Dept.

of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

Fac. of Engineering-Universitas Indonesia
 LECTURE 3

ENGINEERING POLYMERS

2 2
ENGINEERING POLYMERS

• Fundamentals of Polymers
• Thermoplastic Polymers
• Thermosetting Polymers
• Elastomers (Rubbers)

Prof. Dr. Ir. Akhmad Herman Yuwono, M.Phil.Eng. 3

Dept. of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Fac. of Engineering-Universitas Indonesia
NATURAL POLYMERS
POLYMERS ARE EVERYWHERE
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
 Application of polymers

INCPEN, Towards greener households, June 2001 p. 580.0400 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook

Implementation of European Guidelines for Joining Technology Training,

Project no.:2009-1-LEO05-03591
 Application of polymers

ACCENTURE RESEARCH, Trends in Manufacturing Polymers: Achieving High Performance in a Multi-Polar World, www.accenture.com
Implementation of European Guidelines for Joining Technology Training,
Project no.:2009-1-LEO05-03591
WHAT IS POLYMER ?
 The word polymer is derived from the Greek words poly, meaning many, and
meros (reduced to mer), meaning part.
 Polymer is a compound consisting of long-chain molecules, each molecule made
up of repeating units connected together.
 There may be thousands, even millions of units in a single polymer molecule.
Most polymers are based on carbon and are therefore considered organic
chemicals.
Heat
Cataly
st
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS

• Low density relative to metals and ceramics

• Good strength-to-weight ratios for certain (but not
all) polymers.
• High corrosion resistance.
• Low electrical and thermal conductivity.
 WHY POLYMERS ARE IMPORTANT?

 Plastics can be formed by molding into intricate part shapes,

usually with no further processing required
• Very compatible with net shape processing
 On a volumetric basis, polymers:
• Cost competitive with metals.
• Generally require less energy to produce than metals.
 Certain plastics are translucent and/or transparent, which makes
them competitive with glass in some applications (e.g. polymethyl
methacrylate PMMA).
LIMITATIONS OF POLYMERS

• Low strength relative to metals and ceramics

• Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
• Low service temperatures, limited to only a few
hundred degrees
• Viscoelastic properties, which can be a distinct
limitation in load bearing applications
• Some polymers degrade when subjected to sunlight
and other forms of radiation
Nomenclature of polymer
1- Nomenclature Based on monomer source
The addition polymer is often named according to the monomer that was
used to form it
Example : poly( vinyl chloride ) PVC is made from vinyl chloride
-CH2-CH(Cl)-

If “ X “ is a single word the name of polymer is written out

directly
ex. polystyrene -CH2-CH(Ph)-

Poly-X

If “ X “ consists of two or more words parentheses should be

used
ex , poly (vinyl acetate ) -CH2-CH(OCOCH3)-

2- Based on polymer structure

The most common method for condensation polymers since the polymer
contains different functional groups than the monomer
Nomenclature of polymers
PC = Polycarbonat
ABS = Acrylnitril-Butadien-Styrol
PMMA = Polymethylmethacrylat
PS = Polystyrene
PVC = Polyvinylchloride
PET = Polyethylenterephthalat (PETP)
PA = Polyamide
PE-UHMW = Polyethylene-ultra high molecular weight
PP = Polypropylene
PE-HD = Polyethylen hoher Dichte (High Density)
PE-LD = Polyethylen niedriger Dichte (Low Density)
Classification of polymers
Main classifications of the polymers:
• by origin
• by monomer composition
• by chain structure
• by thermal behavior
• by kinetics or mechanism
• by application

A. Classification by Origin
 Synthetic organic polymers
Biopolymers (proteins, polypeptides, polynucleotide, polysaccharides,
natural rubber)
Semi-synthetic polymers (chemically modified synthetic polymers)
Inorganic polymers (siloxanes, silanes, phosphazenes)
B. Classification by Monomer Composition
 Homopolymers

