Understanding

wines:Explaining
styleand quality
An accompaniment to

WSET®Level 3 Award
in Wines
Understanding
wines:Explaining
styleand quality
An accompaniment to

WSET® Level 3 Award

in Wines
Wine & SpiritEducationTrust
39-45 Bermondsey Street, London SEl 3XF
a wset@wset.co.uk
wsetglobal.com

o Wine & SpiritEducationTrust2016

All rightsreserved.No part of this publicationmay be reproducedor transmitted in any form or by any means,electronicor mechanical,including
photocopying,recordingor any informationstorageor retrievalsystem,without the prior permissionin writing from the publishers.

A CIPcataloguerecordfor this book is availablefrom the BritishLibrary

ISBN 978 1 905819 39 3

PHOTOGRAPHICCREDITS
1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 52, 53 (Rob Lawson); 15, 17 (Dennis Sterne); 16 (Matt Sills); 22 (Image 1) CIVC; 23 (Image 1) (Elizabeth Clark, Airlie Winery); 24, 47 (Image 1),
48 (Image 1), 184, 190 (Images 1, 3), 193 (Nicolia Littlewood); 38 (Images 2, 3, 4), 39 (Images 8, 11) (Warman Media); 38 (Image 13) (MontTauch); 38 (Image 14),
39 (Image 7) (BIVB,Bernuy J.L.); 38 (Image 15) (Palliser Estate Wines of Martin borough); 39 (Image 5), 103 (5opexa); 51 (Image 1) (Australian Vintage Limited);
51 (Image 2) (Linda Simpson); 59 (top, middle) (Charles Sydney); 59 (bottom) (Constellation Brands); 61 (Jordan Winery); 69 (Image 1) (Lawson Dry Hills
Wines Ltd.); 71, 108 (David Allen MW);78, 81 (top), 122 (Michelle Cherutti-Kowal MW);81 (bottom) (Richard Bampfield Mw/Chateau Preuillac); 82 (CIVB);
88 (BIVB/ Armellephotographe.com); 95 (Lindsay Oram); 99 (bottom), 102, 104 (Inter Rhone Picture Library (10Christophe Grilhe)); 105 (CIVPF.MILLO);
112 (GermanWine lnstitute/www.germanwines.de);114 (0 AWMBWernerGarnerith);119 (NikosDesyllas,Winesfrom Santorini);126 (ConsorzioChianti
Classico); 130 (©Donnafugata, Piero Lazzari); 131 (© ICEX,Fernando Briones); 135 (© ICEX, Felix Lorrio); 136 (© ICEX,Bodegas Senorio de Arinzano);
137 (© ICEX, Rafael Vargas); 141 (Sogrape); 143 (Sonoma County Vintners); 148 (top) (Carolyn Wells-Kramer); 148 (bottom)l10Joel Butler Mw); 151 (lnniskillin
Wines); 153, 154 (Wines of Chile); 162 (bottom) (WOSA), 172 (Giesen Wines Ltd.); 181 (Azienda Agricola Paolo Zucchetto); 182 (David Milne, Josef Chromy
Wines); 190 (Image 2) (ICEP Portugal); 192 (Images 1, 3) (Symington Family Estate); 192 (Image 2) (Taylor's QAVB).

WSET:21 (top), 38 (Images 1, 16), 39 (Image 12), 97, 99 (top), 187 (WSET); 21 (middle), 22 (Image 2), 23 (Image 2), 31, 36, 39 (Images 6, 10), 41 (Image 2),
45 (Image 4), 47 (Image 2), 51 (Image 3), 85, 86, 90, 93, 94, 117, 123, 125, 173, 175 (Image 3), 180 (Antony Moss MW);21 (bottom), 26, 27, 30, 33, 37, 45
(Images 1, 2, 3, 5), 47 (Image 3), 48 (Image 2), 68, 69 (Image 2), 139, 144, 146, 147, 157 (Images 1, 3), 158, 162 (top), 165, 167, 171, 175 (Image 2) (Michael
Buriak); 39 (Image 9) (Nicholas King); 41 (Image 1) (Angela Fordham); 157 (Image 2) (Janet Bangs); 175 (Image 1) (Harriet Furze).

LABELS
75 (top) (Albert Bichot); 75 (bottom) (Constellation Brands).

MAPS
Maps designed by Cosmographics Ltd

DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Diagrams and illustrations produced by CalowCraddock Ltd

Designed by Peter Dolton

Editing and proofreading by Cambridge Editorial Ltd
Productionservicesby Wayment Print & PublishingSolutionsLtd
Printed and bound by Pureprint Group, Uckfield, UK
 iii

Contents

Foreword V 23 Austria 113

Introduction vii 24 Tokaj 116

25 Greece 118
Section 1: Wine and the Consumer
26 Introduction to Italy 120
1 The Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine •
27 Northern Italy 121
2 Wine with Food 11
28 Central Italy 126
3 Storage and Service of Wine 15
29 Southern Italy 129

30Spain 131
Section 2: Factors Affecting the Style, Quality and
Price of Wine
31 Portugal 139

32 Introduction to the USA 142

4 The Vine 19

5 The Growing Environment 24

33 California 143

34 Oregon, Washington and New York 148

6 Vineyard Management 33
35Canada 150
7 Common Elements in Winemaking and 43
Maturation 36Chile 152

8 White and Sweet Winemaking 55 37 Argentina 156

9 Red and RoseWinemaking 63 38 South Africa 160

10 Factors that Affect the Price of Wine 71 39 Australia 164

11 Wine and the Law 74 40 New Zealand 170

Section 3: Still Wines of the World Section 4: Sparkling Wines of the World

12 Introduction to France 77 41 Sparkling Wine Production 173

13 Bordeaux 78 42 Sparkling Wines of the World 179

14 The Dordogne and South West France 83

Section 5: Fortified Wines of the World
15 Burgundy 85
43 Sherry 184
16 Beaujolais 90
44 Port 190
17 Alsace 92
45 Fortified Muscats 195
18 The Loire Valley 95

19 The Northern Rhone 99

Acknowledgements 196
20 The Southern Rhone 102
Index 197
21 Southern France 105

22Germany 108

. ,
 V

Foreword

As someone responsible for two of the meatier wine reference books, The Oxford Companion to
Wine and The World Atlas of Wine, I am only too aware of how rapidly the world of wine is now
changing. Updating the Oxford book, for example, generally involves some change to at least
half the entries, and the addition of an extraordinary number of new ones.
This is why the WSETconstantly works to keep their materials up to date. The world's
premier source of wine education has to be up to date and seen to be up to date with the
myriad developments in wine production and consumption the world over.
The teaching and courses now offered by the WSETare unrecognisably different from those
I benefited from as I began my wine writing career in the 1970s. I seem to remember that then,
for example, we spent a great deal of time studying the minutiae of Sherry production,
something that is - quite unjustifiably in my view - not exactly in the most sought-after aspect
of wine education nowadays. And even when I did my Master of Wine exams in 1984,
Australian wine was still regarded as at best a novelty, at worst a joke. (Who's laughing now?)
I was thrilled when in 1978 I learned that I had won the top prize for WSETDiploma
students, then called the Rouyer Guillet cup, the forerunner of today's Vintners' Cup. Until then
I was not at all sure what standard my wine knowledge was, but I felt confident that, thanks to
the thoroughness of the WSETsyllabus, I really had covered the ground in its entirety, not just
those little byways that interested me most.
I know that the courses have been constantly adapted, particularly in recent years, to reflect
the sort of wines most often made and drunk now. When people tell me they want to get into
the wine trade, or simply advance their wine knowledge for their personal enjoyment, I always
draw their attention to the WSETcourses, whether in the UK or further afield.
I'm sure that you will find this book as useful as I found my WSETcourses.

Jancis Robinson MW
www.jancisrobinson.com
 vii

Introduction

Since the Wine & Spirit Education Trust was founded in 1969, the world of wine has grown and
developed out of all recognition. Nevertheless, despite all the change, the most interesting
question remains the same; what are the factors that determine the style and quality of the
wine in my glass?This book, which supports the WSETLevel 3 Award in Wines, seeks to answer
this question. Altogether, this programme of study is designed to enable you to develop the
skills to be able to answer this question confidently no matter what the wine you encounter.
In order to be able to develop these skills it is vital that you get to grips with grape growing
and winemaking. This book has a vital role to play. The sections that cover these subjects
explain the key concepts and processes that are involved from bud burst to bottling. This is
supported by a significant number of new illustrations and pictures. Furthermore, throughout
this section we place these techniques in context in order to show you how they are actually
used. In particular, the chapters on winemaking offer a unique insight for a book of this size
into the choices that are made in the winery.
The other chapters on individual wine producing regions and countries have been updated
for this new edition. Each one focuses on the key factors that will remain constant so that you
will have a core of knowledge which, when used in conjunction with the chapters on
production, will mean that you will be able to explain to your friends, customers or colleagues
why the wines they love taste the way they do.
I hope that you enjoy studying for the Level 3 Award in Wines and I wish you every success
in the examination.

l
Ian Harris
Chief Executive, Wine & Spirit Education Trust
 THESYSTEMATIC
APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE"

TheSystematic
Approach
to Tasting
Wine® The WSET Level 3.Syst~matic
Approach to Tasting Wine (SAT)
is a tool that allows you to write a complete description of a wine and then use this information to make
1
an evaluation of its quality and readiness for drinking. It is a very structured and methodical approach to
tasting and is therefore not an approach that is suitable for every occasion. Nevertheless, practising with
the SAT will provide a disciplined and structured template that will remind you to consider all of the
important elements of a wine.

THE PURPOSE OF THE SAT

The SATis a teaching aid and assessment tool that was
devised by the WSETto be used in conjunction with its
qualifications. It is designed to develop two fundamental
skills: the ability to describe a wine accurately and the
ability to make reasonable conclusions based on these
descriptions.

THE FORMAT OF THE SAT

The first part of the SATconsists of three sections
entitled 'Appearance; 'Nose' and 'Palate'. This is the
descriptive element of the SAT.Each section has its
own category headings which appear in the left-hand
column. The right-hand column lists the terms that
you can select to describe each category heading. For
example, to describe the 'Appearance' of a white wine
you might select 'clear'for the category heading
'Clarity; 'pale'for 'Intensity' and 'lemon' for 'Colour'. In
some cases, you are restricted to using the specific
terms as they appear listed, and in other cases the
specific terms are optional. This is explained in more
detail below.
The second part of the SATconsists of one section
entitled 'Conclusions'.This is the evaluative part of the SAT.
It contains two category headings: 'Quality Level' and 'Level
of readiness for drinking/potential for ageing'. The right-
hand column lists the terms that you can select for each
category heading. For example, you might select'good'in
the'Quality Level' category and 'can drink now, but has
potential for ageing' in the 'Level of readiness for drinking/
potential for ageing' category . In the 'Conclusions' section
of the SATyou are restricted to using the specific terms as
they appear listed.
The SATis supported by a second document, the Wine-
Lexicon. This appears on the reverse side of the laminated
SATcard. The Wine-Lexicon is a list of descriptive words
covering some suggested aroma and flavour terms that
may help you to describe the wine you are tasting.
USING THE SAT
In the Level 3 tasting examination the terms you select
to describe and evaluate each wine will allow the
examiners to assesshow accurately you can identify
its aroma and flavour characteristics and structural
components, and draw conclusions about its quality
and readiness for drinking.
The examiners recognise that different tasters have
different levels of sensitivity to a wine's structural
components such as sugar, acidity, tannin and alcohol.
However, the examiners expect that through a
combination of practice and coaching you will have
calibrated your palate against those of your educators
and peers. In practice, this means being able to classify
the levels of a certain wine's components relative to the
general world of wines.
Hyphenated Lines
Where terms in the right-hand column of the SATare
separated by a hyphen (for example, 'lemon-green -
lemon - gold - amber - brown' in 'Colour'), you should
select only one of the terms to describe the wine. If you
think the wine sits on the border of'ruby' and 'garnet; you
must make a decision and select one of them, rather than
using a range such as 'ruby-garnet' or'ruby to garnet'. If
the examiner considers that both 'ruby' and 'garnet' are
valid descriptions, then marks will be awarded for either
description. If you use a range, for example, 'ruby to
2 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
garnet; then the examiner will not give you the mark
because you have not been specific enough.
For hyphenated lines you must also limit yourself to the
words that are used for each scale as they appear in the
SAT.For example, when you describe'lntensity'you must
only use either'pale; 'medium' or'deep'. There are many
other adjectives that can be used to describe wine, but
for assessment purposes the use of words needs to be
consistent between examiners and candidates, and this is
best achieved by limiting you to the words in the SAT.
'e.g:Lines
Note that where 'Aroma characteristics' appears in the
'Nose' section and 'Flavour characteristics' appears in the
'Palate' section, terms in the right-hand column are
preceded by 'e.g:.For these category headings you are
not restricted to the terms in the right-hand column of
the SAT.You are, however, strongly encouraged to use
the terms in the Wine-Lexicon.
Using the Scales
The version of the SAT used for the Level 2 Award in
Wines and Spirits relies on three-point scales to describe
the structural components of a wine. For example, the
scale for 'Acidity' is 'low - medium - high'. At Level 3
many of these three-point scales have been refined so
that a more accurate description can be made .
For most of the scales this involves subdividing the
range that is covered by 'medium' into three equal parts:
'medium(-) - medium - medium(+)'to make a five-point
scale. It is very important to realise that this is not a scale
of five equal parts. For example, 'medium(+)' can be
thought of as 'medium, but towards the upper end of
the medium band'. 'Medium' is divided this way because
the majority of observations for the majority of wines lie
within this range, and subdividing it makes it possible
for you to describe a wine more precisely.
It can be tempting to over-use 'medium' (including
'medium(+)' and 'medium(-)'). The danger here is that
tasting notes end up consisting almost entirely of
mediums, and fail to capture the true character of certain
wines. In order to avoid this it can be useful to make an
initial assessment using the basic three-point scale,
classifying a component as 'low: 'medium' or'high'. The
restricted range of terms encourages you to be bolder
in using the ends of the scale. Then, you can return to
the components you have described as 'medium' and
decide whether to further refine this assessment with
a(+) or a(-).
Wines that are used in examinations can have some
components that have high or low levels. Remember, if
you think the acidity is a remarkable feature, but your
awareness of wines with even higher acidity is making
you hesitate to describe it as 'high' rather than 'medium
(+): then you should remember that 'high' is also a range.
Be confident to use the ends of the scales; they should
not be reserved solely for wines that are at the extremes.
Note that some scales are not divided this way and
these will be considered in turn throughout the body of
this chapter.
PREPARINGFORTASTING
In order to taste wine effectively, you need to prepare a
suitable tasting environment, and you need to prepare
yourself.
The ideal tasting environment has good natural
lighting, for judging the appearance of wines, and is
odour free, to avoid interfering with wine aromas. It also
has sufficient space for you to lay out your wine glasses,
and make your notes. Spittoons should be available near
where you are tasting.
To prepare yourself, you should have a clean palate,
free of toothpaste or the lingering flavours of strong-
tasting food. You should also be well hydrated, because
dehydration may cause your nasal aroma receptors to
become dry, and lose their sensitivity to aromas . Note
that it is easy to become dehydrated when tasting a
large number of wines, as you will be losing saliva every
time you spit out a wine.
You will need somewhere to record your notes. This
could be something as simple as a notebook and pen, or
a laptop or mobile phone with suitable software installed.
You will also need suitable glassware, which should be
odourless, colourless and free of any residues, such as
detergent or dishwasher salts, or dirt left from unclean
glass polishing cloths. The ISO glass (illustrated with an
ideal tasting sample on page 1) is suitable for evaluating
wines. The important features are the rounded bowl (to
aid swirling the wine to release aromas) and the inward-
sloping walls (to capture those aromas). There are many
other glasses that are suitable for tasting, but they all
share these two features, and are small enough to use
with a tasting sample of wine, rather than requiring a
larger sample. When pouring your samples, you should
try to ensure you consistently pour the same volume
into each glass. We suggest a 5 cl sample. This should be
sufficient to assessthe appearance, nose and palate of
the wine, but small enough that you are able to swirl the
sample in the base of the bowl without spilling.
APPEARANCE
Clarity
For this line there is only a two-point scale: 'clear - hazy'.
The vast majority of wines can be described as 'clear'.
Haziness is caused by particles suspended in the wine.
If a wine has an unusually high amount of suspended
particles then it can be described as 'hazy'.This may
indicate a fault but the precise nature of the fault can
normally only be determined by assessing the wine on
the nose and palate. Note that although some wines are
deliberately hazy, these wines will not be used in the
Level 3 tasting examination.
Intensity
Intensity is how much colour the wine has. The level of
intensity can be assessed by holding the glass at a 45°

angle and looking through the liquid from above to see
how far the colour extends from the core (at the
deepest part of the bowl) to the rim (where there is the
shallowest depth of wine). For red wines, it can also be
assessed by looking down through an upright glass. In
this instance, look at the point where the stem of the
glass is attached to the bowl, and assess how easily the
stem can be seen.
All white wines appear colourless right at the rim
when the glass is held at a 45° angle . A white wine that
has a broad watery rim should be described as 'pale;
whereas if the pigment reaches almost to the rim it
should be described as 'deep'.For red wines, tilt the
glass and look at the rim; if the wine is lightly pigmented
from the rim to the core, it can be described as 'pale'.In
this instance, when looking through an upright glass, it
should be easy to clearly see the stem of the glass. If
the wine is intensely pigmented right up to the rim, it
should be described as 'deep; and looking down
through the wine in the bowl, it should be impossible
to see the stem.
Colour
Colour is the balance of levels of red, blue, yellow, green
or brown found in a wine, and is independent of the
level of intensity .
The composition of the wine at the rim is the same
as the composition at the core, so the colour does not
change when looking through different parts of the wine
in a tilted glass. However, because the depth of liquid
changes, the intensity of the colour changes. White and
most rose wines appear very pale, almost colourless at the
rim, so the colour is best judged where there is sufficient
depth of liquid for the colour to be easily assessed:at
the core. By contrast, many red wines are so deeply
pigmented that they can appear opaque at the core, so
their colour is most accurately assessed near the rim.
When assessing colour, white wines can be placed on
a scale that runs from 'lemon-green'to 'brown'. The most
common colour for white wines is 'lemon'.If there is a
noticeable greenness to the colour, the wine is 'lemon-
green'.If there is a hint of orange or brown, the wine is
'gold'.Wines with a very noticeable level of browning
could be described as 'amber' or'brown; but these will
generally be wines that are very old, or wines that are
deliberately oxidised.
Red wines can be placed on a scale that runs from
'purple'through to 'brown'. The most common colour for
red wine is 'ruby'.Wines with a noticeable blue or purple
colour are described as 'purple'.If there is a noticeable
orange or brown colour but the wine is still more red
than brown, it is described as 'garnet'.If the wine is more
brown than red, it may be described as 'tawny'.'Brown'
should be used for wines where no redness in the colour
remains. 'Tawny' and 'brown' are usually seen only in very
old wines, or wines that are deliberately oxidised .
A similar scale exists for rose wines, which can be
considered as pale red wines, but by convention have
THESYSTEMATIC
APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE"
their own set of colour descriptions. 'Pink'describes
wines that have a very pure pink colour . They may
display a hint of purple. If a pink-coloured wine shows
a hint of orange then it can be described as 'salmon'.
'Orange' can be used to describe a rose in which orange
is the dominant colour . These wines are very rare.
Note that although certain colours are more often
found at certain levels of intensity ('brown; in a white
wine, is usually 'deep; whereas 'lemon-green' is rarely
'deep'), it is possible to encounter all permutations of
colour and intensity . Thus, 'deep ruby' differs from
'medium garnet ' both in the intensity of colour, and
where it lies on the'purple'to'brown'spectrum.
Other Observations
There are a few other observations that can be made
about the appearance of a wine.
When served in a suitable glass, all wines show legs
(streams of liquid that adhere to the side of the glass
after the wine has been swirled). Wines that contain
sugar or high alcohol levels are more viscous and have
thicker, more persistent legs. Some red wines are so
intensely coloured that the legs are visibly pigmented.
Legs are often also called tears.
Some wines may have a deposit; this can indicate that
the wine is unfined and/or unfiltered.
Some still wines show a slight carbon dioxide spritz
or petillance . Although this can be evidence of a fault
(such as refermentation or malolactic fermentation in
the bottle), some light-bodied, unoaked white wines are
bottled with some dissolved carbon dioxide as this can
add desirable freshness and texture.
Bubbles are fundamentally important to sparkling
wines . There are a number of factors, in particular the
cleanliness of the wine glass, that can affect how the
bubbles appear in a glass and therefore their appearance
cannot reliably indicate anything about the quality of a
wine.
NOSE
A large part of the pleasure to be gained from tasting
wine comes from the aromas, and the differences in
character and complexity of the aromas account for
4 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
much of the difference between basic quality and very
fine wines.
You should swirl the liquid to release the aromas into
the glass. Then, place your nose near the rim of the glass
and take a short sniff, noting the condition, intensity,
development and detailed characteristics of the aromas
you find. Some aromas are very delicate, and you may
gain some insight into the wine by taking a quick sniff
before swirling.
Condition
Assessing faults is not a skill that is assessed in the Level
3 tasting examination. Nevertheless, it is important that
you are aware of the common wine faults listed below
and are able to identify them.
TCA (Trichloroanisole) - This taint gives the wine
aromas reminiscent of damp cardboard . At low levels
the taint can be hard to identify, but fruit flavours in
particular will be muted and the wine will appear less
fresh. One of the main causes of this fault is tainted cork
(see section Closuresin Chapter 7) and for this reason
wines with TCA are often referred to as 'corked'.
Reduction - This gives the wine a 'stinky' character;
sometimes like rotten eggs, and sometimes more like
boiled cabbage, boiled onions or blocked drains. Very
low levels of reduction can be surprisingly pleasant,
adding character and complexity. In some cases the
stinky aromas will dissipate once the bottle is open .
Sulfur dioxide - This is added to almost all wines (see
section Su/fur Dioxide in Chapter 7), but levels tend to
be highest in sweet white wines. At very high levels it
can give a wine an acrid smell of recently extinguished
matches. At lower levels, it can mask the fruitiness of a
wine. Insufficient sulfur dioxide can lead to oxidation.
Oxidation - This is the opposite of reduction. It is
typically caused by a failure of the closure allowing
unwanted oxygen to interact with the wine. The wine
will appear deeper coloured and more brown than it
should be. It may have aromas of toffee, honey, caramel
or coffee, and will lack freshness and fruitiness. Note that
some wines are made in an oxidative style and in these
cases it is not a fault.
Out of condition - These wines have lost their vibrancy
and freshness, and may taste dull and stale. This is either
because they are too old or have been stored in bad
conditions (too hot, too bright, too variable). There may
be elements of oxidation too.
Volatile acidity (VA) - All wines have some volatile
acidity, and low levels help make the wine seem more
fragrant and complex. However, high levels of VA can
give the wine aromas that are often described as vinegar
or nail polish remover.
Brettanomyces ('Brett') - This is a yeast that can give
wine plastic or animal aromas reminiscent of sticking
plasters, hot vinyl, smoked meat, leather or sweaty
horses. Some consumers enjoy these characters, and do
not consider low levels of'Brett'to be a fault.
Intensity
As a general rule, if when you insert your nose into the
glass the aromas are immediately apparent even without
sniffing, then they are 'pronounced'. If, even after
sniffing, you find the aromas to be faint and hard to
detect, the intensity is 'light'. Otherwise, it falls into the
'medium' category;'medium( -); 'medium' or'medium(+)'.
Aroma Characteristics
Describing a wine's aroma can be a challenging task.
When you initially smell a wine it can be overwhelming,
especially if the wine is very complex. The Wine-Lexicon
has been designed to help with this part of writing a
tasting note by offering a structured approach to aroma
identification and description.
There are three main types of aromas: primary aromas,
secondary aromas and tertiary aromas. The Wine-Lexicon
is broken down into sections to reflect this. Each aroma
type is subdivided into individual clusters, for example,
'Citrus fruit; 'Black fruit' and 'Herbaceous; which each
include a number of descriptors, such as 'grapefruit;
'lemon; 'lime; etc. If you work through the individual
aroma types systematically and ask yourself questions
about the kind of aromas you are smelling, you will be
less likely to miss something important. Note that not
every wine will have primary, secondary and tertiary
aromas.
Primary Aromas
These are the aromas that exist after fermentation. Some
aromas come from the grapes and others are created
during the fermentation process.
A simple wine may show a very limited number of
primary aromas, often all within the same cluster. A more
complex wine may display many more primary aromas
in a range of clusters. The vast majority of wines display

