326 13-3 Soil Failure, Criticai Void Ratio, .c_
10-8 Mohr's Stress Circle 328
10-9 Mohr's Circle for lnclined Principal Axes and Resid ua! Strength 4 18
332
10-10 Boussinesq Stresses in an Elastic Half Space 13-4 Soil Tests to Determi ne Shear Strength Parameters 420
333
10-11 Boussinesq Solution for Rou nd Plates 13-5 Stress Paths 435
335
10-12 Numerica! Integratio n of the Bo ussinesq Equations 13-6 Shear Strength of Cohesionless Soil 440
336 13-7
10-13 O ther Solutions fo r the Boussinesq Equations Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils 442
337
10-14
10-15
Pressure Bulbs and Stress Concentration Factors
The Vertical Pressure Profile
341
342
13-8
13-9
Pore Pressure Elfects in Consolidated-Drained Tests
Sensitivity of Cohesive Soils
'- 455
455
10-16 The A verage Pressure 344
13-10 Empirica] Methods for Shear Strength ~ 456
10-17 T he Newmark Influence Chart 13-11 In-Si tu Direct Measurement of Shear Strength "<' 459
345 <(
10-18 Westergaard's Stress 13-12 Factors Alfecting Shear Strength 462
348
10-19 Soil Deformation or Settlement 13-13 Normalized Soil Parameters 463·
349
10-20 Rheological Models 13-14 The sJp. Ratio ~ 464
351
10-21 Summary 13-15 Pore Pressure Parameters 466
353
13-16 Summary 47 1
.L
l Chapter Il Consolidation and Consolidation
Settlemen ts Chapter 14 Static and D ynamic Stress-Strain
356 Characteristics 476
Il - l Soil Consolidation and Settlement Problems ~ 356
11-2 Soil Consolidation ~ 14-1 Stress-Strain Data 476
358 14-2 T he Stress-Strain Modulus 476
11-3 Interpreting the Consolidation Test t- 360
11-4 Correction of the Com pression Curve for Disturbance 14-3 P oisson's Ratio 4 79
j,-- 365
 ,.
X CONTENTS

14-4 Factors Affecting the Stress-Strain Modulus

and Approximations 482
14-5 Resilient Mod ulus 482
14-6 Dynamic Soil Stress-Strain M odulus 483
14-7 Cyclic Modulus o f Deformation and Liquefaction 486
14-8 Summary 496

Chapter 15 Latera! Pressures, Bearing Capacity,

and Settlement 498
15-1 Introduction 498
15-2 Soi l Stresses at a Point-K. Conditions 498
15-3 Active and Passive Earth Pressures 501
15-4 Pressures against Walls 506
15-5 Inclined Cohesionless Ground 507
15-6 Latera! Earth Pressure for Cohesive Soils 510
15-7 The T riai Wedge Solution 513
15-8 Logarithmic Spirai and tP-Circle Methods for
Passive Pressure in Cohesionless Soil 514
15-9 Bearing Capacity-Theoretical 517
15-10 Bearing Capacity by Empirica! Methods 522
15-11 Other Bearing Capacity Problems 524
15-12 Deep Fountlations 525
15-13 Immediate Settlement Computations 529
15-14 Summary 533

Chapter 16 Stability of Slopes 536

16-1 Generai Considerations in Stability of Slopes 536
16-2 Infinite Slo pes 537
16-3 Stability of Infin ite Cohesive Slopes 539
16-4 Circular Are Analysis 540
16-5 The tP-Circle Method 542
16-6 S1ope Stability Charts 544
16-7 Slope Ana1ysis by Method of Slices 551
16-8 Wedge Block Analysis 555
16-9 Validity of S1ope Stability Analyses 558
16-10 Summary 559

Bibliography 563
Indexes 571
Name Index
Subject l ndex

l
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following abbreviations are used to simplify the reference list:

HRB
Highway Research Board [presently Transportation Research
Board (TRB), Washington, D.C.]. Publications available from
TRB if in print
HRR
High way Research Record. Publications available from TRB if in
print
ASCE
America n Society of Civil Engineers
JGED
JSMFD Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE (1974--
Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division ASCE
(1956-1973)
PSC
Proceedings ASCE Specialty Conferences
1st PSC: Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils (1960)
3d PSC:
tures Placement and Improvement of Soil to Suppor! Struc-
(1968)
5th PSC : P erformance of Earth and Earth Supported Structures
(1972)

ASTM 6th PSC: In Si tu Measurement of Soil Properties (1975)

STP American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
CGJ Special Technical Publication published by ASTM.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Ottawa, Canada.

563
 564 PHYSIC"AL Al'.0 GEOTEC" H'IICAL
. PROPERTIES OF SOILS

BIBLIOGRAP!iy 56S
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- (1974): "Analytical and Computer Methods in Foundation Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book
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a nd 165. . .
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 566 PHYSICAL ANO GEOTECH:-JICA L PROPE RTIES OF SOJLS

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