 Copolymers
 Block
Graft
Alternating
Statistical
Homopolymers
Consist of only one type of constitutional repeating unit (A)
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Homopolymer
 Copolymers : consist of two or more constitutional
repeating units (A-B )
Several classes of copolymer are possible
 Statistical copolymer (Random)
ABAABABBBAABAABB
two or more different repeating unit Random/Statistical
are distributed randomly
 Alternating copolymer
ABABABABABABABAB
are made of alternating sequences
of the different monomers Alternating
 Block copolymer
AAAAAAAAABBBBBBBBB
long sequences of a monomer are
followed
by long sequences of another monomer
 Graft copolymer Block
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
B B B
B B B
Consist of a chain made from one type of
monomers with branches of another type
Graft
c. Classification by Chain structure (molecular architecture)
 Linear chains :a polymer consisting of a single continuous chain of repeat units
 Branched chains :a polymer that includes side chains of repeat units connecting
onto the main chain of repeat units
 Hyper branched polymer consist of a constitutional repeating unit including a
branching groups
 Cross linked polymer :a polymer that includes interconnections between chains
 Net work polymer :a cross linked polymer that includes numerous
interconnections between chains

Linear Branched Cross-linked Network

Direction of increasing strength
d. Classification by Thermal Behavior
Polymers may be classified as follows, according to the mechanical
response at elevated temperatures:
• Thermoplasts
• Thermosets.

a) Thermoplasts:
Thermoplast polymers soften when heated and harden when cooled.
Simultaneous application of heat and pressure is required to fabricate
these materials.
On the molecular level, when the temperature is raised, secondary bonding
forces are diminished so that the relative movement of adjacent chains
is facilitated when a stress is applied.
Most linear polymers and those having branched structures with flexible
chains are thermoplastics.
Thermoplastics are very soft and ductile.
The commercial available thermoplasts are
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Polystyrene
• Polymethyl methacrylate
• Polystyrene
d. Classification by Thermal Behavior
b) Thermosets:
Thermosetting polymers become soft during their first heating and become
permanently hard when cooled. They do not soften during subsequent heating.
Hence, they cannot be remolded/reshaped by subsequent heating.
In thermosets, during the initial heating, covalent cross-links are formed between
adjacent molecular chain. These bonds anchor the chains together to resist the
vibration and rotational chain motions at high temperatures. Cross linking is
usually extensive in that 10 to 15% of the chain mer units are cross linked. Only
heating to excessive temperatures will cause severance of these crosslink
bonds and polymer degradation. Thermoset polymers are harder, stronger,
more brittle than thermoplastics and have better dimensional stability.
They are more usable in processes requiring high temperatures
Most of the cross linked and network polymers which include
 Vulcanized rubbers

 Epoxies
 Phenolic
 Polyester resins
are thermosetting polymers.
Thermosets cannot be recycled, do not melt, are usable at higher temperatures
than thermoplastics, and are more chemically inert
e. Classification by Kinetics or Mechanismr
 Step-growth
 Chain-growth

f. Classification by Applications
 Plastics
 Fibers
 Elastomers
 Coatings
 Adhesives
 TYPES OF POLYMERS

 In general, polymers can be separated into plastics and

rubbers. As engineering materials, it is appropriate to
divide them into the following three categories:
1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosets
3. Elastomers
where (1) and (2) are plastics and (3) are rubbers

What is the main difference between polymer and plastic ?

 THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS
THERMOPLASTICS (TP)

• Solid materials at room temperature but viscous liquids

when heated to temperatures of only a few hundred
degrees.
• This characteristic allows them to be easily and
economically shaped into products.
• They can be subjected to heating and cooling cycles
repeatedly without significant degradation
(recyclable).
 THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
THERMOSETS (TS)

• Cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles (not recyclable)

• When initially heated, they soften and flow for
molding.
• But elevated temperatures also produce a chemical
reaction that hardens the material into an infusible
solid.
• If reheated, thermosets degrade and char rather than
soften.
 ELASTOMERS (RUBBERS)

• Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic extensibility when

subjected to relatively low mechanical stress
• Some elastomers can be stretched by a factor of 10
and yet completely recover to their original shape.
• Although their properties are quite different from
thermosets, they share a similar molecular structure, that
is different from the thermoplastics.
EXAMPLES OF POLYMERS:

• THERMOPLASTICS:
Polyethylene (PE), polyvinylchloride (PVC),
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and nylon
• THERMOSETS:
Phenolics, epoxies, and certain polyesters
• ELASTOMERS:
Natural rubber (vulcanized)
Synthetic rubbers
 SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS

• Nearly all polymers used in engineering are synthetic.