fruity aromas but you should always consider whether a
wine purely has fruit aromas or whether aromas from the
floral, herbaceous or other primary clusters are present.
Secondary Aromas
These aromas are created by post-fermentation
winemaking. The most obvious of these are aromas
extracted from oak, such as vanilla and toast. Secondary
aromas also include creamy, buttery characteristics from
malolactic fermentation (MLF) or the yeasty and biscuity
aromas that can develop as a result of lees contact or
autolysis.
Tertiary Aromas
These aromas have their origin in ageing processes.The
ageing process could be oxidative (caused by the action
of oxygen), for example, due to a long period in oak. This
can add tertiary aromas such as coffee, toffee or caramel.
Alternatively, the ageing process could be protected
from the action of oxygen, for example, due to a long
period in bottle . This can add tertiary aromas such as
petrol, honey or mushroom.
In both instances, the ageing process changes the
primary aromas. In particular, fruit aromas become less
fresh and can take on a dried or cooked character. At this
point, care must be taken because dried fruit and cooked
fruit aromas can be present in youthful wines that have
been made from dried grapes or from grapes grown in
a hot climate.
Development
Generally if the wine is dominated by primary or
secondary aromas, it can be described as 'youthful'.
However, it is common for the secondary aromas, such
as oak, to stand apart from the primary aromas of fruit
at this stage, as they are not yet fully integrated. If most
of the aromas in a wine are still primary and secondary,
but some tertiary aromas can be detected, then it is
'developing'. If the predominant aromas are tertiary
aromas the wine can be described as 'fully developed;
even if there are still some primary and secondary
aromas present. At this stage, the secondary aromas
will usually be fully integrated and may be hard to
distinguish from the tertiary aromas. The period of time
it takes a wine to reach this point varies a great deal. For
some it can happen quite quickly but for others, such as
Vintage Port, it can take decades. Only a handful of wines
will remain 'fully developed'for an extended period.
Ultimately, all wines will deteriorate when the attractive
aromas fade and unpleasant aromas start to develop.
At this point a wine becomes 'tired/past its best'.
Because development is a measure of the balance
between primary/secondary aromas and tertiary aromas,
it is possible that a wine is no longer 'youthful' when it is
released for sale. For example, red Rioja Reservaswill have
undergone a period of ageing before release and will
usually have some tertiary aromas (see Chapter 30 Spain).
Therefore, when they go on sale they are 'developing'.
THESYSTEMATIC
APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE• 5
Some wines, such as age indicated Tawny Ports and all
Sherries, undergo an extended period of ageing prior to
release (see Chapters 43 Sherryand 44 Port).Therefore,
when they are put on sale, tertiary aromas predominate
and these wines are 'fully developed'.
Importantly, not all wines benefit from ageing. For
such wines, the youthful aromas do not change in a
positive way and attractive tertiary aromas never
develop. They move very rapidly, in some cases in a
matter of months, from 'youthful'to 'tired/past its best'.
This is true of almost all roses, most inexpensive whites
and many inexpensive reds.
PALATE
There are many different components to be considered
on the palate and it is often necessary to take more than
one sip of wine in order to assessit fully. In some cases,
the effect of one component can interfere with the
impression made by another: alcohol and fruit, for
example, add to the perception of sweetness, whereas
acidity can mask sweetness. As a trained taster, you are
aiming to assessthe actual levels of these components,
not the apparent level, by reference to objective criteria.
Sweetness
Sweetness is the taste of sugars present in the wine. A 'dry'
wine has no sugar or has levels that are so low that they
cannot be detected by the tongue. If the wine has a tiny
amount of detectable sugar, the wine is described as 'off-
dry'. Many 'dry' Alsace Gewurztraminers, Brut Champagnes,
and inexpensive reds and whites are in fact'off-dry'.
'Medium-dry' and 'medium-sweet' cover wines with
a distinct presence of sugar, but which are generally not
sweet enough to partner most desserts. 'Medium-sweet'
wines have higher levels of detectable sugar than
'medium-dry' wines.
'Sweet' covers wines where the presence of sugar has
become the prominent feature of the wine. This rather
broad category covers most classic sweet wines such as
Sauternes and Port. There are a few very sweet wines
that are described as 'luscious'.Here the level of sugar
is such that the wines are notably more viscous and
the wine leaves the mouth and lips with a sticky sweet
 6 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY

WSET
Level3 SystematicApproachto TastingWine®
Notesto students: APPEARANCE
Forlineswheretheentries
Clarity clear-hazy(faulty?)
areseparatedbya hyphen-
Youmustselectoneandonly Intensity pale- medium
- deep
oneoftheseoptions. Colour white lemon
-green
- lemon- gold- amber- brown
rosepink- salmon
- orange
Forlinesstartingwith'e.g: red purple- ruby- garnet- tawny- brown
wheretheentriesare
Otherobservations e.g.legs
/tears,deposit,
petillance,
bubbles
separated
withcommas -
These
areentriesthatyoushould
considerwhenwriting
your NOSE
tastingnote.Youmaynotneed Condition clean- unclean
(faulty?)
tocomment
oneachentryfor
Intensity light- medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)-pronounced
everywine.
Aroma
characteristics e.g.primary,
secondary,
tertiary
Development youthful
- developing
- fullydeveloped
- tired/past
itsbest

PALATE
Sweetness dry- off-dry- medium
-dry- medium
-sweet- sweet- luscious
Acidity low- medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)- high
Tannin low- medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)- high
Alcohol low- medium - high
fortifiedwines:low- medium
- high
Body light-medium(-)-medium
-medium(+)-full
Mousse delicate
- creamy
- aggressive
Flavour
intensity light- medium(
-) - medium
- medium(+)
- pronounced
Flavour
characteristics e.g.primary,
secondary,
tertiary
Finish short-medium(
-)- medium
- medium(+)-long

CONCLUSIONS
ASSESSMENT
OFQUALITY
Quality
level faulty- poor- acceptable
- good- verygood- outstanding
Levelofreadiness candrinknow, drinknow:not
fordrinking/ tooyoung buthaspotential suitable
forageing tooold
potential
forageing forageing orfurtherageing

sensation after swallowing or spitting. Examples include
Rutherglen Muscats and PX Sherries.
Acidity
The main acids in wine are tartaric and malic (from the
grape juice) or lactic (converted from malic acid in all
reds and many whites). In some cases,acid is added in
the winery (see section Adjustments in Chapter 7 for
more details). Unlike volatile acidity, these acids are
odourless and can only be detected on the palate.
For most people, acidity is detected most strongly at
the sides of the tongue, where it causes a sharp, tingling
sensation, and makes your mouth water as it tries to
restore its natural acid balance. The more your mouth
waters, and the longer it waters, the higher the level of
acidity in the wine. Note that if you are dehydrated when
tasting, your mouth will water less.Wines described as
having 'low acidity'will feel broad, round and soft. 'High
acidity ' tends to be found in wines made from grapes
ripened in cool conditions and can cause these wines to
be especially mouth-watering.
When considering the acidity in a wine there are two
points to remember. First, high levels of sweetness and
acidity can mask each other . In a sweet wine, the high
acidity is not the single predominant feature; rather, it
serves to balance with the high sugar levels. Therefore,
the acidity in a sweet wine will appear less obvious
compared with the acidity in a dry high-acid wine such
 THESYSTEMATIC
APPROACHTOTASTINGWINE" 7

WSET
Level3 Wine-Lexicon:
supporting
theWSET
Level
3Systematic
Approach
toTasting
Wine
Noteto students:
TheWSET
DESCRIBING
AROMA ANDFLAVOUR
level3 Wine
-lexicon
isdesigned
Think
interms
ofprimary,
secondary
andtertiary
Primary
AromasandFlavours =-================== to bea prompt
anda guide
whichyoudonotneedto
Thearomas
andflavours
ofthegrapeandalcoholic
fermentation memorise.
Youcanpassthe
Keyquestions ClustersDescriptors tastingexamination
with
distinction
ifyouusethe
Floral acacia,
honeysuckle,
chamomile,
elderflower,
geranium,
blossom,
rose,violet
descriptors
intheWine-lexicon
fruit apple,gooseberry,
Green pear,peardrop,quince,
grape butyoudonotneedto limit
fruit grapefruit,
Citrus lemon,lime(juiceorzest?),orangepeel,lemonpeel yourself
tothesetermsandthe
Stonefruit peach,apricot,
nectarine examiners
willacceptother
Aretheflavours
descriptors
solongastheyare
orintense?
delicate fruit banana,
Tropical lychee,
mango,melon,passion
fruit,pineapple
accurate.
orcomplex?
simple Redfruit redcurrant,
cranberry,
raspberry,
strawberry,
redcherry,
redplum
orwell-defined?
generic fruit blackcurrant,
Black blackberry,
bramble,
blueberry,
blackcherry,
blackplum
freshorcooked? fruit fig,prune,raisin,sultana,kirsch,
Dried/cooked jamminess,
baked/stewed
fruits,
preserved
fruits
under-ripe
orripeor
greenbellpepper(capsicum),
Herbaceous grass,tomatoleaf,asparagus,
blackcurrant
leaf
over-ripe?
Herbal eucalyptus,
mint,medicinal,
lavender,
fennel,dill
spiceblack/white
Pungent pepper,liquorice
Other flint,wetstones,wetwool

Secondary
Aromas andFlavours
Thearomas
andflavours
ofpost-fermentation
wlnemaklng
Keyquestions ClustersDescriptors
Yeast(lees,autolysis)biscuit,
bread,toast,pastry,brioche,
breaddough,cheese
Aretheflavours
from MLF butter,cheese,
cream
yeast oroak?
, MLF Oak vanilla,
cloves,
nutmeg,coconut,
butterscotch,
toast,cedar,charred
wood,smoke,
chocolate,
coffee,
resinous

Tertiary
AromasandFlavours
Thearomasandflavours
ofmaturation
Keyquestions ClustersDescriptors
oxidationalmond,
Deliberate marzipan,
hazelnut,
walnut,chocolate,
coffee,
toffee,caramel
Fruitdevelopmentdriedapricot,
marmalade,
driedapple,driedbanana,etc.
Dotheflavours
show (white)
deliberate
oxidation, Fruitdevelopmentfig,prune,tar,driedblackberry,
driedcranberry,
etc.
(red) cookedblackberry,cookedredplum,etc.
fruitdevelopment
or
Bottleage(white) petrol,kerosene,
cinnamon,
ginger,nutmeg,
toast,nutty,mushroom,
hay,
bottleage? honey
Bottleage(red) leather,
forestfloor,earth,mushroom,
game,tobacco,
vegetal,
wetleaves,
savoury,
meaty,farmyard

as a Chablis. However,whatever the level of sugar, the Tannin

mouth-watering effect caused by acidity remains and
this is always a reliable guide when it comes to judging
the level of acidity. Second, alcohol can create a burning
sensation similar to acidity. Again, consider the mouth-
watering effect to see whether this is due to acidity or
alcohol for any particular wine.
Tannins are an important structural component in red
wines that are mostly extracted from the skins of the
grapes during fermentation (see sect ion Crushed Fruit
Fermentation in Chapter 9). Tannins bind to your saliva
and cause your mouth to dry up and feel rough; they
contribute to the textural richness of a wine. The drying
8 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
sensation can be felt most clearly on the gums above
your front teeth, so ensure you coat this area with a little
of the wine you are tasting. Tannins can sometimes also
have a bitter taste that is detected most clearly at the
back of your mouth.
The level of tannins should be assessedfor all red
wines, but does not need to be commented on for white
wines. It should be noted that not all tannins have the
same effect: unripe tannins tend to be more aggressively
astringent, whereas ripe tannins contribute more to
textural richness. It takes experience to be able to
conclude that a basic quality Pinot Noir made from
barely-ripe grapes has a medium level of tannins, despite
them being astringent and harsh, whereas a high-quality
Shiraz from a hot region may have high levels of velvety-
smooth ripe tannins despite showing little astringency.
If the tannins are astringent, ask yourself if the body of
the wine feels thin. If it does, this is a good indication of
low tannin levels. On the other hand if the astringency
is low, ask yourself if the wine is very full-bodied and
mouth-filling. If it is, this can be a good indication of a
high level of tannins.
Alcohol
Alcohol contributes to the texture and body of a wine.
Alcohol is more viscous than water, and higher levels
make a wine seem heavier in the mouth. At low levels,
the wine can seem a bit watery, unless there is another
component such as sugar to give the wine body.
At high levels, alcohol triggers pain receptors, giving
a hot, burning sensation, especially after spitting or
swallowing. This burning sensation can be confused with
the tingling sensation caused by acidity. Therefore, if you
are trying to distinguish the two, consider whether the
wine is also mouth-watering (and therefore high in
acidity) or feels thick and viscous (and high in alcohol).
Remember that it may be high in both.
Alcohol levels in wine are generally rising, but as a guide:
low: below 11% abv
medium: 11- 13.9% abv
high: 14% abv and above.
The alcohol levels for fortified wines are also split into
three:
low: 15- 16.4%abv
medium: 16.5- 18.4% abv
high: 18.5% abv and above.
Body
Body, or mouthfeel, is the textural impression created
by a wine. It is not a single component, but is an overall
impression created by all the structural components
working together. For most wines, alcohol is the main
factor contributing to body. Sugar adds to the body,
whereas high acidity makes a wine feel lighter in body.
Generally, high levels of tannin make a wine feel fuller
bodied, but low levels of astringent tannin can make it
seem harsher, thinner and therefore lighter in body.
For certain wines, judging the body is relatively
straightforward. A wine that is high in alcohol, with ripe
tannins and intense flavours is very clearly full-bodied,
whereas a wine that is low in alcohol, high in acidity and
delicately flavoured is very clearly light-bodied. For wines
that are sweet, but high in acidity and low in alcohol (for
example), it can be harder to agree on the level of body,
and the decision will be based on which of these factors
contributes the most to the texture of the wine.
Mousse
Mousse is relevant only in the discussion of sparkling
wines. For most sparkling wines, expect the mousse to
be 'creamy: in other words, enough to provide a lively
sparkle on the palate without seeming too frothy or
aggressive. Some young sparkling wines are extremely
lively, and seem to explode on the palate, then lose all
their bubbles in one quick blast. These would be described
as 'aggressive'.Other sparkling wines (generally those
that have undergone extensive ageing, or those that are
bottled at a lower than typical pressure of dissolved
carbon dioxide) have bubbles that are very soft and fine.
These are described as'delicate'.
Flavour Intensity and Characteristics
Generally, flavours on the palate should be the same as
aromas detected on the nose. However, the warming of
the wine in your mouth can make some characteristics
more apparent than they were on the nose. Earthy, spicy,
and toasty characteristics tend to be more prominent on
the palate. Fruity and floral characteristics are sometimes
less prominent on the palate than they appear on the
nose.
Finish
The finish is the collection of sensations after you have
swallowed or spat the wine out . How long the sensations
linger is an important indicator of quality, but when
assessingthe length of the finish you should only count
the persistence of the desirable sensations. A wine with
a very long lingering bitterness could be described as
having a bitter aftertaste, but if the fruit impressions

disappear quickly, the finish should be described as 'short'.
How long the sensations last will vary from taster to taster.
Generally, for a basic quality wine, the pleasant flavours
will often disappear within a few seconds, and the finish
is 'short'. For a very fine wine the flavours can last for a
minute or more, and the finish is described as 'long'.
CONCLUSIONS
In the Level 3 examination you will be expected to
evaluate a wine's quality and its readiness for drinking.
In doing so you will not be expected to provide reasons
for your choice but it is important that you understand
the relevant factors to consider.
Quality Level
Many criteria are commonly used when assessing the
quality of a wine. Although there are instances when
wine professionals disagree about the quality of a wine,
in most cases there is broad agreement about both the
quality level of a wine and the reasons for its quality
level. This is possible because there are a number of
criteria that are widely used when it comes to assessing
quality.
Balance - In wines, balance can be thought of as a set of
scales,with fruit and sugar on one side, and acidity and
tannins on the other. An increase in fruit or sugar can be
brought into balance by an increase in acidity or tannin .
With too little fruit or sugar, a wine can seem angular,
austere or thin. With too little acidity or tannin, it can
seem unstructured and clumsy.
When assessing balance, you should also consider
how well integrated each of the separate components
are. For example, even if the fruit is balanced by acidity,
the acidity could seem harsh or aggressive. Alcohol
should be well integrated, whatever its level, and so
should aromatic components, such as those derived from
oak. When assessing a wine, ask yourself three questions:
'how is the overall balance achieved?; 'looking at the
overall balance, how well balanced is this wine?' and
'how well integrated are each of the wine's components?'.
Intensity- A wine that has weak, dilute flavours is
seldom high in quality, but, beyond a certain level, more
intensity does not necessarily mean higher quality. When
discussing quality some people also refer to a wine's
intensity as its 'concentration'.
Length - This refers to how long the finish is. In other
words, how long the pleasant sensations linger after the
wine has been swallowed or spat out. Generally, wines
that are intense also have a long finish.
Complexity - Complex flavours and aromas are
desirable features in a wine. The complexity can come
from the primary aromas and flavours alone, or it may
come from the combination of these with secondary and
tertiary characteristics. However, simplicity is not always
THE SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO TASTING WINE • 9
a negative, and not all premium wines are complex:
sometimes purity and clarity of expression are what
make a wine great, and the presence of oak or tertiary
characters (for example) might detract from the quality.
lcewines often fall into this category.
In terms of putting a wine into quality categories,
think about how well it scores on these four criteria. An
'outstanding'wine will show positively against all four
criteria. A wine that is 'very good' will show positively
against three of the criteria, but fall short on one. For
example, it may be well balanced, with a range of
different aromas and flavours of medium intensity but
have a short finish . If it is just'good; then the wine will
show positively against two of the criteria but fall short on
the other two. An 'acceptable'wine will show positively
against one criterion, but fall short on three. For example,
although the wine may be balanced it would be dilute
with simple flavours and a short finish. A 'poor'wine will
have problems when judged on all four criteria.
Readiness for Drinking
The first thing to consider when assessing readiness for
drinking is whether the wine is made in a style that can
benefit from ageing at all.
If it mainly shows primary aromas and flavours, with a
light acid or tannin structure, then it almost certainly will
not benefit from further ageing. Most of these wines will
therefore fall into the 'drink now: not suitable for ageing
or further ageing' category. If it seems like the wine should
have been fruity, with a light tannin or acid structure, but
has lost its freshness,then it is simply'too old'.
If the wine has a firm structure of acid or tannin, and
has a sufficient level of flavour concentration, then it
may benefit from ageing. You need to consider what
will happen to the wine with time, and this requires
experience of seeing how wines develop in the bottle.
Generally, the aromas and flavours develop away from
primary fruit characteristics and towards more tertiary
characteristics and the tannins soften. The alcohol level
does not change, and acidity and sugar levels change
very little (although sweet wines very slowly taste drier
as they age). With this in mind, you can make a tentative
prediction of how the wine will develop over time, and
10 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
how much the developments will improve the wine,
compared with how it tastes now.
If you think that the wine is drinking pleasurably
now but will improve positively in the next few years
then you can place it in the 'can drink now, but has
potential for ageing' category. If you believe that the
wine will be so much better in a few years time that it
would be a waste to drink it now, then you may classify it
as 'too young'. For example, some red wines can be very
tannic when they are released and need a few years for
the tannins to soften and the wine to become better
balanced. If the wine has undergone an ageing process
but is close to the end of its drinkable life (any further
changes are unlikely to be positive), or if it is in decline
(the changes that have occurred are beginning to
subtract from the quality of the wine) then you should
classify it as 'drink now: not suitable for ageing or
further ageing'. If you think that the wine has declined
so far that the negative changes have come to dominate
the wine, then it is simply'too old'.

Food that is consumed with wine has an effect on the way a wine tastes,
WinewithFoodand wine can also affect the taste of food. The purpose of food and wine
pairing is to take advantage of these effects, so that the food and wine consumed together ideally
provide more pleasure than either would if consumed separately. Knowledge of the ways in which food
and wine interact with each other will also help avoid negative or unpleasant taste combinations.
When it comes to understanding the basic taste
interactions between food and wine, it is important to
remember that people have different sensitivities to
various flavour and aroma components. The same level
of bitterness, for example, can affect one person much
more strongly than another. This is different from a
personal preference in that some people like strong
reactions while others find them unpleasant. This
variation in both individual sensitivities and preferences
means that what seems like a 'perfect pairing ' to one
person may seem ordinary or even unsuccessful to
another. Pairings should therefore take into account the
preferences and/or sensitivities of the individual, as well
as the basic interactions between food and wine.
PRIMARYFOODAND WINETASTEINTERACTIONS
When you place food in your mouth your taste buds
adapt so that the perception of the levels of sugar, salt,
acidity, etc. in what you taste next can be altered. An
extreme example would be the unpleasantly acidic taste
of orange juice when consumed immediately after using
toothpaste. In addition to this, some foods, such as
chocolate or thick creamy dishes, have a mouth-coating
effect that can impair the sense of taste .
There are two components in food that tend to make
wines taste 'harder' (more astringent and bitter, more
acidic, less sweet and less fruity). These are sweetness
and umami. There are also two components whose
presence in food tends to make wines taste 'softer' (less
astringent and bitter , less acidic, sweeter, and more
fruity). These are salt and acid. Generally , food has more
impact on the way a wine will taste than the other way
round , and, in particular, it is more likely to have a
negative impact.
Sweetness in Food:
Increases the perception of bitterness, astringency,
acidity and the warming effect of the alcohol in the
wine
Decreases the perception of body, sweetness and
fruitiness in the wine .
Sweetness in a dish can make a dry wine seem less fruity
and taste unpleasantly acidic. With dishes containing
sugar, a good general rule is to select a wine that has a
higher level of sweetness than the dish.
WINE WITH FOOD 11
2
Umami in Food:
Increases the perception of bitterness, astringency,
acidity and the warming effect of the alcohol in the
wine
Decreases the perception of body, sweetness and
fruitiness in the wine.
Umami is a taste, and is distinct from the other primary
tastes, although it can be difficult to isolate . Whereas
sweetness can be tasted and identified in isolation with
sugar, salt with sodium chloride and acidity with a
number of acids (e.g. tartaric acid), umami tends to be
present with other tastes. It appears with saltiness in
Monosodium Glutamate (MSG),for example, or with
other flavours in cooked or dried mushrooms. One of
the simplest ways to experience it is to compare the
taste of a raw button mushroom with one that has been
microwaved for 30 seconds. The umami taste of the
mushroom is greatly increased by the cooking.
Many foods that are considered difficult to pair with
wine contain high levels of umami but lack the salt
necessary to counteract its hardening effect on wine.
Asparagus, eggs, mushrooms and ripe soft cheeses are
all examples . However, cured or smoked seafood and
meats, and hard cheeses such as Parmesan, are high in
both umami and salt so tend not to have as much of an
adverse effect on wine.
Remember, bitterness in wine comes from tannins
extracted from grapes or oak. For a balanced high-tannin
wine, the change in perceived bitterness may not appear
to be excessive and will not be enough to unbalance the
wine. However, low-tannin red wines, or white wines
made with oak or skin contact, can become surprisingly
bitter and unbalanced when consumed with umami-rich
foods.
Acidity in Food:
Increases the perception of body, sweetness and
fruitiness in the wine
Decreases the perception of acidity in the wine .
Acidity in food is generally a good thing for food and
wine pairing as it can bring a wine with very high acidity
levels into balance and enhance its fruitiness . However, if
the level of acidity in the wine is low, high levels of acidity
in foods can make it seem flat, flabby and lacking focus .
12 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Salt in Food:
Increasesthe perception of body in the wine
Decreases the perception of astringency, bitterness
and acidity in the wine.
Salt is another wine-friendly component of food that can
enhance a wine's fruit character and soften astringency.
Bitterness in Food:
• Increases the perception of bitterness in the wine.
Sensitivity to bitter tastes varies greatly from person to
person and someone who is particularly sensitive to one
bitter compound may be relatively insensitive to another.
Generally, bitter flavours add to each other. This means
that although bitterness in the food alone may be at a
pleasant level, and any bitterness in the wine may be in
balance, together the bitter elements can combine to
reach an unpleasant level. This effect is very subjective.
Chilli Heat in Food:
Increases the perception of bitterness, astringency,
acidity and the burning effect of alcohol in the wine
Decreasesthe perception of body, richness, sweetness
and fruitiness in the wine.
Chilli heat is a warming or burning sensation, and levels
of sensitivity can vary greatly from person to person .
There is also huge variation in how pleasant or
unpleasant this effect feels to the individual. The effects
caused by chilli heat are greater in wines with high
alcohol levels than those with lower alcohol levels.
Alcohol also increases the burning sensation of the
chilli; some people enjoy this effect.
Other Considerations
Flavour intensity - It is usually desirable for the flavour
intensities of the food and wine to be matched so that
one does not overpower the other. However, in some
circumstances, an intensely flavoured food (such as a curry)
can be successfully partnered with a lightly flavoured wine
(such as a simple, non-aromatic, unoaked white).
Acid and fat - Most people find the combination of
acidic wines with fatty or oily foods to be very
satisfying. The pairing can provide a pleasant sensation
of the acidic wine 'cutting through'the richness of the
food and cleansing the palate. This is a subjective
effect.
Sweet and salty- The pleasure of combining sweet and
salty flavours is also subjective, but this is a combination
many people enjoy and one that leads to some very
successful food and wine pairings. Sweet wine and blue
cheese is a classic example .
APPLYING THE PRINCIPLES
Because people vary in their sensitivities and preferences,
there is no simple answer to questions about which
wines go best with which dishes. Although the ways
in which food may affect the balance of a wine are
generally understood, whether people like the results of
a particular combination is very personal. That said, most
people prefer their wines to taste more fruity and less
acidic, bitter and astringent. Using this generalisation it
is possible to make some cautious recommendations.
When selecting wines to partner dishes, it can be
helpful to divide dishes and wines into 'high-risk' and
'low-risk' categories. Of course, most foods and wines
contain more than one of the structural components
listed below so there are many possible options.
High-risk Foods
• Sugar - Dishes high in sugar should be paired with a
wine that has at least as much sugar as the dish.
• Umami - Umami in the food will emphasise the
astringency and bitterness of the tannins, and therefore
the chosen wine will need to have the necessary
components, such as concentrated fruit flavours, to
be able to cope with this change in the wine.
• Umami - High levels of umami in a dish can be

balanced by the addition of acid or salt providing this
is in keeping with the basic character of the dish.
• Bitterness - Dishes high in bitterness will emphasise
bitterness in wine. Consider white wines or low-tannin
reds.
• Chilli heat - Dishes high in chilli heat should be
paired with white wines or low-tannin reds, neither of
which should be high in alcohol. A wine's fruitiness
and sweetness can also be reduced by chilli heat so
consider wines with higher levels of these
components to make this effect less severe.
Low-risk Foods
Dishes that are high in salt and/or acid generally pair
well with wine. Note, however, that high-acid foods
should generally be matched with high-acid wines,
otherwise the wines can taste too soft and flabby.
High-risk Wines
The more structural components in the wine (and food),
the more possible taste interactions there will be. This
makes pairing more complicated but the results can be
much more interesting. The most problematic wines are
those with high levels of bitterness and astringency from
oak and grape tannins, combined with high levels of
acidity and alcohol, and complex flavours.
Low-risk Wines
Simple, unoaked wines with a little residual sugar are
unlikely to be made unpleasant by any dish. However,
because such wines change relatively little when
partnered with food, the food and wine pairing
experience can be less interesting.
One ofthe most productive ways of applying the
principles outlined above is to examine well-established
pairings, and consider why they are successful. If these
reasons are understood, then other wines can be
identified that can also provide successful pairings. For
example, Muscadet and Champagne both work well
with oysters because they are unoaked (so there is no
bitter component to be spoiled by the umami taste of
the oyster), relatively light in flavour (so as not to
overwhelm the delicate flavour of oysters) and high in
acidity (so they still seem vibrant and refreshing when
oysters are eaten with lemon juice, for example). Other
wines that satisfy these basic criteria should also be
successful pairings. Examples might include Rias Baixas
Albarino and Hunter Valley Semillon.
UNDERSTANDING SOME ALTERNATIVE FOOD AND
WINE PAIRING APPROACHES
Using the principles outlined opposite, we can evaluate
some of the commonly encountered rules about food
and wine pairing.
Matching or Contrasting Flavours
The idea that flavours in the food can be mirrored or
contrasted by flavours in the wine, is one of the most
WINE WITH FOOD 13
commonly applied ideas in food and wine pairing. So,
for example, a smoky, spicy, gamey or creamy dish is
matched by a smoky, spicy, gamey or creamy flavoured
wine. The result may be successful, but successor
failure does not depend on the matching of flavours.
Instead, it is dependent on the interaction of structural
components in the food (sugar, oil/fat, salt, etc.) and the
wine (sugar, alcohol, acid, tannin, etc.). If the structural
pairing works, then flavour matching or contrasting can
further enhance the pairing, but if the structural pairing
fails, the match is likely to be unsuccessful.
Local Wine with Local Food
This is the idea that a regional dish is likely to be best
suited to a wine from that region. Successful food and
wine pairings are likely to have evolved locally over time.
However, most regions produce wines in a range of
styles (red or white; sweet or dry; simple or complex;
fruity or tannic) so some knowledge of food and wine
interactions is still needed to identify suitable choices.
There are also many great cuisines that have developed
in places with little or no wine production. We need a
way to approach food and wine pairing for these dishes,
even if the conclusion is that some of them are difficult
or impossible to pair successfully. Conversely, it is helpful
to have principles that allow us to find food partners for
wines made in regions that are not celebrated for their
food.
'Red wine with red meat; white wine with fish'
The idea that red meat should only ever be paired with
red wine is based on the observation that tannins in red
wine bind to meat proteins, thus softening the impact
of the wine. However, although tannins do bind to
proteins (you can see this in your saliva when you spit
out a red wine), it is thought that the salt content of
meat dishes plays a more important role in softening
wine tannins.
Some fish are high in umami, which can make a red
wine appear more bitter and astringent, hence the
suggestion that white wines make a better match.
However, this reaction can be counterbalanced by salt
and acid, which are common elements in most fish
dishes. More difficult to avoid is the reaction of
compounds found in red wine with oily fish, which
tends to produce a metallic taste. With these types of
fish it can be safer to stick to the rule and pair only with
white wines. Again, it is essential to consider all of the
components of a dish (especially sauces), as well as what
is served with it. If the structural elements of a dish
match, there is no reason not to serve white wine with
red meat or red wine with fish.
The Search for the Perfect Match
There are many classic pairings of food and wine: goat's
cheese and Sancerre;oysters with Muscadet or
Champagne; Stilton with Port; olives with Manzanilla. Most
(but not all) people will find these pairings successful and
14 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
interesting, with the food enhancing the wine and vice
versa. We have seen that these pairings work because of
the taste interaction between structural components
(salt, sweetness, acid, etc.) in the food and the wine. The
problem is that these successes imply that for every dish
there is an ideal wine or wine style that will deliver the
perfect match. With this idea in mind, chefs and
sommeliers may work together to select ingredients
and preparation methods that will suit a particular wine.
At best they will achieve something that is a perfect
pairing for them, and hopefully the majority of their
guests. But because people vary in their sensitivities and
their preferences, there is no guarantee that all guests will
agree the pairing is successful.There is no such thing as
an objectively perfect pairing . The best that can be said is
that'most people will find that dish X goes well with wines
in style v; but the chef or sommelier should accept that
their guests may not agree about which pairings work.
 STORAGEAND SERVICEOF WINE 15

In order to get the best out of any wine it is important

Storage
andService
ofWinethat it is stored correctly and served at the correct 3
temperature. It may not be necessary to invest in expensive storage units and elaborate devices: simple
common sense and standard equipment that is widely available are often enough to ensure that wines
are enjoyed at their best.

STORAGEOF WINE
If a wine is incorrectly stored it can affect the flavour and,
in severe cases,the wine will become faulty.
The following general points should be observed
when storing wine:
For long-term storage, the temperature for all wines
should be cool and constant, preferably between 10°c
and 15°(, as extremes of cold and heat can cause
damage. One of the worst places for long-term
storage is in a kitchen, due to the wide fluctuations in
temperature. Extended periods of refrigeration can
cause corks to harden and lose their elasticity, with the
result that the seal fails and air can attack the wine
causing it to become stale. Sparkling wines lose their
fizz.
Store wine that is sealed with a cork on its side to
ensure the cork remains in contact with the wine. If
the cork dries out it can let in air, and the air will oxidise
the wine . Wines that are sealed with a screw cap can
be stored standing up w ithout any risk.
Keep wines away from strong light. Natural sunshine
or artificial light will heat the wine and it will become
stale and old before its time . Artificial light can cause
unpleasant flavours to develop in some wines.
Keep wine away from vibrations, in order for it to lie
undisturbed.

SERVICEOF WINE
Service Temperatures
A list of recommended service temperatures for all styles
of wine can be found in the accompanying table below.
It is worth considering the following points. Room
temperature is often the recommended temperature for
full -bodied red wine . However, with the widespread use
of air-conditioning and central heating, rooms can often
be either too hot or too cold. If reds are too cold, they
will taste thin and harsh.The gentlest way to warm them
is to allow the bottle to warm up slowly or by holding
the bowl of the glass in your hands. Do not warm reds on
a radiator, as the sudden exposure to extreme heat can
irretrievably damage the wine. Redwines that gradually
reach temperatures in excessof l 8°C will appear to lose

STYLEOFWINE EXAMPLEOFSTYLE OFWINE SERVICE TEMPERATURE

Medium/full-bodied, WhiteBurgundy,
Fume Blanc Lightlychilled
oakedwhitewines 10-13°C(S0 - 55°F)
Light/medium-bodied
whitewines Muscadet,
PinotGrigio,
NewZealand
Sauvignon
Blanc, Chilled
7-10°C(45-50°F)
FinoSherry
Sweet
wines Sauternes,
Eiswein Wellchilled6-8°C(43-45°F)
Sparkling
wines Champagne,
Cava,
Asti Wellchilled6- l0°C(43-50°F)
Light-bodied
redwines Beaujolais,
Valpolicella Lightlychilled13°C(55°F)
Medium/full-bodied
redwines RedBordeaux,
Rioja,
Australian
Shiraz,Chateauneuf
-du-Pape, Room temperature
Barolo,
Amarone
dellaValpolicella,
VintagePort l S-l 8°C(59-64°F)
16 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
their freshness and the flavours will become muddled.
Once they are cooled down they regain their balance.
Ice buckets or wine coolers are often used to keep
white, rose and sparkling wines cold. An ice bucket
should be filled three-quarters full with equal quantities
of ice and water so that the bottle is fully surrounded
by iced water. The water is then able to transfer the
heat from the bottle to melt the ice. Air acts as an
insulator and a bottle in ice alone will chill very slowly
until some of the ice has melted. It should be noted
that over-chilling can mask the flavours in white, rose
and sparkling wines.
Glassware
An enormous range of glass shapes and sizes is used for
the service of wine, each designed to emphasise a
particular wine's characteristics. The use of the correct
glass will enhance the drinking experience:
Red wines are best served in larger-sized glasses.This
will allow air to come into contact with a large wine
surface and develop the aromas and flavours.
White and rose wines require medium-sized glasses
so that the fresh, fruit characteristics are gathered and
directed towards the top of the glass.
Sparkling wines are best served in flute glasses.This
shape enhances the effect of the bubbles (and thus
the wine's aroma), allowing them to travel through a
larger volume of the wine before bursting at the top of
the glass. For this reason the old-style, saucer-shaped
Aline-upof glassesfor
differentstylesofwine.
Fromleftto right:sparkling
wine,Port,whitewineand
redwine.
glasses are inappropriate, as the bubbles are very
quickly lost.
Fortified wines are typically served in small glasses
because of their high alcohol content. However, the
glass should be large enough to allow swirling and
nosing .
Clean glassware is of the utmost importance, as even the
slightest taint can ruin the flavour of the wine. This can
also apply to 'clean' glasses from a dishwasher; it is worth
checking the glasses to make sure no detergent or salt
residue remains in the glass as this can give strange
flavours to wines. In the case of sparkling wine, it will
make it lose its sparkle more quickly. The best way to
prepare glasses is to polish them before each use.This
will make sure the glasses are clean and free of finger
marks and dust. The best cloth to use is a linen one, as
this will not leave small pieces of fluff in the glass.
Opening a Bottle of Still Wine
Remove the top of the capsule, by cutting around it
below the lip of the bottle. This can be done with a
capsule remover or knife.
Wipe the neck of the bottle with a clean cloth.
Draw the cork as gently and cleanly as possible using
your selected corkscrew .
Give the neck of the bottle a final clean inside and out.
Pour a sample into a glass to check the wine's
condition.
 STORAGE AND SERVICE OF WINE 17

Decanting Wine
Wines with a heavy deposit need to be decanted. This
deposit is quite natural and is formed during the ageing
process of many good red wines. Some young wines
benefit from the aeration that occurs by being decanted,
although this can be done as easily by swirling the wine
in a glass. Note that'airing ' a wine by opening a bottle
some time before service does no good at all. Too little of
the wine is in contact with the air for it to have any effect.
First remove the bottle horizontally from its rack and
place in a decanting basket if available. Alternatively,
hold the bottle carefully, making sure the deposit is
not agitated.
Very gently remove the top of the capsule and clean
the shoulder and neck of the bottle. Very gently
remove the cork.
Remove the bottle from the basket, being careful not
to disturb the deposit. Holding the bottle in front of a
light, pour the wine carefully into the decanter until
the deposit can be seen near the neck. At this point
stop pouring .

Opening a Bottle of Sparkling Wine

There is considerable pressure in a bottle of sparkling
wine. Chilling to the correct temperature helps to reduce
this. Even when the wine is chilled, it is possible for the
cork to spring violently from the bottle and injure
someone.
Remove the foil and loosen the wire cage.
The cork must be held securely in place from the
moment the wire cage is loosened.
Tilt the bottle at an angle of about 30°, gripping the
cork, and use the other hand to grip the base of the
bottle.
Turn the bottle, not the cork.
Hold the cork steady, resisting its tendency to fly out,
and ease it slowly out of the bottle.
The gas pressure should be released with a quiet
'phut; not an explosion and flying cork.

ORDERING WINE
It is useful to know how many measures you can get
from a standard 75 cl bottle. This will help you work out
how many bottles you would need for an order.