They are made by chemical processing.
• Polymers are synthesized by joining many small
molecules together into very large molecules, called
macromolecules, that possess a chain-like structure.
• The small units, called monomers, are generally simple
unsaturated organic molecules such as ethylene C2H4 .
SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS
Monomer : ethylene Polymer :
(C2H4) Polyethylene

Synthesis of polyethylene from ethylene monomers:

(1) n ethylene monomers yields (2a) polyethylene of chain length n;
(2b) concise notation for depicting the polymer structure of chain
length n
SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF COMMON POLYMERS
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF COMMON POLYMERS
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF COMMON POLYMERS
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF COMMON POLYMERS
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF COMMON POLYMERS
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF COMMON POLYMERS
 LINEAR, BRANCHED, & CROSS-LINKED
POLYMERS
1. LINEAR STRUCTURE: chain-like structure, characteristic of
thermoplastic polymers
2. BRANCHED STRUCTURE: chain-like but with side branches. Also
found in thermoplastic polymers
3. CROSS-LINKED STRUCTURE:
1. Loosely cross-linked, as in an elastomer
2. Tightly cross-linked, as in a thermoset
LINEAR, BRANCHED, & CROSS-LINKED POLYMERS

Linear structure of
thermoplastic
polymer :
characteristic of
thermoplastics

Branched structure
that includes side
branches along the
chain: also a
characteristic of
thermoplastics
LINEAR, BRANCHED, & CROSS-LINKED POLYMERS

Loosely cross-linked, in
which primary bonding
occurs between
branches and other
molecules at certain
connection points, as in
elastomers.

Tightly cross-linked or
network structure –
resulting in the entire mass
as one gigantic
macromolecule, as in
thermosets.
 EFFECT OF BRANCHING ON PROPERTIES

• Thermoplastic polymers always possess linear or

branched structures, or a mixture of the two.
• Branches increase entanglement among the molecules,
which makes the polymer:
• Stronger in the solid state
• More viscous in the liquid state
 EFFECT OF BRANCHING ON PROPERTIES

 Thermosets possess a high degree of cross-linking,

 Elastomers possess a low degree of cross-linking.
 Thermosets are hard and brittle, while elastomers are
elastic and resilient.
 Cross-linking causes the polymer to become chemically
set.
• The reaction cannot be reversed (not recyclable).
• The polymer structure is permanently changed; if heated, it
degrades or burns rather than melt.
EFFECT OF BRANCHING ON PROPERTIES
 LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (LDPE)
 HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (HDPE)
WHICH ONE IS LINEAR STRUCTURE ? AND WHICH ONE IS THE BRANCH ONE?
Low Density vs High Density Polyethylene

Polyethylene type Low density High density

Degree of crystallinity 55% 92%
Specific gravity 0.92 0.96
Modulus of elasticity 140 MPa 700 MPa

Melting temperature 115C 135C

 A bit on Crystallinity Concept In Polymers

• Both amorphous and crystalline structures are possible,

although the tendency to crystallize is much less than for
metals or non-glass ceramics
• Not all polymers can form crystals.
• For those that can, the degree of crystallinity (the proportion
of crystallized material in the mass) is always less than
100 %.
 A bit on Crystallinity Concept In Polymers

Crystallized regions in a polymer:

(a) long molecules forming crystals randomly mixed in with the amorphous
material;
(b) folded chain lamella, the typical form of a crystallized region.
 Some Observations about Polymer Crystallization

 Linear polymers consist of long molecules with thousands of repeated mers

• Crystallization involves folding back and forth of the long chains upon
themselves to achieve a very regular arrangement. The small crystallized
regions are called crystallites, and in polymer world is called as spherulite
 Crystallites take the form of lamellae randomly mixed in with amorphous
material
• A polymer that crystallizes is a two-phase system - crystallites interspersed
throughout an amorphous matrix
 CRYSTALLINITY AND ITS GENERAL EFFECTS
ON PROPERTIES