6 x 125 ml glasses 222222

4 x 175 ml glasses

3 x 250 ml glasses

METHODS USED TO PRESERVE WINE

If a wine is not consumed as soon as it is opened it will
lose its aromatic intensity in a matter of days and after
that it will oxidise and develop vinegar aromas. The
simplest way to extend a wine's life is to replace the
closure and store the wine in a fridge. This will only
extend the life of the wine by a few days. There are other
18 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
methods that can be used to extend a wine's life for a
greater period oftime:
Vacuum systems - These are systems where the
oxygen is removed from the bottle and the bottle is
sealed. These are unsuitable for sparkling wines
(which will lose their bubbles).
Blanket systems - These systems work on the
principle of blanketing the wine with a gas heavier
than oxygen to form a protective layer between the
wine and air.
Inexpensive devices that work using either of these
principles are widely available .

TheVineThere are thousands of different grape varieties grown in vineyards throughout the
world, but they all share much in common. In this chapter we will explore these
similarities and the meaning of some of the words used to describe vines and their constituent parts.
VINE SPECIES
There are many different species of vine that have
evolved throughout the world but grape growers are
only concerned with a handful of these species. In
modern viticulture the most important species are:
Vitis vinifera - This is the main Eurasian species. It
produces nearly all the grapes used in winemaking and
has been used to make wine for several thousand years.
American vines - There are three important species of
vine native to North America. They are rarely used to
produce grapes for winemaking because the wines they
produce are widely considered to have unattractive
flavours. However, unlike V.vinifera, they are resistant
to Phylloxera(a vine pest that attacks the vine's roots)
and so they are widely used to produce rootstocks onto
which V.vinifera vines are grafted. See section Phylloxera
and Rootstockson page 22.
GRAPE VARIETIES
There are thousands of grape varieties belonging to the
V.vinifera species. For the wine consumer, the principal
differences between grape varieties are variations in
colour and flavour, both properties coming from the
grape itself. Differences between varieties are not just
limited to the taste and quality of the fruit, however.
When selecting a grape variety the grape grower will
also be concerned with other factors such as budding
and ripening times, and resistance to certain diseases.
In order to understand what a grape variety is, it is
necessary to understand how a variety is grown or
propagated. Importantly, this cannot be done using
seeds. Instead, in order to preserve the unique qualities
of a variety, a grower must use one of two techniques:
cutting or layering. A cutting is a section of a vine shoot
that is planted and then grows as a new plant . This
method is widely used in commercial nurseries that sell
vines to growers. Layering takes place in the vineyard.
A cane is bent down and a section of it is buried in the
ground. The cane tip points upwards out of the ground.
The buried section takes root and, once these roots are
established, the cane linking the new growth to the
original plant is cut. Due to the risk of phylloxera most
grape growers now use cuttings instead of layering (see
section Phyl/oxeraand Rootstockson page 22). In both
these instances the new plant is identical to the original.
Therefore, a grape variety is a group of individual plants
that can all trace their lineage back through a series of
cuttings and/or layerings to a single plant.
THE VINE 19
4
Note that the terms 'vine variety' and 'grape variety'
can be used interchangeably, and the word 'cultivar' is
sometimes used instead of'variety'.
Clones
Although all the individual vines of a grape variety are
genetically identical, it is still possible to observe
variations between them. This happens as a result of
mutations that sometimes occur when the vines grow.
These mutations can sometimes be positive and can
result in plants with better quality fruit or better
disease resistance. Often, vines with positive mutations
are selected for further propagation by cutting or
layering, so that the positive characteristics of these
vines can be carried forward in new plantings. This is
known as clonal selection, and it has led to the
development of different clones. In grape growing,
each individual vine or group of vines that shows a
particular set of unique characteristics is known as a
clone. The difference between clones is often small and
all of the individual plants that make up a clone would
still be considered to be from the same grape variety .
When grape growers order new plants from a nursery
they will often specify which clone they would like as
well as the grape variety.
Some mutations have such a significant effect that the
resulting plants are treated as if they are new varieties,
even though strictly speaking they are clones of an
original plant. For example, the grape varieties Pinot
Blanc and Pinot Gris are both mutations of the grape
variety Pinot Nair.
CREATING NEW VINE VARIETIES
Researchers are constantly looking for grape varieties
that are better able to thrive in certain climates and soil
conditions, as well as varieties with improved disease
resistance, and those able to deliver a higher quality or
quantity of grapes. Therefore, rather than waiting for a
random mutation to occur, genuinely new grape
varieties can be created in controlled conditions using
cross-fertilisation. This is where pollen from the male
part of a flower of one vine is transferred to the female
part of the flower of another vine and fertilisation occurs.
The pollinated flower develops into a grape with seeds.
If a seed is planted and grows, it will be a new variety
because its genetic material will be different from that
of its parents. A new variety will be produced even if
the parent vines are from the same grape variety . The
new variety may have some characteristics that are
recognisable from the parent vines, but this is not always
20 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

THEANATOMY OFTHEVINE
All vines have a similar structure. These can be divided into four sections: the green parts of the vine,
one-year-old wood, permanent wood and the roots.

The Green Parts of the Vine

These are the parts of the vine that grow each new
year. The principal structure is a shoot, which is - Vines
Tendrils arenotabletosupport
themselves,
sotheyusetendrils
to
illustrated below. Along the length of each shoot gripa supporting
structure
inordertostayupright.
Oncea tendrilsenses
there are leaves, buds, tendrils and flowers or berries . thatithastoucheda structure,
suchasatrelliswire,itwillwinditselftightly
around thewireinordertokeeptheshootupright.

Buds - These
forminthejoinbetween theleafandtheshootandcanbedescribed as
embryonicshoots. Once
formed,
theymatureinsidetheircasing
duringthegrowing
seasonsothat,bytheendoftheyear,eachbudcontainsinminiature
allthestructures
thatwillbecometheshoot,leaves,
flowers
andtendrilsthefollowing
year.

Flowersandberries - Flowers
arethevine'sreproductive
organs
.
Avine's
flowershavebothmaleandfemaleparts,andaregrouped
inbunchescalledinflorescences
(seepictures
onpage39).Each
flower
thatissuccessfully
pollinated
willbecome a berryandsothe
inflorescence
willbecome thebunchofgrapesthatwillbeharvested
attheendofthegrowing season.
Thevinehasevolved sothatthe
sweetgrapesareattractive
toanimalsthateatthegrapesand
disperse
thevine'sseeds.

Leaves- These
aretheplant'sengine
.Theyareprincipally
responsible
for
photosynthesis,
whichistheprocessbywhichplantsusesunlighttoconvert
waterandcarbondioxide
intoglucose
andoxygen. Glucose
isa sugarthatis
usedtosupport
vinegrowthandmakeripegrapestastesweet.
 THEVINE 21

Aspur-pruned
vinein
Spain
.
One
-year-old
wood
:
spur

Permanent
wood:
arm
trunk

Acane-pruned
vinein
Alsace,France.

One-year-old Wood
Shoots turn woody during the winter after they have grown. The
following spring, they become one-year-old wood, and the buds One-year-old
wood:
that formed on them the previous year burst and grow into shoots. cane
Managing the one-year-old wood is vital for the grape grower
because vines will normally only produce fruit on shoots that grow
from buds that developed the previous year. Every winter the vine is
pruned and the one-year-old wood will either be called a cane or a
spur depending on how many buds it is left with. A cane is long,
with eight to 20 buds, whereas a spur is short and has only two to Permanent
wood:
three buds. This is discussed further in the section VinePruning in trunk
Chapter 6.

Permanent Wood
This is wood that is more than one year old. In the vineyard the Aspur-pruned
vinein
amount of permanent wood is restricted by pruning. The permanent Australia.
wood is made up of the trunk and, where present, the arms of the
vine . Not every vine has the same configuration of permanent wood.
One-year-old
wood:
This is discussed further in the section VineTraining in Chapter 6.
spur

Permanent
wood:
The Roots
arm(cordon)
Their function is to absorb water and nutrients from the soil, anchor
trunk
the vine and store carbohydrates to allow the vine to survive the
winter . In modern vineyards most II.vinifera are grafted onto root
systems from other species because they cannot resist Phylloxera.
See section Phylloxeraand Rootstockson page 22.
22 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
the case.There is no way of knowing what qualities a
new variety will have.
Creating a new grape variety for commercial use is
therefore a very costly and time-consuming process,
because hundreds of seeds are required. Many seedlings
fail in the first year and the producer must wait at least
two or three years before those that survive flower and
produce grapes. It takes even longer to demonstrate the
long-term value of the variety and whether it should be
grown and sold commercially. These difficulties explain
why only a small number of new grape varieties bred in
the last 150 years have found a successful niche in the
vineyards of the world.
Crossings
When a new variety is produced from two parents of
the same species it is called a crossing. This term is
most commonly used when talking about II. vinifera,
although crossings of American vines exist too.
Technically every grape variety used today is a crossing.
For example, modern DNA techniques have shown that
Cabernet Sauvignon is a crossing of Cabernet Franc and
Sauvignon Blanc. However, this term is more normally
reserved for new varieties that were bred by researchers.
MullerThurgau (Riesling x Madeleine Royale) and
Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault) are well-known
examples.
Hybrids
For grape growers, a hybrid is a vine whose parents
come from two different vine species. Typically hybrids
will have at least one American vine as a parent.
As mentioned earlier, the grapes from American vines
are rarely used in winemaking. This is true of their
hybrids too, although there are some notable exceptions
such as Vidal which is grown in Canada. Nevertheless,
hybrids and American vine crossings have a crucial role
in modern grape growing: they are used throughout the
..
world as rootstocks.
BENCH
GRAFTING
1. Anewgraft.Thesectionatthetopis
V.vlnifera,andthebudthatwillform
thenewplantisclearly visible.
2. Anewlyplantedbench-graftedvine.
TheredwaxIs usedto protectthe
joinbetweenthe twosectionsof
cane.
PHYLLOXERA AND ROOTSTOCKS
Phylloxera
Phy/loxera is an insect that is native to North America and
V.vinifera is unable to defend itself against this pest.
Consequently it was able to cause the wholesale
destruction to the vineyards of Europe when it was
accidentally introduced in the nineteenth century.
Phylloxera has a very complex life cycle, taking different
forms throughout the year. During one phase it lives
underground and feeds on the roots of the vine.
Infections enter through the feeding wounds and over
the course of a few years the vine is weakened and
ultimately dies. American vines, which evolved with
Phy/loxera, are able to inhibit the underground louse by
clogging its mouth with a sticky sap. They also form
protective layers behind the feeding wound preventing
secondary infections. Phy/loxera is now a problem in
nearly every vineyard area of the world. There are some
exceptions such as Chile, some parts of Argentina and
South Australia. Strict quarantine procedures are the
only protection against infection.
Roots tocks
Phylloxera cannot be controlled with chemicals and
when it struck Europe in the late nineteenth century the
only certain way of dealing with it was to plant American
species or hybrids. By the end of the nineteenth century
a better, if more expensive, solution was found. 1/.vinifera
could be grafted onto the rootstock of an American vine
or hybrid. This offered the protection of the American
vine and the flavour of the European vine.
Since this initial discovery, it has been found that
rootstocks can provide many other advantages besides
resistance to Phy/loxera, and a large number of hybrids
have been bred accordingly. For example, specific
rootstocks can be used to protect against nematodes
(see section Managing Vineyard Pestsand Diseases in
Chapter 6) and provide better resistance to drought
conditions. Consequently, rootstocks are often used in
 THE VINE 23

HEAD
GRAFTING

1.Ahead-grafted
vineinthespring
afterthe grafting.
Thetwocanesare
heldsecurewithtape,which,in this
instance,hasbeencovered
with
pruning
paintto protectthewound.

2. Awell-established
headgraft.

parts of the world where Phylloxera is not a problem,
despite the extra cost involved in buying grafted vines.
Grafting
Grafting is the technique used to join a rootstock to a
V.vinifera variety . The most popular modern technique is
bench grafting; an automated process that is carried
out by specialist plant nurseries. Short sections of cane
from both the V.vinifera variety and the rootstock variety
are joined together by machine and stored in a warm
environment in order to encourage the two parts to
fuse together. Once this happens the vine can be
planted.
There is another form of grafting called head grafting,
which is used if a grape grower with an established
vineyard decides to switch to a different grape variety
between seasons.The existing vine is cut back to its
trunk and a bud or cutting of the new variety is grafted
onto the trunk. If the graft is successful the vine will
produce the fruit of the new variety at the next vintage.
It takes a newly planted vine a minimum of three years
to be able to produce a commercial crop, but this
technique can allow the grower to adjust quickly to
changes in market demand. It is also considerably
cheaper than replanting the whole vineyard and the
new variety starts life with an established root system.
24 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
TheGrowing
Environment
5 In order to s~rvive, the ~ine must b_eable to t~ke all_it
needs from its surroundings. The vine needs five things:
heat, sunlight, water, nutrients and carbon dioxide. They can all have an impact on how well a vine grows
and the quality and quantity of grapes it can produce. In this chapter we will look at all of these factors in
turn and how they come together to create the vine's growing environment.
WHAT A VINE NEEDS
In the principal wine-producing regions of the world
the vine has an annual growth cycle. In the winter it is
dormant and there are no green parts on the plant.
Bud burst marks the start of the growing season in
spring, as the new shoots begin to grow. During late
spring and early summer the vine flowers and small
grapes form, a process known as fruit set. As the summer
progresses the grapes grow but are still hard in texture,
green in colour, with high levels of acidity and no sugar.
In late summer or early autumn the grapes start to ripen.
They become swollen with water, sugar levels rise, acid
levels drop and flavours develop. The first sign of this
ripening process is a change of colour in the grape from
green to blue/black, pink or golden depending on the
variety. This change of colour is often known by the
French term veraison.After the grapes are harvested in
autumn the growing season comes to an end. The vine
drops its leaves and as autumn turns to winter the vine
becomes dormant again.
In order to complete its annual cycle a vine needs five
things. Heat is of fundamental importance : if it is too
cold the vine will either not grow or it will struggle to
Avineyardin Priorat,
Spain.
Intheforeground,thestony
soiliscapableof reradiating
heat.Inthe background,
a
vineyard
is plantedona
steepterraced
slope.
survive. Once the growing season has started the vine
uses sunlight to combine carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and
water to produce glucose and oxygen, a process known
as photosynthesis. The vine combines the glucose with
the nutrients it extracts from the soil to support its
growth and, most importantly, to ripen its grapes. The
oxygen is lost through the leaves.
CO2 is always in plentiful supply; however, the
temperature and sunlight in a vineyard, as well as the
amount of water and nutrients that are available, are
factors that are constantly changing. These variations
influence all aspects of the vine's annual growth cycle,
and directly affect the quantity and quality of fruit a vine
is able to produce.
HEAT
What a Vine Needs
If the temperature is below 10°c it is too cold for the vine
to grow. This is why vines are dormant in winter and
budburst happens in spring . The vine also needs a
sufficient amount of heat for successful flowering, fruit
set, and ripening. The amount of heat in the growing
season is the defining factor that determines which
grape varieties can be grown where. Not all varieties
need the same amount of warmth during the growing
season. This is why Riesling can thrive in cool locations
where Grenache would not be able to ripen its grapes.
Factors Affecting Heat
Latitude - In order to meet the vine's temperature needs
and its preference for a dormant period, most vineyards
lie between the latitudes of 30° and 50° north and south
of the Equator . Closer to the Equator it is too hot and
closer to the Poles it is too cold. However, factors other
than latitude can make an area outside these limits
suitable for viticulture.
Altitude - As altitude increases, temperatures drop. This
means that regions at high altitude, such as Cafayate in
northern Argentina, can successfully grow vines even
though they are close to the Equator.
Ocean currents - The major currents transport large
volumes of warm or cold water across the surface of the
ocean, leading to localised warming or cooling in certain
wine regions . The Humboldt Current off Chile and the
Benguela Current off South Africa cool regions that
 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT 25

might otherwise be too hot for grape growing whereas
the Gulf Stream warms the north-west of Europe that
might otherwise be too cold.
Fog - Fog can help cool an area that may otherwise
struggle to produce high -quality grapes. This is a
particularly important feature in many top vineyard
areas in California, as well as Casablanca Valley in Chile.
Soil - Soils that are either dark in colour or that have
a high stone and rock content absorb and reradiate
more of the sun's heat than lighter coloured soils. This
reradiated warmth can be critical for ripening fruit in
cool climates. On the other hand, soils with high water
content require more energy to warm up, and conduct
heat from the vine more quickly than dry soils. This can
delay budburst.
Aspect - The direction in which a slope faces is known
as its aspect. The vineyards with an aspect facing the
Equator receive the most heat. In the Northern
Hemisphere south facing slopes get the most warmth
whereas in the Southern Hemisphere it is the north
facing slopes. This phenomenon is especially important
in cool climates where the extra warmth can make the
difference between a vine being able to ripen a crop or
not. Steeper slopes benefit even more from this effect.
This can be seen very clearly in the vineyards producing
the best wines in Mose!, Germany, that not only have the
most favourable aspect but are also very steep.
Continentality and Diurnal Range
Although the overall amount of heat in the growing
season is the primary concern of a grape grower, it is also
important to know how much variation there is between
the temperature in the height of summer and the depths
of winter, as well as the variations between daytime and
night-time temperatures . Both of these factors can have
an impact on how well a vine performs in a region.
Continentality - The temperature difference between
the coldest and the hottest months is referred to as
continentality. Regions with high continentality have
large differences in seasonal temperatures. Regions with
low continentality see less variation in temperatures
throughout the year.
Large bodies of water, such as seas or lakes, heat up
and cool down more slowly than landmasses. Therefore

WHATA VINE NEEDS

In order to survive the vine needs access to five key things:

Heat Carbon
Dioxide
(CO
2) Sunlight
sun • atmosphere sun
• reflected
fromsoil • reflected
fromwater

Oxygen
Photosynthesis
leafcombines
C02 + water
toproduce
glucose+oxygen

Nutrients
soilparticles
Water
humus
rainfall
fertiliser
irrigation
waterstoredinsoil
26 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
in winter they have a warming effect on the surrounding
air and in summer they have a cooling effect. Areas close
to large bodies of water therefore generally have low
continentality whereas wine regions that are far inland
usually see more temperature extremes and have high
continentality.
A region's continentality will determine the length of
the growing season and this has an impact on the total
amount of heat available to a vine. This in turn will
influence what grape varieties can be successfully grown
there.
Diurnal range - Diurnal range is the difference between
daytime and night-time temperatures. Cool nights help
slow the loss of aromas and acidity in the grapes during
ripening. Warm nights accelerate ripening. For example,
in a region with a warm or hot climate, a vineyard with
a large diurnal range can produce wines that are fresher
and more aromatic compared with a vineyard that has
a smaller diurnal range.
A vineyard's proximity to seas and lakes can reduce its
diurnal range. Even relatively small bodies of water, such
as rivers, can hold enough warmth to keep adjacent
vineyards warm overnight and provide cooling breezes
during the day.
The level of cloud cover (generally greater nearer seas
and lakes) also influences diurnal range. This is because
temperatures drop more quickly on clear nights, when
there is no insulating blanket of cloud (increasing diurnal
range), and rise more slowly on cloudy days, when
sunlight cannot heat the ground directly (reducing
diurnal range).
Temperature Hazards
Winter - If temperatures fall below -20°C the vine can
Heaters
inNapaCounty, be seriously damaged or even killed by winter freeze.
California.
Theheatcreates The part of the vine most at risk is the graft. In areas at
airmovement,
whichhelps risk from winter freeze, earth can be used to cover up
to prevent
frosts. and protect the graft, a process called 'earthing up'.
If the winter is mild, or there is no winter at all (as is
the case in subtropical climates), the vine will not have a
dormant period and may produce more than one crop
each year. Its life will be shortened, and the quality of
the grapes will suffer. Mild winters also mean larger
populations of insect pests survive to attack the vine the
following summer.
Spring frosts - These occur when cold air below 0°C
collects at ground level, freezing any water vapour that
has settled on the ground or the vine. If this happens to
newly burst buds or young shoots it kills them. The
damage done and the impact on yields can be
enormous, and in frost-prone regions growers go to
great lengths to minimise this risk. There are four main
forms of protection:
• Heaters may be placed throughout the vineyard and
lit if frost is forecast. The heat they generate creates
movement in the air preventing the cold air from
settling and causing the frost.
• Wind machines are widely deployed in vineyards at
risk from frosts. The most commonly used looks like a
large fan that draws warm air from above to keep the
temperature at ground level above freezing. Some
wind machines incorporate heaters.
• Sprinklers may be used to spray water onto the vines.
As the water freezes, it releases some heat into the
plant tissue protecting the buds and shoots.
• Thoughtful vineyard design can also minimise the
risk of frosts. Because cold air sinks to the lowest point
it can find, it is best to plant vineyards on slopes and
avoid depressions in which cold air can collect.
Vineyards planted on the middle of the slope are
noticeably less at risk from frost damage than those
in lower lying areas.Vines can also be trained high to
avoid the worst of the cold air.
The growing season - Cold temperatures in the spring
may delay bud burst. This shortens the growing season
and could mean that there is not enough time for the
grapes to ripen fully in the autumn before it becomes
too cold. Flowering and fruit set can also be disrupted by
cold temperatures, resulting in a smaller than average
crop of grapes.
During the summer, very hot temperatures can be
harmful, and in prolonged periods of extreme heat all
vine activity will slow and eventually stop, even when
there is sufficient water . This prevents the grapes from
ripening properly. In extreme cases the vine will die.
SUNLIGHT
What a Vine Needs
Without light, photosynthesis cannot happen and plants
die. Broadly speaking, the more light there is the more
a vine will photosynthesise and the greater the amount
of glucose produced for growth and ripening grapes.
Flowering and fruit set also benefit greatly from plenty
of sunlight.

Factors Affecting Sunlight
Many of the factors that affect temperature also affect
the amount of sunlight in a vineyard.
Latitude - Day length during the summer growing
season is longer the further the vineyard is from the
Equator. This extra sunlight is an important factor that
helps Riesling to ripen in Germany.
Seas and lakes - Vineyards near large bodies of water
tend to experience more cloud cover. Regions at the
centre of large land masses tend to be sunnier. In some
cases, vineyards situated above rivers or lakes can
benefit from sunlight reflected from the surface of the
water .
Aspect - A slope's aspect affects the amount of sunlight
it receives and steeper slopes benefit more from this
effect. Vineyards that face the Equator receive the most
sunlight. The greater the distance from the Equator the
weaker the sun's energy, so for vineyards that are closest
to the Poles maximising the sunlight with a favourable
aspect is especially important.
Sunlight Hazards
There are a number of times in the year when low
light levels can cause problems for the grape grower.
Sunlight is needed for successful flowering and fruit
set, and cloudy conditions during this period can
result in a smaller crop of grapes. Also, the slowing in
photosynthesis caused by heavy cloud cover can stop
grapes ripening fully.
Although direct sunlight helps grapes to ripen,
intensely sunny conditions can cause sunburn , leading
to bitter flavours developing in the grape skins. The
grape grower can arrange and manage the leaves of the
vine, known as the vine canopy, to ensure that sunlight
is maximised in very cloudy areas or that enough shade
is provided in extremely sunny regions. This is covered
in the section Trellisingand CanopyManagement in
Chapter 6.
WATER
What a Vine Needs
The vine needs water for photosynthesis and to swell its
grapes during ripening. The vine accesses water through
its roots and, in a process known as transpiration, water
is drawn up to the leaves. The amount of water a vine
needs is determined by the temperature. As it gets
warmer, water evaporates from the vine's leaves at a
faster rate, meaning that the vine needs to take up more
water from the soil to compensate.
Once a sufficient canopy of leaves has grown, limiting
the supply of water can be beneficial for grape ripening .
In these conditions the vine has enough water to keep
photosynthesising but the shortage of water means that
the vine concentrates on grape ripening rather than
further shoot growth . This has the added advantage of
THEGROWINGENVIRONMENT 27
Adripirrigation
systemin
NewZealand.
reducing the impact of shading because the canopy
does not grow too large.
Rainfall and Irrigation
Rainfall is the most important source of water but, if it is
insufficient, then it can be supplemented with irrigation
if local laws permit. There are three main irrigation
techniques.
Drip irrigation - This is the most advanced and
expensive. Each vine has its own dripperthat can be
computer controlled to ensure that each vine gets the
optimum amount of water.
Sprinklers - These are still widely used and cheaper
than drip irrigation but they waste a lot of water and,
like rain, they create damp conditions in the vineyard
increasing the risk of disease. If correctly designed,
sprinklers can also be used for frost protection.
Flood irrigation - This is very cheap to use but is only
possible in vineyards that are flat or very gently sloping
and where there is access to large quantities of water.
Water Hazards
Drought - If there is a water shortage the vine can
temporarily stop transpiration in order to preserve its
resources. During prolonged shortages or drought, vines
suffer from water stress; photosynthesis stops, leaves wilt
and grapes fail to ripen. Ultimately this can weaken and
kill a vine.
Too much water - If the vine has access to too much
water during the growing season the vine will continue
to grow shoots and leaves during the ripening season,
leaving less sugar for ripening grapes. Furthermore, the
extra shoots and leaves increase the amount of shading
in the canopy, which restricts grape ripening. In extreme
cases,a waterlogged soil can cause the roots to become
saturated and die. Waterlogging can be avoided by
planting vines on a slope or, on flat sites, installing drainage
pipes to aid the flow of water away from the roots.
28 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CLIMATE OF A VINEYARD

This is an imaginary landscape set in the Northern Hemisphere, which shows how the location of a vineyard can affect its climate.

Altitude
Temperature drops as
altitude rises.This can be
advantageous in areas
close to the Equator as
they might otherwise be
too hot.

./

Frost ~-
Vineyard location can - ~ - ~
be used to minimise
the risk of frost. Cold air
descends whereas warm
air rises. In LocationO
the cold air is trapped •
by the surrounding hills,
increasing the risk of
frost. In Locationf}the
cold air flows away and
does not settle in the
vineyard, reducing the
risk of frost.
 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT 29

Latitude North Pole

The illustration to the right
shows why temperatures are
warmer at the Equator and
colder at the Poles. At the
Equator, the sun's energy is
concentrated in a small area,
whereas at the Poles the
same amount of energy is
spread out over a wider area,
therefore it is colder.

South Pole

Aspect
Slopes facing the sun get the most
heat and light . In the Northern
Hemisphere, as shown here, these
slopes are south facing . In the
Southern Hemisphere they are north
facing . In this illustration you can
see that the sun's energy is most
concentrated at the middle of the
slope (compared with the top and
bottom), meaning that this location

~-- receives the most heat and light .

~,,~~ ,ri
--~ .
... !I
''-•,
,,
.··~~ Cooling Effects from the Ocean
Cold ocean currents can have a cooling

. ,~,··.. effect on coastal wine regions . If, as shown

in Location€)cold air and fog blow on
shore, this can enhance the effect. Note,
although not illustrated here, warm ocean
currents can have the opposite effect.
 30 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
NettinginArgentina
designedto protectthevines
fromdevastating
damage
causedbyhail.Theextentof
thepotentialdamage
justifiesthecostof installing
thenetting.
Rainfall is important both in its timing and the
amount that falls. Flowering and fruit set can both be
disrupted by heavy rainfall and this can significantly
reduce the number of grapes that are formed. Damp
conditions that follow rainfall also encourage the spread
of fungal diseases. Heavy rain shortly before harvest
time can cause the berries to swell excessively. This
dilutes the flavours in the wine they produce and in
extreme cases the berries swell so much that they split,
which attracts fungal disease. This is discussed in more
detail in the section Managing VineyardPestsand
Diseasesin Chapter 6.
Hail - Hail can damage grapes and even the vine itself.
In the worst cases it can destroy an entire crop. Some
areas, such as Mendoza in Argentina, are particularly
prone to hail. In certain vineyards netting is used to
protect the vines, which is quite costly. Hail storms tend
to be very localised and so ultimately the best protection
may be to reduce the risk of losing the whole crop by
owning several vineyard sites in different locations.
CLIMATE
ANDWEATHER
The temperature, sunlight and water availability can be
combined to give an overall picture of the climate and
weather in a region.
A region's climate is defined as the annual pattern of
temperature, sunlight and rainfall averaged out over
several years.The climate does not change from one year
to the next, though it can alter over a period of decades.
A region's weather, on the other hand, is the annual
variation that happens relative to the climatic average.
Some regions experience greater variation in this pattern
than others. For example, the amount and timing of rainfall
in Bordeaux, France,can vary quite considerably: in 2007
the region was cool, cloudy and wet during most of August,
whereas in 2003 high temperatures and near drought
conditions were experienced. The weather in other regions,
such as Central Valley in California, is far more predictable,
with hot dry weather from one year to the next.
Climate Classification
For the purposes of consistency, in this book a region's
temperature will be defined using the average
temperature during the growing season, which is April
to October in the Northern Hemisphere and October to
April in the Southern Hemisphere . For simplicity, the
following temperature terms will be used:
Cool climates: Regions with an average growing season
temperature of 165°C or below.
Moderate climates: Regions with an average growing
season temperature of l 6.S°Cto 185°C.
Warm climates: Regions with an average growing
season temperature of 18.5°C to 21°(.
Hot climates: Regions with an average growing season
temperature in excess of 21°C.
 THE GROWING ENVIRONMENT 31

These give a good approximate guide to which grapes
can be successfully ripened in any given region but,
as noted above, climate classifications also need to
incorporate how the temperature varies throughout
the year (continentality) or during a typical day (diurnal
range), and also the level and timing of rainfall and
sunlight. For consistency the following three climate
categories will be used taking into account the
temperature categories of cool, moderate and warm as
well as a region's continentality, sunlight and rainfall.
Continental climate - These climates have the greatest
difference in temperature between the hottest and
coldest months (high continentality) and are usually
characterised by short summers with a large, rapid
temperature drop in autumn. Cool continental climates
such as Chablis and Champagne (both in France) are at
risk from spring frost, and low temperatures throughout
the growing season can affect flowering, fruit set and
ripening. They are, therefore, better suited to varieties
that bud late and ripen early. Continental climates are
also noted for having dry summers and so if the
temperature is high then irrigation can be necessary.
Maritime climate - Maritime climates are characterised
by cool to moderate temperatures and a low annual
difference between the hottest and coldest months
(low continentality). Rainfall tends to be evenly spread
throughout the year which helps to moderate the
temperature. This means that temperatures are warm
enough for grapes to continue ripening far into the
autumn. Consequently, maritime Bordeaux can
successfully ripen the thick-skinned grape variety
Cabernet Sauvignon, which might otherwise struggle
to ripen at this latitude. However, rainfall in the spring
larger stones or rocks and humus (organic matter such as
decomposing leaves).The composition of the soil and
size of the particles within it are very important.
Stones, sand and clay - These come from the
underlying rock or later deposits laid on top of the rock.
Regardless of the source, it is the size of the soil particles
that is crucial. Stones are the largest soil particles and
are not always present in vineyard soils. As noted above,
stones on the surface of a soil can help heat up a
vineyard. The rest of the soil is made up of tiny particles,
the most important of which are sand (the largest) and
clay (the smallest).
Humus - This is made up of decomposing plant and
animal materials that are rich in plant nutrients and have
excellent water retaining properties.
Soil and Water
Grape quality is affected by the amount of water that is
available in the soil. Ideally, the vine needs a good supply
of water early in the season to support strong shoot and
leaf growth, followed by mild water stress after veraison;
this has been shown to promote grape ripening.
Water is stored in the soil by binding to clay particles
or humus. If a soil contains too much clay it can easily
become waterlogged, which in extreme cases can kill
the vine's roots. Conversely, sand particles and stones
do not hold water well and facilitate water drainage.
Therefore, if there is too much sand and stone in a soil,
insufficient water may be retained and irrigation may be
needed, even in areas of high rainfall.
AvineintheMaconnais,
France,
suffering
from

and summer can be harmful to the flowering, fruit set chlorosis.

and health of the grapes at harvest.

Mediterranean climate - Mediterranean climates are also

characterised by a low temperature difference between
the hottest and coldest months but the summers tend
to be warm and dry. These conditions are to be found
throughout the Mediterranean, as well as much of coastal
California, Chile, South Africa and South Eastern Australia.
The extra warmth and sunlight, compared with maritime
climates, leads to wines that are fuller bodied, with riper
tannins, higher alcohol and lower levels of acidity. The
lower rainfall can have a positive effect on the health of
the grapes but can also lead to drought.

SOIL
Soil supplies the vine with water and nutrients and
therefore plays a critical role in grape growing.

Soil Composition
Soil sits above the underlying bedrock, and may be
anything from a few centimetres to several metres deep.
It is made up of tiny particles of various sizes, as well as
32 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Many of the best soils are made up of a mixture of
sand and clay particles, known as loam. These soils have
good drainage but retain enough water for vine growth.
However, it is important to note that there is no one soil
type that is always ideal, and a soil's suitability will
depend on other climatic factors such as temperature
and rainfall.
Soil and Nutrients
The most important nutrients for a vine are nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium. These elements are naturally
occurring in the soil and are taken up by the vine roots.
Vines do not need high levels of these nutrients in order
to be able to thrive . In fact, if levels are too high the vine
will grow too vigorously and produce a dense leafy
canopy that shades the fruit too much. Nevertheless,
over time the nutrients in the soil become depleted and
the grape grower will need to replace them with natural
or chemical fertilisers.
A common symptom linked to a lack of nutrients is
chlorosis. The leaves turn yellow and the vine's ability
to photosynthesise is restricted . Grapes struggle to
ripen properly and their quality and quantity is reduced .
The problem can be solved by using an appropriate
fertiliser.
The overall impact of soil and vine nutrition on the
quality of the grapes and the finished wine is very
complex and beyond the scope of this book.
 VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 33

Vineyard
Management
The gra~e grower has_avery simple goal: to ~roduce a healthy
crop of ripe grapes suitable for the style of wine the
winemaker wants to make. In order to be able to do this it is necessary to apply an understanding of
6
how the environment affects the vine's growth. In this chapter we will look at how decisions over site
selection, trellising, training, pruning systems, planting densities and pests and diseases have an impact
on the quality and quantity of grapes that can be harvested each year.

SITE SELECTION produces decreases with age and it can be increasingly

When a producer wants to establish a new vineyard the
potential site needs to be assessed for its environmental
and pract ical suitability. Suitable grape varieties will
need to be chosen.
Environmental conditions - The grape grower can
use data to work out the potential site's average
temperature, rainfall and sunlight hours as well as the
fertility of the soil and how well drained it is. These
factors will influence the choice of grape variety as well
as the ideal planting density, and systems of training
and trellising.
Businessconsiderations - The proximity of a vineyard
to the utility infrastructure (power , water, etc.), the
availability of a vineyard workforce, the accessibility of
a site for machinery, such as tractors and harvesters,
and the cost of the land are all important considerations
in the financial viability of a site.
Grape variety - The grape variety must suit the climatic
conditions of the preferred site. There must also be a
demand for the grapes. In EU vineyard areas there may
also be legal restrictions on the varieties that a producer
can use. This is covered in more detail in section Label
Integrity in Chapter 11.
susceptible to disease. Therefore a balance has to be
struck between quality and profitability .
Normally, vineyard land is left fallow (unplanted) for
three years or more after the vines are dug up so that it
can recover. A grape grower will have a replanting cycle
that ensures that as little of their vineyard as possible is
out of production at any one time.
MANAGING THE VINE
Training, pruning, trellising and the density of the
planting are the main techniques used to manage the
vine, and the grape grower will adapt these practices to
suit the vineyard's resources: temperature, sunlight,
water and soil nutrients. He or she will also take into
account practical considerations such as the use of
machinery in the vineyard. However, in all cases,the
grape grower's goal is to maximise the production of fruit
at the desired quality level as economically as possible.
The interrelationship between all of these factors is Anewlyplantedvineyard
in
extremely complex and in this book we will only explore Australia
. Thetrellisposts
some of the reasons behind the choices that are made. andwires,thedripirrigation
systemandtheplastic
Vine Training sleevesusedto protectthe
Vine training typically refers to the shape of permanent youngvinescanallbeseen
wood of the vine and can be split broadly into two clearly.

PLANTING/REPLANTING
A new vineyard site must be cleared of any existing
vegetation as necessary. The fertility of the soil may be
tested and fertilisers applied to correct any nutrient
deficiencies. Young vines, usually bought pre-grafted
from a nursery, are planted either by hand or machine.
The young vines are often protected against animals by
individual plastic sleeves. Irrigation is also sometimes
allowed, even in regions where it is otherwise prohibited,
to help young vines establish themselves. The first yield
usually comes in the third year after planting.
Although they can be very long-lived, most vines
are replaced between the ages of 30 and 50 years old .
Some wine estates will use the term 'old vines' or its local
equivalent, to denote a wine made from well-established
plants. These vines are thought to produce fruit of
exceptional quality, often with a greater concentration of
flavours. However, the quantity or yield of grapes a vine
34 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
categories: head training or cordon training. Importantly,
either system can be low-trained, to benefit from heat
retained by the soil, or high-trained, to avoid frosts.
Head training - These vines have relatively little
permanent wood. Some only have a trunk. Others have
a few short arms of permanent wood growing from the
top of the trunk. They can either be spur-pruned or
replacement cane-pruned.
Cordon training - These vines typically have a trunk
with one or more permanent horizontal arms or
'cordons'. The vines are usually spur-pruned.
Cordon training takes longer to establish because of
the greater amount of permanent wood. However, the
sturdy permanent cordon with shoots positioned along
its length makes mechanisation in the vineyard, such as
machine harvesting, easier to achieve.
Vines normally have one or two cordons, but cordon
training can also be used to create big vine structures
where shoots may grow from four or more cordons.
Vine Pruning
Pruning is the removal of unwanted leaves, canes and
permanent wood. It shapes the vine and limits its size.
Pruning will take place every winter and summer. Winter
pruning is an important part of the vineyard calendar
and its main purpose is to determine the number and
location of the buds that will form shoots in the coming
growing season. It is important to make sure that the
buds are not close together. This helps with canopy
management (see following section Trellising and Canopy
Management). There are two styles of winter pruning:
spur and replacement cane.
Spur pruning - Spurs are short sections of one-year -old
wood that have been cut down to only two to three
buds. The spurs are either distributed along a cordon of
permanent wood (cordon training) or around the top
of the trunk (head training).
Replacement cane pruning - Canes are longer
sections of one-year-old wood and can have anything
between eight and 20 buds. Typically only one or two
canes are retained and each cane is tied horizontally
to the trellis for support. This type of pruning is most
often seen on head-trained vines. Replacement cane
pruning is more complex than spur pruning and
requires a large skilled labour force to choose suitable
canes and train them . It is sometimes referred to as
Guyot training; one cane is retained in Single Guyot;
two in Double Guyot.
Summer pruning involves trimming the canopy to
restrict vegetative growth and direct sugar production
to the grape, rather than to the growth of shoots and
leaves. It can also involve leaf stripping so that bunches
of grapes have optimum exposure to sunshine.
Trellising and Canopy Management
The vine's canopy is made up of all of the green parts
of the vine. Managing this annual growth is a very
important part of grape growing and grape growers
must choose between a number of techniques. The
most important choice concerns whether or not to use
a trellis. Trellises are permanent structures of stakes and
wires that are used to support any replacement canes
and the vine's annual growth.
Untrellised vineyards - In some regions, the vines may
not have a trellis system and the shoots will hang down
often as far as the ground. These are called bush vines
and they are typically head-trained and spur-pruned.
This system is best suited to warm or hot, dry, sunny
regions, such as the Southern Rhone in France and the
BarossaValley in Australia, where the extra shade helps
to protect the grapes. In cool or wet regions, the shade
can impede grape ripening and the lack of airflow can
promote disease. This is avoided in Beaujolais, France,
where the shoots of head-trained, spur-pruned vines are
tied together at the tips, which helps expose bunches
to air and sunlight. This training system is sometimes
referred to as gobelet. Untrellised vines are not suitable
for mechanical harvesting.
Trellised vineyards - Each row of vines requires a line
of posts joined by horizontal wires. The vine's canes and
shoots are then tied to the trellis. Together, this is known
as canopy management.
There are three important reasons for doing this. First,
the arrangement of the young shoots can be used to
control the amount of sunlight that gets into the canopy.
In regions with limited sunlight, keeping the shoots
apart to create an open canopy maximises the grapes'
exposure to sunlight helping the grapes to ripen
successfully. However, in regions with intense sunlight,
keeping the grapes shaded by leaves may reduce grape
sunburn, a problem that can lead to off-flavours. Second,
an open canopy can improve air circulation through the
leaves and grapes. This is particularly important in wet
climates because damp stagnant air can promote fungal
diseases. Finally, trellising can aid mechanisation in the
vineyard . Positioning the grapes in one area of the vine
and the leaves in another means that mechanical
harvesting is simplified and the spraying of insecticides
or fungicides is more effective.
The most widely used system is Vertical Shoot
Positioning (VSP).It can be used with replacement
cane- or spur-pruned vines. The vine's shoots are trained
vertically and are tied in place onto the trellis forming a
single narrow canopy. By keeping the shoots apart this
system keeps the canopy as open, well aerated and
shade free as possible.
In hot sunny regions VSPcan be adapted so that the
tops of the shoots are not tied in but flop over creating
some shade in the canopy to protect the fruit. A producer
would choose to use this system rather than an
 VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 35

VINE TRAINING AND PRUNING

These diagrams show the most common forms of pruning and training. Each one shows the vine after winter pruning on the left and
after veraisonon the right.