 As crystallinity is increased in a polymer:

• density increases
• stiffness, strength, and toughness increases
• heat resistance increases
• Amorphous polymer is transparent, crystalline polymer
is opaque. Each has
POLYMER BEHAVIOR
POLYMER BEHAVIOR

• Glass transition
temperature (Tg)
• Melting temperature (Tm)
POLYMERS IN THE SOLID STATE

Amorphous
Semi-crystalline

Glassy Rubbery
Glass Transition Temperature
• The glass transition, Tg, is temp. below
which a polymer OR glass is brittle or
glass-like; above that temperature the
material is more plastic.

•The Tg to a first approximation is a

measure of the strength of the secondary
bonds between chains in a polymer; the
stronger the secondary bonds; the
higher the glass transition temperature.

Polyethylene Tg = 0°C;
Polystyrene = 97 °C
PMMA (plexiglass) = 105 °C.
Since room temp. is < Tg for PMMA, it is
brittle at room temp.

For rubber bands: Tg = - 73°C….

 DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION

• The mean value of n is called the degree of polymerization (DP).

• The molecular weight (MW) of a polymer is the sum of the
molecular weights of the monomers in the molecule.

MW = n x the molecular weight of each repeating unit.

 Molecular Weight of Polymers

DP affects properties of the polymer:

higher DP  longer chain  heavier weight of polymer 
increases mechanical strength and viscosity in the fluid state, which
makes processing more difficult.
 Molecular Weight of Polymers
 However, polymers (as a bulk material) are comprised of many
macromolecules each with different length (molecular weight)
as a consequence of different molecules in a batch).
 Therefore, the molecular weight of polymer must be interpreted
as an average.
DETERMINING THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION:
Mn , the number average molecular weight, is calculated from the
mole fraction distribution of
different sized molecules in a sample:

Mw, the weight average molecular weight, is calculated from the

weight fraction distribution of different sized molecules.

Note:
SIMPLE ANALOGOUS OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT
SIMPLE ANALOGOUS OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT
SIMPLE ANALOGOUS OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT
PLASTICS
Advantages:
Light Weight
High Strength-to-Weight Ratio
Complex Parts - Net Shape
Variety of Colors (or Clear)
Corrosion Resistant
Electrical Insulation
Thermal Insulation
High Damping Coefficient
“Low” pressures and temp required
Disadvantages:
Creep
Thermally Unstable- Can’t
withstand Extreme Heat
U-V Light Sensitive
Relatively low stiffness
Relatively low strength
Difficult to Repair/Rework
Difficult to Sort/Recycle
 VARIETY OF PLASTICS & PLASTICS PROCESSES
Two basic types of plastics
 Thermoset- Heat hardening/ Undergoes chemical change
 Thermoplastic- Heat softening/ Undergoes physical change

A wide variety of plastic manufacturing processes exist :

Extrusion Expansion
Lamination (Calendering) Solid-Phase Forming
Thermal Forming Casting
Foaming Spinning
Molding
• compression, transfer, blow, rotational, injection
 EXTRUSION

One of the most common process for creating plastic for further processing is
extrusion. The Extrusion process combines color pigments and performance
additives with resin by pushing it through rotating screws. The heat and pressure
produced within the screw barrels disperses and melts the ingredients into
homogeneous molten mixture. At the end of the mixture is usually cool die. The
mixture is pushed through the die and onto the “finishing” operation such as
pelletizing, calendaring, or molding.
 CALENDARING

In calendaring, sheets of plastic are laminated together by rolling through heated

roller. Basically, warm or molten plastic (usually from an extruder) is fed through a
series of heated rolls as in this figure. The gaps between the rolls determine the
final sheet size. Each additional roll would reduce the sheet thickness further.
Then, once the laminated sheet is the correct thickness, the sheet is then stripped
off.
 THERMOFORMING

In thermoforming, a plastic sheet is heated in an oven to the sag point but not to the
melting point. The sheet is then removed from the oven and placed over a mold and
through the application of a vacuum is pulled against the mold.
Typical parts are advertising signs, refrigerator liners, packaging, appliance
housings, and panels for shower stalls. The parts cannot have openings or holes or
the vacuum cannot be maintained. The sheets used for thermoforming are made
using the calendaring process.
 CASTING
POTTING ENCAPSULATION