HEAD-TRAINED,
SPUR-PRUNED

Canopy
afterVeraison
AfterWinterPruning

One-year
-oldwood:

HEAD-TRAINED,
REPLACEMENT
CANE
-PRUNED

AfterWinterPruning
Canopy
afterVeraison

Trellis
wire

CORDON-TRAINED,
SPUR-PRUNED

Canopyafter
Veraison

;. AfterWinterPruning

Thisyear'sshoots(VSP)
spur-
36 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
untrellised bush vine because mechanical harvesting
can be used.
Density
Planting density is the number of vines that are planted
in a given area.This is typically expressed as the number
of vines planted per hectare. A hectare is an area
enclosed by a square with 100-metre sides. Planting
densities can vary from as low as 1000 vines per hectare
to as high as 10 000 vines per hectare. (Some countries
use acres. One acre is approximately 0.4 hectares.)
There are many factors that influence a grape grower's
decision regarding planting density. They cannot all be
considered here but one very important set of criteria
that can, is the availability of nutrients and water .
EXAMPLES
OFVINEYARD
MANAGEMENT
In order to understand some of the reasons behind the choices that are made in the vineyard, consider the
following two examples. Note that in many European wine regions vineyard management is legally controlled
and a grower is compelled to use certain options. This factor is not considered here.
EXAMPLE 1
Scenario
Thiswineregionisinlandina hot,verysunnyregion.Rainfall
isvery
lowandthereisnoorverylimitedirrigationwateravailable.
However,
thesoilhasgoodwater-holdingcapacity.
Choices andReasoning
Wateravailability-Thisisthemostimportantchallenge here
because lackofwatercankillthevineveryquickly. Giventhatthereis
littleornoirrigationwater,thegrowermustplantat lowdensities.
Thiswill ensurethatthevinesarenotcompeting forwaterandthat
eachvinehasaccess to enough waterin orderto survive.
Sunlight andtemperature - Theriskhereisthatthegrapes might
getsunburned. Therefore it isimportantthatthereissomeshade in the
canopy in orderto protectthefruit.Agrowermightchoose to grow
theirvinesasbushes oronatrelliswherethetopoftheshoots flop
over.These choiceswill notgivethegroweranyproblems withfungal
diseasesbecause thelackof rainfallmeans thatthediseasepressure
islow.
Low-density
bushvinesinSpain.
Very limited water availability- Some regions have
very low levels of rainfall or very limited accessto
irrigation. In these circumstances low planting density
can be beneficial, as it allows each vine's roots to take
up water from a large volume of soil without having to
compete against the roots of neighbouring vines.
Low levels of nutrients and sufficient rainfall -
Provided it can accessenough water, a vine will thrive in
barely fertile soil. Left unchecked it will grow vigorously
and produce a lot of green vegetative growth in
preference to fruit. In order to counteract this, vines
may be planted at a high density. This provides enough
competition for resources among the roots to restrict
the vine's vegetative growth. Ensuring that the vine has
EXAMPLE2
Scenario
Thiswineregionisclosetothecoast.It hasa moderate climatewith
highlevelsof rainfallthroughout
theyear.Thesoilfertilityislow.
Choices andReasoning
Soilfertilityandwater- Thevinewill probably havemorethan
enoughresources to survive
andthegrowerneeds to introduce
some
competition between thevinesto controltheirgrowth.Thereforehigh-
densityplantingwill bethebestoption.
Growing season rainfall- Thispresents
twoimportant challengesto
thegrower. Firstthedampenvironment isidealforthegrowthof
fungaldiseases. Secondthehighrainfallmeans theskyisfrequently
cloudy,limitingthesunlight. Thegrowerwill chooseVSP.Thiswill keep
thecanopy open,whichwill maximise theamountof lightthatcan
enterthecanopy andhelpto keepit wellaeratedto restrictthespread
ofdisease.
High-density,
head-trained,
replacement
cane-pruned
vinesin Bordeaux.
 VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 37

the correct number of buds after winter pruning is also
important. The vine stores energy in the form of
carbohydrates over winter. If there are too few buds
then each bud will have access to too much energy and
will grow vigorously. On the other hand, if there are too
many buds, each one will not have access to enough
energy and the vine will struggle to ripen its crop load.
When managed correctly this combination of density
and pruning makes it easier to maintain an open canopy
with all the advantages this confers on fruit quality and
disease control. High planting density with strict control
of the number of buds on each vine is common in many
European vineyards.
High levels of nutrients and sufficient rainfall - Very
fertile soils are not suitable for viticulture. However,
some vineyard areas, particularly in the New World, are
on soils that offer the vines more nutrients than many of
the classic European regions. Here high-density planting
is often not enough to limit the growth of the vines and
another solution has been developed that involves low-
density planting using vines with multiple cordons or
canes.This system is often able to produce good quality
grapes at high yields.
Yields
Yield is a measure of the amount of grapes produced.
It may be measured in terms of weight, such as tonnes
of grapes per hectare, or volume, such as hectolitres of
wine per hectare. It is important for a producer to be
able to manage and predict yields. Producers may
need to observe legal requirements, such as those that
exist in the EU.They may have to meet contractual
obligations or the winemaker may simply need to know
how much tank space they need to make their wine.
Predicting yields is not straightforward. An estimate
can be made from the number of buds left on the vine
after winter pruning but frost damage, poor fruit set
and pests and diseases can all dramatically reduce the
final figure.
If yields are going to be too high then they can be
reduced by removing immature grapes shortly after
veraison.This practice, known as green harvesting, is
risky because if it is done at the wrong time the vine
will compensate for the loss by increasing the size of the
grapes that have been retained. This can not only return
the yield to the original size but will also dilute the
flavours in the remaining grapes.
MANAGING VINEYARD PESTS AND DISEASES
Vines are susceptible to many pests and diseases, the
presence of which may result in a drop in yield and/or
reduce the quality of the fruit. Grapes may be lost or
damaged by disease or hungry animals. Damage to
leaves reduces photosynthesis and limits the vine's
ability to ripen its grapes. Some pests and diseases can
be controlled; others may kill the vine.
Pests
Phylloxera - This has been discussed in the section
Phylloxeraand Rootstocksin Chapter 4.
Nematodes - These are microscopic worms that attack
the roots of vines interfering with water and nutrient
uptake. In certain instances they transmit vine viruses.
In terms of treatment, prevention is better than cure.
Sanitising the soil before replanting and using resistant
rootstocks have been found to be successful.
Birds and mammals - They can both consume large
volumes of grapes. Furthermore, half-eaten or crushed
grapes can lead to an increased risk of fungal disease.
Netting is often the best option against birds, whereas
protective fencing may be needed to deter mammals
such as rabbits, deer or wild boar.
Insects - They feed on both grapes and leaves.The grape
grower may choose to treat the problem with regular
spraying of insecticides or a more environmentally
friendly technique, such as integrated pest management
(see section SustainableAgricultureon page 40).
Fungal Diseases NettedvinesinNewZealand.
Downy and powdery mildew - These fungi thrive in Thenetsprotectripegrapes
warm, humid environments and can affect all of the frombirds.

Yields and Quality

Although traditionally there was a view that high fruit
quality could only be achieved by low yields of grapes,
it is in fact very hard to make any solid link between
quality and yield. There are a number of factors that can
affect the relationship between yields and fruit quality,
many of which will depend on the individual vineyard
site. They are beyond the scope of this book.
38 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

THEVINEYARDCYCLE
This diagram shows the annual growth cycle of the vine and the timings of the most common vineyard tasks.

Budburst
March-April in the Northern Hemisphere
September-October in the Southern Hemisphere

Budburst
occursinthespring.Budsswellandburst,growing
intonewshoots.
Budburst isthestartofthegrowingseasonandgenerally beginswhen
themeandailytemperature exceeds10°C. Thetemperature
at which
budburstoccursdependsonthegrapevariety. Chardonnay
andPinot
Noirbudat relatively
lowtemperaturesandarecalledearly-budding
varieties,
whereasCabernetSauvignon isa late-budding
variety
needingwarmerconditions.
Newshootscanbekilledbyspringfrosts,reducing
yields
significantly,
particularly
inearly-buddingvarieties. 2, 3, 4. Budburst.

Spraying
againstfungaldiseases
andpests,ifpractised, 1. Avineyard
afterwinterpruning.
beginsat thistime.

Winter Dormancy
December-March in the Northern Hemisphere
July-September in the Southern Hemisphere
16. Avineyard
inwinterbeforepruning.
Astheweatherbecomescolder,thegrowingseasonendsanda periodof 1s. Hand-harvested
whitegrapes.
winterdormancybegins.Theshootsbecome woodyandfromthispoint
areknownascanes.Theleavesfallandthevinestoresitsreservesof 14. Ripewhitegrapes.
Notethechange
carbohydrates initsroots. incolour
postveraison.

Incontinental climates,
winterfreezecankillbudsandinextremecasesthe 13. Ripeblackgrapes.
vineitself.Earthmaybepileduparoundthevineto providesomeprotection.
Winterpruning
takesplace.

Harvest
September-October in the Northern Hemisphere
March-April in the Southern Hemisphere

Ideally
theharvestperiodshouldbedry.Excess rainfall
beforeharvest
cancausegrapesto swell,diluting
thejuice,anddueto dampconditions it
canincrease
the riskofrot.
Wherepractised,
spraying
musthavefinished
earlyenoughto ensurethatthereareno
harmfulchemicalresiduesinthewine.
 VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 39

Early Shoot and Leaf Growth

March-May in the Northern Hemisphere
September-November in the Southern Hemisphere

Shootsgrowrapidly
untilthevineflowers.Initially
thisisfuelledbythevine's
carbohydratereservesstoredoverwinterbutastheleavesmaturetheysupportthe
growthviaphotosynthesis.Thevineneedsa goodsupply ofwaterandsufficient
nutrients
earlyintheseason.Ifpractised,
shootsaretiedtothetrellisto
ensurethecanopy remainsopen.
Spraying
continues
asnecessary.

Flowering and Fruit Set

May-June in the Northern Hemisphere
November-December in the Southern Hemisphere

5. Early
shootgrowth. Whentheinflorescences
startflowering
thevinesneedswarm
6. Aninflorescence
before temperatures,
plentyofsunshineandlittleornorainotherwise
flowering. pollination
canbedisrupted, reducing
fruitset.

7. Aninflorescence
inflower. Fruitsetoccurs
whena flowerstartsto develop intoa grape.Not
everyflowerbecomes a grapeandafterfruitsetunpollinated flowers
8. Aclose-up
ofaninflorescence
inflower. dropoff.Ifmoreflowersthannormal failtofertilise
thiscondition
iscalledcouture.
Grapes canalsosometimes formwithoutseeds
andremainsmall.Thisisknownasmillerandage. Bothofthese
conditionsreduceyieldsandusuallystemfromcold,cloudy or
rainyweatherduringthepollinationperiod.
Spraying
continues
asnecessary
.
9. Fruitset.
1O.Immaturegrapesbeforeveraison.
Notethatallgrapesaregreenatthis
stage.
11. Blackgrapesduring
veraison.
Veraison and Berry Ripening
12.Avineyard
infullcanopy. July-September in the Northern Hemisphere
January-March in the Southern Hemisphere

Afterfruitsetthereisa periodofsixto eightweeksduringwhichtimethe

grapesstarttogrow.Bothblackandwhitegrapesaregreenat thisstageand
thegrapesfeelhard.Veraison signals
thepointat whichthegrapesbeginto ripen.
Thegrapes'skinschangecolour: blackvarietiesturnredthenpurple,whereas
white
varieties
become translucentandgolden.
Between veraison
andharvest,grapesswellandfillwithwater.During
ripening,
grape
sugarlevelsriseandtheacidlevelsdrop.Colourpigmentsandflavourcompounds also
accumulate at thistimeandtanninsdevelop.Warm andsunnyconditionsareideal.Mildwater
stressinhibits
shootgrowthandencourages graperipening.
Ifrequired,
summer pruning takesplaceto removeexcessfoliageensuring
thecanopy remainsopen.
Greenharvesting (theremovalofa proportion ofgrapebunches) maytakeplaceshortlyafterveraison
to
control
yieldandimprove fruitquality.
Notallgrapegrowers usethistechnique.
Spraying
continues
asnecessary.
40 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
green parts of the vine including the leaves and the
grapes. If affected, grapes lose their fruity flavours and
can give the wine a mouldy bitter taint.
Grey rot - This is caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea. It
thrives in damp conditions, and typically attacks grapes.
It can taint grape flavours and lead to colour loss in black
grapes. In certain conditions and for certain white grape
varieties a Botrytis cinerea infection can be beneficial as
it helps to produce some of the finest sweet wines in the
world. In this case the infection is called noble rot. More
details can be found in the section Sweet Winemaking in
Chapter 8.
Fungal diseases can be controlled using chemical sprays
(fungicides). Traditionally, powdery mildew was treated
with a sulfur-based spray and downy mildew with
Bordeaux mixture, a copper-based spray. These
treatments are still used but many new chemical
treatments now exist. Spraying is usually done by tractor .
More sprayings are required in maritime climates, where
there is high rainfall during the growing season. All
spraying must stop close to harvest time so that there
are no harmful chemical residues in the wine.
The risk of fungal disease developing can also be
reduced using appropriate canopy management. A
dense, shady vine canopy restricts airflow and prevents
water from evaporating, creating a humid environment.
An open vine canopy allows a greater flow of air, which
promotes evaporation and keeps it as dry as possible.
This has the added financial and environmental
advantages of reducing the usage of chemical sprays
which, when used, can reach into all parts of the canopy
more easily.
Other Diseases
Viruses - Numerous viruses can infect vines. Most do
not kill the vine, but by limiting the vine's ability to
function they can dramatically reduce yield and quality.
Viruses are highly contagious and persistent, and are
usually spread via cuttings or nematodes. There are no
treatments or cures. Viruses can only be eradicated by
digging up the vines and sanitising the land .
Bacterial diseases - A large number of bacteria can
also infect a vine. Many just reduce grape quality and
quantity but some can kill the vines. Typically these
diseases are spread by small insects called sharpshooters.
There are no treatments or cures. Strict quarantine
procedures and interrupting the lifecycle of the
sharpshooters are the only ways of preventing the
spread of these diseases. As with viruses, once a vine is
infected the disease can only be eradicated by digging
up the vines and sanitising the land.
VITICULTURAL PRACTICES
In the second half of the twentieth century, the use of
man-made chemicals in the vineyard to control pests
and diseases significantly increased. There was also an
increased use of chemical fertilisers. A number of grape
growers still rely on regular and systematic applications
of man-made chemicals to protect their vines and
fertilise their land.
However, the extent of environmental damage that
this amount of chemical spraying has caused both in
vineyards and the surrounding areas has become an
increasing worry to many grape growers, consumers and
legislators. In many major vineyard regions there are
increasing efforts to reduce the quantity of chemicals
used. There are three main options available to grape
growers wishing to do this.
Sustainable Agriculture
Man-made chemicals are not prohibited in sustainable
agriculture but their use is restricted. Grape growers are
encouraged to develop an in-depth understanding of
the lifecycles of vineyard pests and monitor weather
forecasts so that they can predict and prevent a pest or
disease outbreak before it occurs. Rather than simply
following a regimented calendar of spraying, this
enables them to time the applications so they have the
greatest impact. As a result, fewer applications are need.
Integrated pest management is a key part of
sustainable agriculture. The predators of certain pests
may be encouraged to live in the vineyard to control
pest populations naturally. This makes vineyard
biodiversity essential. Supporting a range of plants in the
vineyard rather than a monoculture of vines can provide
habitats for predators of pests and provide nutrients for
vines when they are mowed and ploughed into the soil.
Organic Agriculture
Organic agriculture encompasses many of the same
concepts as sustainable agriculture; however only a very
limited number of the more traditional treatments against
pests and diseases is allowed and only in very small
quantities. Furthermore, accreditation is required from an
organic certification body if the producer wishes to display
the organic credentials of their grapes on the label.
There are many certification bodies throughout the
world. Although many of these organisations operate on
similar principles, the exact standards each one sets may
be slightly different. Therefore, and perhaps confusingly,
some wines made from organically farmed grapes may
have been subject to stricter rules than others. A
universal requirement, however, is that the vineyard
must undergo a period of conversion working to organic
standards before it can be certified.
Biodynamic Agriculture
Biodynamic agriculture is based on the work of Rudolf
Steiner and Maria Thun. It adopts organic practices but
also incorporates philosophy and cosmology. The
vineyard soil is seen as part of a connected system with
the planet Earth, the air and other planets. Practitioners
adapt their grape growing practices to coincide with the

cycles of the planets, moon and stars. Homeopathic
remedies called 'preparations' are used to fertilise the
soil, treat diseases and ward off pests. There are also
certification bodies for biodynamic agriculture.
HARVEST
Veraisonis the point at which the grapes begin to ripen.
It is signalled by a change in colour of the grapes' skins;
black varieties turn red, then purple whereas white
varieties become translucent and golden. As the grapes
ripen, sugar levels rise and acid levels drop. Monitoring
the rise in sugar levels is a common way of tracking the
ripening process. At this time grapes also develop their
signature flavours and the tannins in the skins of the
grapes become less bitter and astringent.
There is no completely hard and fast rule that states
when a grape is perfectly ripe. The ideal balance between
sugar, acid, flavour and tannin will vary depending on
the grape variety, the climate and, importantly, the style
and quality of the wine being produced.
Ideally the harvest begins when the grape grower
and/or the winemaker believes that the grapes have the
exact qualities they need to create the desired style of
wine. However, on occasion, poor weather conditions
may cause a grower to bring the harvest forward to save
their crop. Hail can destroy grapes and rainfall can cause
the grapes to swell excessively and dilute the juice.
Winemakers also need to coordinate the arrival of the
fruit at the winery to make sure it is not suddenly
overwhelmed with fruit it does not have the capacity
to process.
Harvesting can be done by hand or machine. The
decision to use either method will depend on a number
of factors, including how the vineyard is planted, labour
availability and cost, the topography of the vineyard,
weather conditions and winemaking choices. Note that
premium wine can be made from machine-harvested as
well as hand-harvested grapes.
VINEYARDMANAGEMENT 41
Machine Harvesting
Machine harvesters work by shaking the trunk of the
vine and collecting the ripe berries as they fall off,
leaving the stalks behind. They are not selective, often
collecting some unhealthy, unripe and damaged grapes,
as well as shaking off bits of leaf, insects and other
contaminants, referred to as MOG (matter other than
grapes). These unwanted elements can be removed
during sorting when the grapes arrive at the winery.
However, the scale of some harvesting operations
means that this is not always possible.
An important advantage of the machine harvester is
speed. This may be essential if the vintage is threatened
by bad weather, or with certain grape varieties, such as
Sauvignon Blanc, that can become over-ripe very
quickly. Machines can also work through the night,
which allows cool grapes to be brought to the winery.
This saves money and energy that would be spent on
lowering the temperature of the grapes before
fermentation, and it slows down the process of oxidation,
which could lead to off-flavours (see section Oxygen in
Chapter 7).
However, harvesting machines can only be used on
flat or gently sloping land and are best suited to varieties
whose grapes are not easily damaged and come away
easily from their stem. They cannot be used to pick
grapes for wine styles that require whole bunches, such
as Beaujolais or Champagne.
Hand Harvesting
Hand harvesting (also referred to as hand picking)
involves pickers cutting off individual bunches of grapes
with secateurs. It is slower and more labour intensive,
and for this latter reason it can be more expensive if
there is no large workforce to hand.
However, it does allow grape selection to take place
in the vineyard; rotten or unripe grapes can be left on
the vine. For grapes affected by noble rot, hand picking
HARVESTING
1. Machine in
harvesting
France.
Theharvester
is
ableto straddle
a rowof
vines.Beatershitthe
trunksof thevines
knocking
offthegrapes,
whicharecaughtand
transferred
to a trailer
fordelivery
to thewinery.
2. Handharvestingin
Argentina.
42 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
is essential because the onset and level of rot can vary
between bunches and even within a bunch, meaning
careful selection is needed. Lessdamage tends to occur
to the grapes when they are manually harvested and the
grapes can be further protected from damage by being
transported in shallow, stackable trays. Unlike machine
harvesting, the grape stems are retained. This gives
whole, intact grape bunches that can produce a very
clean, pure juice when pressed in white winemaking and
that are essential for whole bunch fermentations in red
winemaking. Hand harvesting may also be the only
option on steep vineyard slopes, such as many of those
found in the Douro in Portugal, Mosel in Germany, and
Northern Rhone in France.
 COMMONELEMENTS
INWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 43

Common
Elements
inWinemaking
andMaturation 7
There are certain factors and processes that are common to all wines and these are explored in this
chapter. It is important to get an appreciation of their roles in winemaking and maturation and how they
influence the style and quality of wine in order to be able to understand why white, red, rose and sweet
wines are made the way they are.

DIFFERENT
WINEMAKING
APPROACHES
Winemaking is a process that starts with grapes and
ends with wine. After harvest, the grapes are processed
and prepared for alcoholic fermentation, at which point
yeast convert the sugars in the grape juice to alcohol.
Once this is complete, the wines need to be stored prior
to packaging and sale. None of this can happen without
the intervention of humans and the hundreds of choices
they make along the way.
In recent decades advances in our scientific
understanding ofwinemaking and the application of
this knowledge has meant that many more options are
now available for winemakers to choose from. As a
result, very different views on what approach to take
have now evolved.
There are some winemakers who choose to control
each part of the winemaking process as much as
possible. They have a particular stylistic goal, and
they tailor their winemaking techniques to make sure
they achieve this goal. However, there are some
winemakers who choose to take a more hands-off
approach. They may monitor the wine's progress
throughout production, but overall the wine is
produced with as little human intervention as possible.
Compared with the majority of wines on sale, wines
made with minimal intervention often have a very
different taste profile. They are sometimes referred to
as natural wines.
The approaches described above are at two ends of
a spectrum with many winemakers taking a stance
somewhere in between. In this chapter we will simply
focus on the techniques that are used to make the vast
majority of wines that are available today.
COMMONELEMENTS THROUGHOUT
WINEMAKING
AND MATURATION
Oxygen
Oxygen is a gas that can react with grape juice as well as
with many of the component parts of a wine during the
winemaking and maturation process.The effect of these

CONSTITUENT
PARTSOF GRAPES
This diagram shows the key parts of the grape and the role they play in winemaking.