Casting used for both thermosetting and thermoplastic materials. Basically, casting
places plastic in a mold then hardens it into a rigid article or form.
In potting, the plastic is cast around a part, and the case becomes part of the final
component. In encapsulation, the component is covered with plastic and the
component and plastic are ejected from the mold. Both processes are used
extensively in electronics for insulation and dielectric properties.
LESS COMMON METHODS

 FOAMING
- liquid chemicals
- combine & cure (isocynate polyal)

 SPINNING
- produces plastic fibers
- similar to extrusion

 SOLID PHASE FORM

- forming plastic below glass temperature
- similar to stamping or forging
 MOLDING
Molding is the “most common plastic forming or finishing
method”. There are many different methods in plastic
molding. Methods for molding include:

• COMPRESSION MOLDING
• TRANSFER MOLDING
• ROTATIONAL MOLDING
• REACTION INJECTION MOLDING
• BLOW MOLDING
• INJECTION MOLDING
 COMPRESSION MOLDING

In compression molding, a pre-shaped part, a pre-measured powder or a viscous mixture of

liquid resin is placed directly in a heated mold. Forming is done under pressure with a plug
or the upper half of the die. Compression molding is similar to forging, and has the same
problem with flash.
Typical parts are dishes, handles, container caps, fittings, electrical and electronic
components, washing machine agitators and housings. Fiber reinforced plastics may also be
formed by this process, though mainly thermoset plastics are used.
 TRANSFER MOLDING

Transfer molding is a further development of compression molding. The thermosetting

material is heated and then injected into a heated, closed mold. Pressure is applied
somehow to force the material into the mold. The flow process heats the material and
homogenizes it. Curing takes place by cross linking. Typical parts include electrical and
electronic components and rubber and silicone parts.
ROTATION MOLDING
Rotational molding is used for large
plastic parts. The thin-walled metal mold
is a split female mode made of two
pieces and is designed to be rotated
about two perpendicular axes. A pre-
measured quantity of finely ground plastic
material is placed inside a warm mold.
The mold is then heated, usually in a
large oven, while it is rotated about the
two axes. The action tumbles the powder
against the mold where heating fuses the
power without melting it. In some cases,
a cross linking agent is added to the
powder, and cross linking occurs after the
part is formed in the mold by continued
heating. Typical parts are tanks, trash
cans, boat hulls, buckets, housings, toys,
carrying cases, and footballs. Various
metallic or plastic inserts may also be
molded into the parts.
 REACTION INJECTION MOLDING

In reaction-injection molding (RIM), a mixture of two or more reactive fluids is forced

under high pressure into the mold cavity. Chemical reactions take place rapidly in the
mold and the polymer solidifies, producing a thermoset part. Major applications are
automotive bumpers and fenders, thermal insulation for refrigerators and freezers,
and stiffeners for structural components. Initial injection pressures typically are much
lower than traditional injection molding.
 BLOW MOLDING, BOTTLES

Blow molding is a modified extrusion and injection molding process, wherein a tube
is extruded (usually turned so that it is vertical) and clamped into a mold with a
cavity much larger than the tube diameter. Air is blown inside the tube opening and
the plastic expands to fill the mold cavity shape. Blow molding is similar to blowing
up a balloon inside a bottle. Mostly, blow molding forms hollow plastic parts with
relatively thin walls. Examples of blow molding products are bottles, bumpers, bags
and ducting.
BLOW MOLDING, PLASTIC BAGS

The tube is raised and the plastic bag is

blown to size. Then pinch rollers
compress the bag for further packaging.
 INJECTION MOLDING

The last and more popular process is injection molding. This process is used to
form complex plastic parts. Typical injection molded parts are fittings, containers,
bottle tops, housings, and much more.
 INJECTION MOLDING

The basic sequence of the process is :

1. Plasticize the material;

2. Pressurize plastic melt and inject into mold cavity;
3. Cool the plastic melt, while keeping mold filled;
4. Open mold and eject part.
 INJECTION MOLDING

Key issues for design of part and mold:

1) Filling Mold & Holding Pressure:

Mold layout designed to enhance fill (use good fluid flow

principles) After part is filled, packing pressure is maintained, so
part will not shrink away from walls as it solidifies.