Bloom- Thisisthewaxysurfacethatcovers
theskinsofthe
grapesandcontains
yeastthatcanbeusedtofermentthewine.
Seedsandstems- Seedsandstemsboth
containtannins.Seedsalsocontain
highlevels
ofbitteroils.Thestemsareonlyavailable
to
thewinemaker ifgrapesarehandharvested.

Pulp-Waterisbyfarthelargestsingle
component ina grape'spulpandconsequently
inthewineaswell.Sugaristhesecondlargest
component ina grape'spulpandisofvital
Skins-A grape'sskinandthearea ------ ~ importance: theyeastwilluseit tomake
immediately beneathcontains
a high
alcohol.
Acids arealsofoundinthepulp.The
concentrationofflavour
compounds,
mostabundant acidistartaricacidfollowed
by
whichgiveeachgrapeitssignature
malicacid,andthesegrapeacidsarepresentin
varietal
character.
Theskinsalsocontain
thefinishedwine.
tannins(seebelow) andcolour
compounds . Theamountoftanninsand
colour
inblackgrapesissignificantly
higherthaninwhitegrapes.

Tannins - Alargenumber ofchemicalcompoundsareclassed astannin.Atveraison

theytasteverybitterandastringent
and,asthe
grapesripen,thelevelofbitterness
andastringency
falls.Notethatoakcanalsocontribute
sometanninsto bothredandwhitewines.
44 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
chemical reactions, referred to as oxidation, is sometimes
positive and sometimes negative.
Oxygen in winemaking - For any winemaker who
wants to make a wine dominated by primary fruit
characteristics, oxygen is an ever-present threat that
needs to be countered. Antioxidants such as sulfur
dioxide are used, and every effort is made to keep
oxygen contact to a minimum. Grapes are picked at
night when it is cooler and the effect of oxygen is
reduced because chemical reactions occur more slowly
at lower temperatures. The grapes are kept chilled until
they reach the winery. Once there, all efforts are made to
keep the grapes and juice away from oxygen by filling
airtight winery equipment with either carbon dioxide or
nitrogen before they are used for grape processing or
winemaking. This process is sometimes referred to as
protective or anaerobic winemaking.
Some argue that wines made in this manner can be
bland and uninteresting and that a higher level of
contact with oxygen during the winemaking process
helps to develop complexity and character in a wine.
This ultimately is a question ofwinemaking style.
Oxygen in maturation - Wines that have been
protected from oxygen during winemaking rarely if ever
benefit from any contact with oxygen during maturation.
In this instance the wines are stored in inert airtight
tanks or vats that are kept completely full. These vessels
are either made from stainless steel or from cement lined
with epoxy resin.
Wines that are matured aerobically (in contact with
oxygen) are stored in wooden vessels that are normally
made of oak. Oak may be watertight but it is not airtight.
Small amounts of oxygen can make it through the oak to
react with the wine. This can help to soften tannins in red
wines and gives more complexity to the flavours of the
wine; primary fruit flavours gradually fade and tertiary
characters start to develop, such as leather and earth. The
wine may also change in appearance: red wines gradually
become paler and gain a hint of brown; white wines
become deeper in colour, and gain a hint of orange.
The amount of oxidation depends on the size of the
vessel and the length of time the wine is stored in it.
Small vessels such as 225-litre barriques have a greater
oxidative effect than larger vessels as they present a
proportionately larger surface area of wood to the wine.
Consequently, wines are rarely kept in barrique for longer
than two years. Wines kept in larger oak vessels may be
matured for longer.
The effect of oxygen can be further enhanced if the
container is not completely full. This technique is
sometimes used for fortified wines that are deliberately
oxidative in style such as O/oroso Sherry, Tawny Port and
Rutherglen Muscat. This extra oxygen contact, which can
sometimes last for many years, means that these wines
develop a pronounced tertiary character of caramel,
toffee and nuts.
For most wine, too much exposure to oxygen can be
damaging. The resulting wine can lose much of its fresh
fruit flavour and smell stale. In these instances the wine
is said to be oxidised and is unfit for sale. In extreme
cases, bacteria will use oxygen to change the wine into
vinegar, rendering the wine undrinkable.
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (50 2) is almost indispensable in the
winery. It acts as an antioxidant and an antiseptic. It can
be used to protect freshly harvested grapes and levels
are adjusted throughout the winemaking process. The
upper levels of 50 2 in wine are strictly controlled by law
because it can be toxic (although the concentrations
found in wine lie far below toxic levels and are lower
than those that can be found in dried fruit). It can also
cause allergic reactions even at low levels. Although
some 50 2 is produced naturally in fermentation, most
winemakers agree that keeping additions of 50 2 as low
as possible is preferable, not least because if levels
become too high the wine can seem harsh and lacking
in fruit. A very small number of winemakers go a step
further and refuse to use 50 2 at all.
Antioxidant effects - 50 2 protects the grape juice and
wine from the effects of oxidation. In doing this, 50 2
loses the ability to have any further protective effect
and becomes what is known as 'bound'. Levels of 50 2
therefore need constant monitoring and replenishing
to ensure the wine remains protected.
Antiseptic effects - 50 2 is toxic to the many strains of
yeast and bacteria that can cause unwanted flavours in
wines. Fortunately for winemakers the principal yeast
involved in the alcoholic fermentation is able to tolerate
levels of 50 2 that are toxic to these other species.
Oak Vessels
The vast majority of wooden vessels used in the winery
for fermentation and maturation are made of oak. As
stated above, oak vessels allow a small level of oxidation
while the wine is maturing, allowing tertiary aromas to
develop. However, the wine can also extract tannin and
flavours from the oak itself. Oak tannins give more
structure to both red and white wines, increasing their
textural complexity. Oak can give aromas and flavours
such as toast, vanilla, smoke and cloves. Hygiene is a
particular challenge when using oak, because it is
difficult to keep wooden vessels completely free of
yeasts, bacteria and moulds. Wine can be ruined by
tainted wood.
Oak vessels differ widely in their characteristics and
many winemakers will purposely use many different
types of vessels to enhance the complexity of the final
wine. There are four important factors to consider:
Species and origin of oak - Different species of oak
have different characteristics but it is also possible for
 COMMONELEMENTSIN WINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 45

WINERYVESSELS

1. Oak;onthe leftnewoakbarrels,onthe rightlargeoakvessels.

2. Adose-upofoakstaves.

3. Concrete
tanks.Arackofoakstavescanbe seeninfrontofthe
tanks.

4. Concrete
vesselsshapedlikeeggshavebecomefashionable
in
recentyears.Theshapeofthesevatsisthoughtto aidthe
naturalflowofthejuice/wine,reducingthe needformanual
punchingdownandpumpingover.

5. Alargewineryequippedwithstainlesssteeltanks.
46 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
the same species of oak to show different characteristics
depending on where it is grown. Most winery oak vessels
are made from either European oak or American oak.
European oak has broadly similar characteristics whether
it comes from France, Hungary, Russia or elsewhere,
although there are some forests, especially in France,
that are considered to produce the finest oak.
Size - Small vessels (commonly referred to as 'barrels'),
such as the 225-litre barrique and the 228-litre piece,
have a much greater effect on the wine than larger
vessels, which can reach sizes in excess of 2000 litres.
This is because in smaller vessels more of the wine is in
contact with the surface of the barrel.
Production of oak barrels - The way in which the barrel
is made has a vital influence on how it will affect the wine.
Arguably the toasting of the barrel is one of the most
important procedures in this sense.The barrel production
process involves heating the staves so that they can be
bent into shape. This heating process also transforms the
tannins and flavour compounds in the oak, giving notes
of sweet spice and toast. The temperature and length of
heat exposure, referred to as the level of toasting, affects
what flavours the barrel contributes to the wine.
Age - The effect of toasting diminishes each time the
barrel is used. A barrel that has been used once gives a
wine less flavour than a brand-new one and, by the time
a cask is on its fourth usage, it imparts little flavour or
tannin. The flavours of new oak are not desirable for all
wines and some producers choose not to use new oak
barrels in order to make a wine with more subtle oak
flavours.
Oak Alternatives
Oak vessels are not the only means by which oak aromas
and tannins can be added to a wine. Small planks of oak
known as staves or even smaller oak chips can be
inserted into the wine during fermentation or maturation
in inert winery vessels. Both methods can provide some
oak aromas and tannins at a much lower cost than using
casks.The oxidative effects of barrel ageing can be
replicated by adding small, controlled quantities of
oxygen to the wine vessel. These techniques are still the
subject of much research. As yet, premium wines are not
normally made using these techniques.
Inert Winery Vessels
These vessels do not add flavour to wines or allow
oxidation and consequently they are frequently referred
to as inert. Most of these vessels are made of stainless
steel or concrete. They are widely used for fermentation
and are also often used to temporarily store finished
wine until it can be bottled.
Stainless steel - Most modern winery vessels are made
from stainless steel. They are easy to keep clean and
can be made in any shape and size. They can also
incorporate temperature control mechanisms to control
the juice or wine temperature. These may be sleeves on
the outside of the vessels or internal coils through which
cold or hot liquid can be circulated.
Concrete vessels - These vessels are usually lined with
epoxy resin, which is inert and provides a waterproof
barrier. They were commonly used before stainless steel
vessels became available and many have now been
replaced. They can be less easy to clean and maintain
than stainless steel tanks. However, some winemakers
prefer these vessels because the thick concrete shells
help to regulate temperature during fermentation and
maturation without the need to use expensive
temperature control equipment.
Glass bottles are also inert vessels than can be used for
storage and maturation in the winery (see section Post-
bottling Maturation on page 53).
GRAPE PROCESSING
Grape Reception
The grapes usually receive their first dose of S0 2 as they
arrive at the winery. If the grapes are destined for a
premium wine they will usually be individually checked
on a sorting table to eliminate unripe or rotten grapes.
Such a careful selection is rarely possible in high volume
wine production.
Destemming and Crushing
These are both optional processes. Machine-harvested
grapes arrive without stems, and even if the grapes have
been hand harvested, most winemakers choose to
remove them. This is usually done in a machine that can
subsequently crush the grapes. Crushing breaks the
skins of the grapes and liberates a quantity of juice,
known as free run juice, but it should avoid damaging
the seeds. If seeds are crushed they will release bitter oils
and tannin, and the wine may become unpleasantly
astringent and bitter.
Pressing
Pressing separates the liquid and the solid constituents
of the grape. In the case of white wines, pressing occurs
before the start of fermentation, while for red wines
this typically happens after fermentation. As with the
crushing process, seeds should remain undamaged.
Modern techniques are designed to achieve a gentle
pressing of the grapes for this reason.
Traditionally, all wine presses were vertical, with the
pressure on the grapes coming from above using a plate
that was raised or lowered using a screw or a lever. These
vertical 'basket' presses, now often fully automated,
are still used by many wineries particularly, but not
exclusively, in the Champagne region. Pneumatic presses
are a more recent development. They consist of an
inflatable rubber tube within a perforated, horizontal,

stainless steel cylinder, which makes it possible to apply
pressure over a larger area, in a controllable way. Some
pneumatic presses are built within a closed tank so that
the amount of oxygen in contact with the juice is kept
to a minimum.
The liquid released at the start of pressing is very
different from that released towards the end, in terms
of flavour and texture. The winemaker may decide to
separate the liquid into different pressings, called
fractions, and treat them individually. The different
components can then be tasted and blended in different
proportions to create a certain style. Presswine is
discussed in the section PressWinein Chapter 9.
ADJUSTMENTS
Adjustments to one or more of the major components
of the grape juice or wine are sometimes required for a
variety of reasons. Adjustments can be made before,
during or after fermentation. What is legally permitted
varies from region to region. Note that grape juice is
commonly referred to as 'must'.
Sugar and Alcohol
In cooler climates, there may be insufficient natural
sugar in the grapes to give the wine a satisfactory level
of alcohol. Depending on the level of sugar in the juice
COMMONELEMENTSINWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 47
GRAPE
RECEPTION
1.Sortinghand-picked
wholebunches
ontheirwayto thedestemmer.
2.Adestemmer.
Thepaddlesspinround,knocking
offthegrapes,whichexit
through
theholesinthedrum.
3. Sortingdestemmed
grapes.Theredstructures
at thebottomof thepicture
arethe rollers
at thetopof thecrusher.
(often called the 'must weight'), the winemaker may
decide to carry out enrichment. This process involves
increasing sugar levels in the juice by adding Rectified
Concentrated Grape Must (RCGM- a colourless,
odourless syrupy liquid) either before or during
fermentation. This in turn has the effect of raising the
level of alcohol in the final wine because there is more
sugar available for the yeast to turn to alcohol.
Enrichment is forbidden in many parts of the world and
where it is permitted it is strictly controlled. If carried out
with care, enrichment may give a better wine. If abused,
it can produce a wine that tastes hard and thin, because
there are insufficient flavours to balance the artificially
elevated alcohol. Where sugar from sources other than
grapes is added, for example sugar beet, this process is
called chaptalisation.
Another option is to remove water from the juice,
which concentrates the sugars and can lead to a wine
that is higher in alcohol. However, removing water also
concentrates everything else, including tannins, acids,
flavour compounds and unfortunately any faults . It also
reduces the volume of the juice so less wine can be
made and sold.
It is very difficult to remove sugar from the juice, but
modern machinery can remove alcohol from the wine
after fermentation is complete.
48 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
PRESSES
1.Vertical
basketpresses.
2.Threepneumatic
presses.Abladder
inside
thepressthatcanbe
filledwithcompressed
airpressesthegrapes
againstrigidinternal
structures.
Acid
Acid levels can be increased if, during ripening, grape
acid has fallen too far. Acidification is normally carried
out by the addition of tartaric acid in powder form. In
Europe, this treatment is permitted in warmer regions
only, and it is common in many warm and hot regions
around the world.
Deacidification (reducing acid levels) is more common
in cooler climate regions when the grape acid levels
have not fallen sufficiently during grape ripening. Excess
acid may be neutralised by the addition of an alkali (the
chemical opposite of an acid).
FERMENTATIONS
Alcoholic Fermentation
This is the conversion of sugar into alcohol and C0 2
through the action of yeast. The other by-products of
this process are heat and flavour compounds. The yeast
species that is responsible for the majority of wine
fermentations is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, due to its
tolerance of relatively high levels of alcohol and 50 2•
Alcoholic fermentation will not start if the temperature
is below S°Cand should continue naturally until all the
sugar has been consumed.
Alcoholic fermentation may stop before all the sugar
is consumed. This can happen if the yeast run out of
the nutrients they need (other than sugar) or if the
temperature reaches over 35°C.When the sugar
concentration in the juice is very high, the combination
of high sugar levels and alcohol can be enough to stop
the yeast from functioning. In extreme situations the
sugar level can be so high that yeast may even struggle
to start the fermentation in the first place.
In some instances the winemaker may want to stop
the fermentation before all of the sugar has been
converted to alcohol. This can be achieved by either
killing or removing the yeast. Yeast can be killed by
adding 50 2 or by adding grape spirit (see section Sweet
Winemaking in Chapter 8). Yeast can be removed using
filtration and typically this will be done after the
fermentation has been temporarily halted by chilling
the fermenting wine to below s0 c.
There are two important ways in which a winemaker
can control the fermentation: the choice of yeast and
temperature management.
Yeast - The winemaker can choose between relying on
the various ambient yeast strains found on the grape
bloom and in the winery, or adding a cultured yeast
strain to the must. Using ambient yeast strains can
produce complex flavours in the final wine, but has the
disadvantage that the winemaker cannot control
exactly which yeasts are present. There may also be
some variation between batches, which would be
particularly unsuitable for high-volume wine
production.
Commercially available cultured yeasts are individual
strains of 5. cerevisiae that have been specifically selected
because they consistently perform and produce
attractive flavours. However, some winemakers argue
that using cultured yeast limits the potential complexity
of the wine.
Temperature - Temperature management is important
in winemaking because if fermenting wine becomes
too hot, yeast are killed. However, by controlling the
temperature, the winemaker can also influence the
flavours of the wine being made. Fermenting at lower
temperatures avoids the loss of the most volatile
aromas which often have a floral character. It can also
encourage the development of fruity flavours in white
wines. Higher temperatures are necessary for the
extraction of colour and tannins from black grape
skins.
A fermenting vat is constantly monitored to make
sure it is running at the correct temperature. Many
vats now have their own heating/refrigeration system,
making temperature control relatively easy. Excess
heat can also be released by pumping over (see section
Cap Management Techniques in Chapter 9). Precise
temperature control during fermentation is an
important development that has made a huge
contribution to the quality and consistency of modern
winemaking.
 COMMONELEMENTSIN WINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 49

Malolactic Fermentation (MLF)
Malolactic fermentation usually takes place once the
alcoholic fermentation has finished, and is carried out
by lactic acid bacteria. They convert the tart malic grape
acid (also found in apples) into the softer lactic acids (also
found in milk). MLF softens and reduces acidity, as well
as creating buttery flavours and producing CO2. MLF may
be encouraged by raising the temperature of the wine
and by not adding 50 2 after the alcoholic fermentation.
It can be avoided through storage at cool temperatures,
the use of 50 2, or by filtering out the bacteria.
fall to the bottom of the fermentation or storage vessel
within a matter of hours. The sediment that forms is
known as the gross lees and, if not removed, it can cause
unpleasant aromas to develop in the wine. Smaller
particles may settle more slowly. These are known as the
fine lees and they are often removed gradually through
the wine maturation process (see section Sedimentation
on page SO).In some cases the winemaker may choose
to keep a white wine in contact with the fine lees during
pre-bottling maturation in order to add extra flavours
and a richer texture to the wine.

PRE-BOTTLING MATURATION AND BLENDING Pre-bottling Maturation

Lees Not every wine benefits from an extended period of
Directly after fermentation, wine can appear cloudy due maturation before bottling. If the winemaker wants to
to the presence of dead yeast cells and grape fragments. retain as many of the primary fruit aromas as possible
These suspended particles are usually heavy enough to then the wine is likely to be bottled after only a few

CONSTITUENTS OF WINE
This is a graphic illustration of a typical still dry wine that shows the relative volumes of a wine's constituents.
The percentages given below cover a range that is typical for most wine. They are expressed as a percentage of
the volume in a bottle of wine.

Sugars
(0.1-20%)
Theamountofsugarpresentinthewinewillvarydepending
onthestyleofthewine.Sugarisobviously
a majorcomponent
insweetwinesbutevendrywinesmaycontain a verysmall
quantity
ofunfermentedsugar.
Thisrangecovers
mostsweetwines.Somelusciouswines,such
asPXSherry,mayhaveevenhigherlevelsofresidual
sugar.
Ethanol(8-22%)
Ethanol
isthemainalcohol inwine.Smaller
Acids
(0.3-1%)
quantities
ofotheralcoholsarealsomadeduring
Themostimportant
acidsinwinearetartaric,malicand lactic.
fermentation.
(Thisfigureincludes
fortified
wines.
) -------l • --'

Tannins
andColour
(upto 0.4%)
Tannins
andcolour
areparticularly
important
inredwines. -----p;•~iiiiii•liiil•••IJ
~ AromaandFlavourCompounds(upto 0.2%)
Hundreds ofdifferent
compounds havebeenfoundto
contribute
to thearomasandflavours
ofwines.Theyare
presentinverysmallamounts.

Water(70-90%)
Wateristhemostabundant
component
inwine.