2) Ejecting Part:

Part should hang on moving side as it retracts (pulling free of fixed

side) Ejector pins then push part out of moving side of mold
Taper or draft required to ensure ejection.
 INJECTION MOLD LAYOUT

Sprue
Gate
Runner
Mold
Cavity

The plastic melt flows from the injection nozzles and enters the mold at the sprue,
then into the runners and ultimately through the gates into the part. Gate and
runner design is an important part of the mold design. To help ensure that the
mold fills completely, one should balance the mold so that all cavities fill at the
same time. When the cavities are the same, a symmetric layout is used. If the
cavities are all markedly different, often the gates and runners must be
sized/shaped differently in order to allow all cavities to fill in the same amount of
time.
 PLUNGER TYPE INJECTION MOLDING PRESS
Hopper
Shooting
Torpedo Pot

Plunger

Nozzle
Band Heaters

The plastic is fed into the mold when a cylinder plunger extends and forces the plastic into
the mold. After the plunger retracts more material can be fed from the hopper to the
shooting pot. (Thus the stroke of the plunger determines the additional material fed in each
time.) Of course the shooting pot is long enough to hold several shots, so the plastics stays
in the pot for a while, giving the band heaters time to heat and melt the plastic. Notice the
torpedo, which is basically an obstruction to the plastic flow in the shooting pot.
SCREW TYPE INJECTION PRESSES
Hopper
Screw meters plastic,
Nozzle plunger provides
Band Heaters
pressure

Reciprocating
Shooting Screw
Pot

Virtually ALL industrial presses are screw type presses

Added benefits of screw:
1) Larger throughput
2) Obtain a more homogeneous melt (better mix)
3) More consistent from shot to shot
4) Added heat to melt- from action of screw
SCREW TYPE INJECTION PRESSES

The original plunger type has had one important modification. A

reciprocating screw now forces material into the mold. This screw action
ensures that the same amount of material is always metered in, and it is
equally dense along the length of the screw. Additionally the material will be
much better mixed by the screw action which helps to maintain better
consistency from shot to shot. Since the screw action generally helps to
pack the material in better, a given plunger travel will push more material
into the cavity. Finally the action of the screw, as it rotates and mixes, adds
energy to the melt. However, band heaters are still needed to fully heat the
melt. All of this results in a much better and more consistent part. This is
why the screw press is essentially the only press found in industry.
 Assignment 2:

1. Tunjukkanlah bahwa sudut ikatan kovalen pada struktur

tetrahendron karbon adalah 109o.
2. Jarak antara inti-inti dari atom-atom karbon yang berdekatan
pada suatu polimer linier adalah sekitar 1.5 Angstrom.
Tentukanlah panjang dari rantai polietilen (PE) yang memuat
10.000 mer.
3. Derajat polimerisasi suatu polietilen (PE) adalah 7500.
Hitunglah banyaknya rantai PE tersebut dalam satu gram
polimer.
4. Hitunglah: (a) jumlah (dalam gram) inisiator hidrogen peroksida
(H2O2) yang harus ditambahkan ke dalam 1000 gram metil
metakrilat (MMA) untuk menghasilkan derajat polimerisasi
5000; (b) jumlah rantai yang terbentuk.
 Assignment 2:

5. Diketahui polivinil alkohol (PVA) mempunyai temperatur

transisi gelas 25oC. Sebuah buku referensi mahasiswa
pada program studi S1 di Universitas Dua Cula
menyebutkan bahwa modulus elastisitas polimer ini pada
temperatur 30oC adalah 800 MPa. Berikanlah kritik
komentar anda mengenai pernyataan tersebut.
6. Bandingkan kecenderungan relatif polimer-polimer di bawah
ini untuk membentuk fasa kristalin:
 Polietilena bercabang vs polietilena rantai lurus.
 Polietilena rantai lurus vs kopolimer polietilena-polipropilena.
 Polipropilena isotaktik vs polipropilena ataktik