Note:These
percentages areincludedforreference
only
andstudentswillnotbeexpectedto knowthesenumbers
fortheexamination
.
50 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
months, having been stored in an inert vessel. This is true
for both inexpensive red and white wines and some
premium wines too. For example, a premium Australian
Riesling rarely benefits from any contact with oak or
oxygen and will be stored before bottling in similar inert
vessels to an inexpensive Californian White Zinfandel.
To survive medium- or long-term ageing, wines need
sufficient levels of tannin, acidity and/or alcohol, and
importantly, they must have flavours that will develop
in an interesting way in order to make such ageing
worthwhile.
Many changes can occur to wines that undergo pre-
bottling maturation. The maturation vessel itself can
affect the flavour by either adding oak flavours or by
allowing oxidation to take place. Over time, components
in the wine react with each other, which can further alter
the flavour or balance of the wine. Sometimes this can
lead to the formation of particles that fall to the bottom
of the vessel under the force of gravity, creating a
sediment that is periodically removed.
Blending
Blending plays a vital role in the winemaking process for
virtually every wine, including those made from a single
grape variety. Blending can take place at any stage
during the winemaking process but is mainly carried
out after fermentation or during the maturation process.
It can be used to improve balance, attain consistency or
achieve a certain style. When blending involves wines
from different grape varieties, vineyard locations or
vintages, the winemaker will need to be aware of any
constraints imposed by local winemaking regulations
(see section Label Integrity in Chapter 11).
Balance - Blending allows the winemaker to adjust the
balance of the wine, enhancing its quality. For example,
when making a red wine, free run wine may be blended
with press wine to increase the tannins in the final
product.
Consistency- Significant variation among the bottles
of a single product will in most cases be viewed as a
fault, and thus blending to attain consistency is a vital
process in wine production. Wines matured in small
barrels often develop in subtly different ways from one
barrel to another and thus need blending together in a
large vat before bottling to smooth out inconsistencies.
Even without the influence of oak, different vats may
need blending for consistency either due to variations
in the fruit (different vineyards or different harvesting
times) or due to slight inconsistencies that arise during
winemaking.
Style - Blending is also very important in deciding and
maintaining the style of a wine. Although variations in
the weather may cause the wines of different vintages
to vary, many winemakers aim to produce their wines in
a certain house style. This style may range from simple
and easy-drinking, to very complex and designed for
long -term cellaring. In some cases the winemaker may
actively seek to create as many blending options as
possible throughout the winemaking process in order to
achieve this style. This may include separating different
press fractions, fermenting or maturing the wine in
different vessels, or only allowing a proportion of the
wine to go through malolactic fermentation. Using
wines from different grape varieties, vineyard plots and
vintages may also help to achieve this goal.
CLARIFICATION
The vast majority of customers expect their wines to be
perfectly clear. There are three main techniques a
winemaker can use to achieve this: sedimentation, fining
and filtration. Some premium wines do not undergo all
of these treatments because the winemakers believe
some of them can harm the character of the wine. Their
consumers often value the concept of minimally treated
wines and as such are unconcerned by sediment.
Sedimentation
Most wine will undergo sedimentation after the
fermentation has finished. Once the gross lees have
settled in a deposit, the wine can then be slowly and
gently pumped into a different vessel leaving the
sediment behind, a process known as racking. The wine
will continue to throw a deposit of fine lees during
maturation and the clarity of the wine can be gradually
improved by repeated rackings. For some fine wines,
sedimentation and racking is the only clarification that
will take place.
Sedimentation relies on gravity to pull the suspended
particles to the bottom of the liquid but gravity is a weak
force and acts slowly. This process can be accelerated by
putting the wine in a centrifuge; however, this piece of
equipment is generally very expensive.
Fining
Sometimes hazes or deposits may only appear in wine
after a period of time in bottle. This is because some
wine constituents slowly clump together over time,
eventually becoming large enough to become visible.
Fining is a process that speeds up this process so that
these particles can be removed from the wine before
bottling. It involves adding a fining agent to the wine -
a substance that forms bonds with certain wine
constituents and causes visible clumps to form. These
clumps can then be removed by filtering.
Fining is widely practised and is generally considered
an important step in ensuring wine stability. However,
some winemakers choose not to fine their wines as they
believe it can adversely affect flavour and texture.
Filtration
This is a process that physically removes particles from a
wine as it is passed through a filter. Wines can be filtered
after fermentation and during maturation to remove the

FILTERS
1. Equipment
usedforsurface
filtration.
Thereplaceable
filtermembrane
is
positioned
insidethemetalcasing.
Twoexamples
of depthfilters:
2. Arotarydrumfilter.
3. Aplateandframefilter.
gross and fine lees quickly, and are usually filtered prior
to bottling to ensure that the wine is clear. There are two
methods of filtration:
Depth filtration - The filters used in depth filtration are
made from a thick layer of material. As the wine passes
through the filter the solid parts become trapped inside
this material. These filters are able to handle very cloudy
wines and can be used to remove the gross lees.
Surface filtration - The filters used for surface filtration
resemble very fine sieves. The solid particles are trapped
on the surface of the filter as the wine flows through it.
The filte rs are very expensive and clog up extremely
easily, so are generally used for wines that have already
been passed through a depth filter. Where the pore size
is small enough to remove yeast and bacteria that might
still be present in the wine, this is referred to as sterile
filtration. This can be used as a final treatment prior to
bottling.
As with fining, some winemakers believe that filtration
can negatively affect a wine's character, especially its
texture. For this reason, some wines are bottled unfiltered.
STABILISATION
All wines change with time and so a winemaker will
consider a wine stable if, over a specified time frame,
COMMONELEMENTS
INWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 51
it changes in a slow, predictable manner. The time frame
and the amount of change deemed to be acceptable will
vary from wine to wine. For example, a high-volume
inexpensive red wine that should be consumed within a
year of production should not throw a deposit in bottle,
whereas a mature Vintage Port would be expected throw
a thick deposit over the course of the 50 to 60 years it
may spend in bottle . Fining, which helps with clarity, can
therefore also be seen as a stabilisation process because
it aims to produce a predictable outcome after bottling .
There are three other important areas that require
stabilisation:
Tartrate Stability
Tartaric acid is less soluble in wine than in grape juice
and over time it can form crystals called tartrates. These
appear as clear crystals in wh ite wine but as purple
crystals in red wine because they are stained by the
colour compounds. These crystals are harmless and
flavourless but for most consumers they spoil the
appearance of the wine. Cool temperatures accelerate the
formation of tartrate crystals and if a wine undergoes a
long maturation period in a cool cellar prior to bottling,
it will deposit some of its tartrates during maturation. In
situations where a long maturation is inappropriate,
winemakers can force the crystals to form prior to bottling
by chilling the wine down to below 0°C for a short period
52 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
of time. The crystals that form are removed by filtration.
As with fining and filtration, some winemakers choose
not to stabilise their wines in this way.
Microbiological Stability
Many different forms of yeast and bacteria can spoil a
wine and make it completely undrinkable and unfit for
sale.These microorganisms can thrive in grape and wine
residues, and therefore it is very important to keep
winery equipment completely clean. The only wines that
are not at any risk from microbiological contamination
are fortified wines because the high level of alcohol they
contain is toxic for all microorganisms. However, a dry,
high acid wine that has undergone MLF is naturally
quite resistant to microbiological spoilage. The alcohol,
acidity and the lack of nutrients mean that most yeast
or bacteria struggle to survive. This is not a complete
guarantee, but some winemakers prefer to take this
risk rather than sterile filter their wine, as described on
Alineupof different page 51.
packaging options; (from Wines that have not undergone MLF,as well as wines
leftto right)twosizesof that have low to medium alcohol, low acidity and a little
plasticbottles,a bag-in-box residual sugar, are particularly at risk from yeast or
andtwosizesof glass bacterial spoilage. Consequently, very careful handling
bottles. and an appropriate amount of 50 2 is required to keep
-
--=
these protected at all times. They are also sterile filtered
prior to packaging.
Oxygen Stability
If excessive levels of oxygen are dissolved in the wine,
or if oxygen can enter through the packaging, the wine
will oxidise, losing its fresh fruit aromas, and gradually
turn brown. The risk of oxidation can be minimised by
avoiding exposure to oxygen and keeping 50 2 levels
topped up. The winemaker must take a number of extra
precautions during packaging to ensure that oxygen
does not come into contact with the wine. For example,
bottles can be flushed with either carbon dioxide or
nitrogen before filling to eliminate oxygen.
PACKAGING
Bottles and Alternatives
The majority of wine worldwide is packaged in glass
bottles. They are portable, cheap to produce and quite
strong. Importantly, they do not allow air to get into the
wine, and they do not taint the wine's flavours . They
remain the consumer's preferred form of packaging.
The main disadvantages of bottles are that they are
heavy and rigid. Weight adds to transport costs, and
their rigidity means that they cannot be packed to make

the best use of the available space. To lower these costs,
a number of producers have started using lighter weight
glass bottles. Others now transport their wines in bulk to
be bottled in (or nearer to) the country where the wine
is to be sold.
The rigidity of glass bottles also means that once
opened, a part-filled bottle will contain a space for air,
at which point the wine is vulnerable to oxidation.
Plastic bottles are much lighter than glass. Unfortunately,
the plastics used for these allow small amounts of air to
pass through the plastic into the wine. This means that
wines packaged in plastic bottles can lose freshness and
fruitiness over a period of months . Bag-in-box packs are
another form of packaging often used for large volumes
of wine. The bag collapses as the wine is consumed,
preventing air from entering. However, some air can
still get through the wall of the bag and as a result most
bag-in-box packs need to be used within approximately
18 months of being filled. Plastic bottles and bag-in-box
packs are adequate for most wines, since they are
intended for early consumption, but for long-term storage
and ageing, glass bottles remain the best option.
Closures
A bottle, whether glass or plastic, will need some form
of closure to seal it. The closure must protect a wine from
harm until it is consumed. For many wines this will be
within a year of bottling and therefore a type of closure
may be chosen based on consumer factors such as ease
of use, or practical factors such as which closures a
bottling line is designed to use. For wines that are
intended for bottle maturation, however, the closure
must also allow the wine to mature positively . Different
types of closure vary in the amount of oxygen they allow
to enter the bottle over a set period of time . Similar to
maturation pre-bottling, a slow entry of very small
amounts of oxygen allows more tertiary flavours. In
contrast, by avoiding any contact with oxygen the wine
retains its fresh fruit flavours for longer . It is increasingly
clear that the closure is a winemaking choice specific
to the particular wine and the flavour profile the
winemaker wants to achieve. Some consumer markets
have very strong preferences on closure types and these
may sometimes override the choice of the winemaker.
COMMONELEMENTSINWINEMAKING
AND MATURATION 53
Alineupof different
closures;
(fromleftto right)
a corkforstillwine,a cork
forsparkling
wine,a stopper
cork,a synthetic
corkanda
screwcap.
Cork- This is the original wine bottle closure and it is
still the mostly widely used. It remains the closure of
choice for many wines that are intended for bottle
maturation as it allows a small amount of oxygen to
gradually enter the bottle achieving what many
winemakers would consider to be an optimal balance
between primary and tertiary characteristics. However,
a small but declining percentage of bottles with a cork
closure suffer cork taint, and a further proportion (which
increases with the age of the wine) allows too much
oxygen in, oxidising the wine. Cork taint is caused by a
chemical called TCA (trichloroanisole) which is present in
some corks and gives the wine a mouldy, cardboard-like
aroma. Cork producers have invested considerable sums
in developing treatments designed to prevent the
formation ofTCA with varying degrees of success.
Synthetic corks - These are generally made from some
form of plastic. Although these closures only used to be
suitable for wines to be consumed within a year of
bottling, there are now several premium versions on the
market that allow longer term storage .
Screw caps - This closure was championed by producers
from Australia and New Zealand and their usage has
grown rapidly in the past decade. They do not taint the
wine and they can provide an impermeable seal from the
air. Trials have shown that they preserve the fruit flavour
in the wine longer than cork. Consequently, they are
becoming increasingly popular for both white and red
wines where the winemaker wants to preserve primary
aromas. The lack of oxygen transfer means that there is
still some debate over how well wines that are destined
for long bottle ageing mature under screw cap. As a
result some screw caps do now permit some oxygen
transfer and research in this area is ongoing. Consumer
acceptance of screw caps can vary considerably
depending on the national market and the market
sector.
POST-BOTTLING MATURATION
The majority of wines are best consumed within a year of
bottling and ageing them results in a loss of fresh
primary fruit flavours. However, there are many wines
54 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

that can mature in bottle for several years and are not any ageing time should be spent undisturbed in a cool
at their best in the years immediately after bottling. dark place, with a constant temperature, ideally around
Some notable examples include Vintage Port, the finest 10-1 S C.There should also be constant humidity and, if
0

German Rieslings and crusclassesBordeaux. The sealed with cork, the bottles should be stored lying on
chemistry involved in this maturation process is still their side, so that the corks remain moist and an
poorly understood. However, it is widely agreed that optimum seal is maintained .
 WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 55

Relatively speaking, white winemaking is far

WhiteandSweetWinemaking
less involved compared with red winemaking. 8
This chapter will focus on winemaking options for white wine and then look at how high volume,
inexpensive wines and premium wines are made. It should be noted that although this chapter will focus
on the internationally important grape varieties Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling and Pinot
Grigio, there are numerous other grape varieties that can be made in similar styles, using the same
techniques. Sweet winemaking is largely (but not exclusively) the preserve of white wine and therefore
it will be covered in this chapter too.

IMPORTANT OPTIONS IN WHITE WINEMAKING Fermentation Temperature and Vessel

The processes and main choices involved in making
white wine can be seen in the diagram on page 57.
Throughout this process there are important decisions
that need to be made concerning skin contact, clarity of
the juice, fermentation temperature and vessel, the use
of lees, malolactic fermentation (MLF) and other
maturation options.
Skin Contact
In most instances, the juice spends little time in contact
with the skins in order to reduce the risk of oxidation.
The grapes are crushed, the free run juice is separated off
and the remaining grape mass is sent to the press.To
limit the contact between the juice and the skins further
some winemakers choose a different approach and load
the press with whole bunches of uncrushed grapes. This
process is gentle, reduces the risk of oxidation, and can
potentially lead to wines with more purity and delicacy.
However, in the case of certain aromatic varieties,
some winemakers choose to keep the juice in contact
with the skins for a short period to increase flavour
intensity and texture. This happens at a sufficiently cool
temperature to inhibit fermentation and usually only
lasts for a few hours.
Clarity of the Juice
Freshly pressed grape juice contains fragments of cells
from the grape skins and the pulp. If the juice is
fermented in this untreated state, unpleasant aromas
can form and the fermentation may even stop
prematurely. The juice therefore needs to be clarified
before fermentation begins. This can be done using the
same techniques used to clarify wine before bottling
(settling, centrifugation, fining and filtration). Some
winemakers choose to retain a small amount of these
fragments or 'solids' in the juice. It is thought that this
makes the finished wine less susceptible to oxidation,
and it can add complexity and a richer texture. However,
the risk of off-flavours forming means that this technique
is rarely used for wines that are intended to show pure
varietal character.
The optimum temperature for white wine fermentations
is between 12°C and 22°c. Fermentation at too low a
temperature results in the creation of pear drop aromas
and can fail to capture varietal fruit characters.
Fermentation at higher temperatures can encourage
more complex, non-fruit aromas to develop, but the risk
is that varietal fruit characteristics will be lost.
Where stainless steel fermentation vessels are used,
temperature control mechanisms are normally applied
to prevent temperatures running too high. White wines
may also be fermented in barrels. It is not as easy to
control fermentation temperatures in barrels but their
small size and the fact they are normally housed in cool
cellars means that they tend to dissipate heat effectively.
Nevertheless, fermentations in barrels still normally run
at the higher end of the temperature range.
Post-fermentation and Maturation Options
There are a number of important choices a winemaker
faces post-fermentation. First, a white wine may be
matured in oak or stored in inert vessels with or without
the addition of oak staves or chips. Second, the
winemaker may wish to use the fine lees to add texture
and flavour to their wine. Finally, the winemaker may
choose to allow or block MLF.
Blending
Blending may help the winemaker improve consistency,
enhance the balance of a wine and create a certain
style. Many white wines are based on pure primary fruit
flavours and for these styles the role of blending may
focus on ensuring consistency rather than on enhancing
complexity. The reverse may be true for some non-
aromatic varieties such as Chardonnay where the
winemaker may use varying amounts of lees contact,
MLF and oak treatment on different batches of wine.
These can then be blended together to achieve a more
complex style.
Clarification and Stabilisation
Most white wines will undergo some form of fining
56 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
and/ or filtration to improve the clarity and stability of
the wine. The relatively pale colour of most white wines
compared with red ones makes any haze or sediment
readily apparent. Also, white wines that contain some
residual sugar are at risk from microbiological infection
and in such cases the winemaker may wish to sterile
filter the wine to remove any yeast or bacteria that may
be present.
PRODUCING HIGH-VOLUME, INEXPENSIVE WHITE
WINES
These wines are widely produced and enjoyed by a large
proportion of wine consumers. They are not particularly
complex, nor are they designed to mature in bottle, but
for many they provide excellent value: an easy drinking
beverage, from a trusted source, at a reasonable price.
Some of these wines are made from a single variety and
will state the name of the grape variety used on the label
(varietal labelling). However, it can be easier to make
high volumes by blending different grape varieties.
These wines often do not mention grape variety and
instead are simply labelled 'dry white' or 'fruity white'.
The grape varieties that tend to be made into high -
volume, inexpensive wines are often fairly neutral in
flavour. Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio are classic
examples. The restrained varietal character of these
grapes means the wines they produce appeal to a wide
range of consumers. Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio are
also both easy to ripen, especially in warm climates. In
these regions the grapes can have insufficient acidity
at harvest but this can be corrected in the winery .
Chardonnay can be made in an unoaked style and
display pure fruity flavours such as peach and melon.
Alternatively the wines can be oaked, giving additional
flavours of vanilla and toast. Both styles may contain
some residual sugar to make them more palatable to a
wider range of consumers. Pinot Grigio is usually made
in an unoaked style, with light pear drop aromas and
flavours, a light body and medium acidity .
Due to its current popularity, Sauvignon Blanc is also
sometimes used to make high-volume inexpensive
wine but rarely at the lowest price points. The vigorous
nature of this grapevine lends itself to high yields,
but herbaceous flavours can dominate if the fruit is
underripe.
Winemaking Choices
Many of these wines are based on pure, simple primary
fruit flavours and careful handling in the winery is
required to avoid oxidation. 50 2 will be monitored
throughout the winemaking process and the juice and
wine are usually handled protectively. The grapes will be
destemmed and crushed, and then pressed. The grapes
for many high-volume, inexpensive wines are grown in
warm or hot regions and therefore acidification is one of
the most common adjustments made to these wines.
Chardonnay in particular can be flat and flabby when
acid levels are too low.
Before fermentation, the juice will be highly clarified to
ensure fruity flavours are retained during fermentation.
Settling using gravity may be too slow, tying up valuable
tank space for too long, therefore, where possible, the
winery may use a centrifuge or filter to speed up the
process.
Stainless steel tanks are the fermentation vessels of
choice for these wines. Fermenting at cool temperatures
can help to preserve as many primary fruit aromas and
flavours as possible. This is vital if the grapes have
relatively little flavour, for example when Pinot Grigio has
been grown to produce high yields. Commercial yeasts
will be used to ensure a quick, reliable fermentation.
If the winemaker wants to retain acidity and primary
fruit aromas, MLF will be prevented by chilling the wine
and adding 50 2 • The wine will also be racked off its lees
as soon as fermentation has finished and stored
temporarily in another inert vessel. Some Chardonnay
wines may undergo MLF if a soft, buttery style is desired.
Barrel ageing is an expensive and time-consuming
process and for this reason oak chips or staves may be
added to a stainless steel vessel to give a toasty flavour,
if required .
Many of these wines contain some residual sugar. This
is more often the case for Chardonnay than Pinot Grigio.
Often the wines will be fermented dry and then sugar,
in the form of unfermented grape juice or RCGM,will
be measured out and added. This allows the level of
sweetness to be precisely controlled .
The consumers who buy these products expect their
wine to be clear and bright and without sediment . For
this reason, these wines are typically stabilised, fined and
sterile filtered . Even though the shelf life of these wines
tends to be very short, 50 2 levels will be topped up at
bottling to minimise the risk of oxidation.
PRODUCING PREMIUM WHITE WINES
Premium white wine is a wide-ranging category.
Although a huge range of price points can be covered
under this heading, the common factor is that the main
focus of the winemaker is to make high-quality wine,
often at the expense of volume.
It must be noted that the explanations below are
generalisations and thus only cover some of the major
styles of wine made from each of the highlighted
varieties. Furthermore, the winemaking practices for
premium wines often do not follow a precise formula,
and the best winemakers will adapt their techniques
according to vintage conditions, vineyard plot, and the
style of wine they want to make. The choices of aromatic
and less-aromatic grape varieties will be looked at
separately.
Aromatic Grape Varieties: Sauvignon Blanc and
Riesling
Wines made from these grape varieties have
pronounced aromas and flavours . They include
Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling, as well as Muscat,
 WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 57

Gewurztraminer and Torrontes. The aim of the

MAKING DRY WHITE WINE
winemaker is to retain and enhance the primary fruit
character and aromatic potential of these grapes in the
final wine, and thus the steps in the winemaking process
will be tailored to achieve this particular style.

Sauvignon Blanc grapesorting

Sauvignon Blanc is a highly aromatic grape variety with
high acidity . It is early ripening so is well suited to cool
climates where the temperatures help to retain the destem
variety's refreshing characteristics. A number of wine
regions are capable of making high-quality Sauvignon
Blanc but the Loire Valley, France and Marlborough, New crush
Zealand are perhaps the most famous. Sauvignon Blanc
wines from Sancerre and Pouilly Fume in the Loire Valley
show elegance and restraint. The cool climate gives skincontact
aromas and flavours of green apple and asparagus often
with a hint of wet pebbles. Marlborough is similarly cool
but long hours of intense sunlight give wines with very press
vibrant flavours. The wines display powerful aromas of
gooseberry, elderflower, grapefruit and passion fruit.
Some may also have herbaceous notes. Other classic New
World countries producing fresh, fruity Sauvignon Blanc press
juice
include South Africa and Chile. Margaret River in Western
Australia also produces high-quality Sauvignon Blanc,
but here it is frequently blended with Semillon to give a
slightly less aromatic but fuller bodied wine. In most
cases, wines made from Sauvignon Blanc are best drunk
young while their intense fruity flavours are still fresh. alcoholic
fermentation
There are also some examples of Sauvignon Blanc PROCESS
where the winemaker takes a very different approach __J musthappen
and uses techniques more associated with the rackoffgrosslees
winemaker's
choice
production of non-aromatic varieties. Pessac-Leognan
in Bordeaux is the classic region where this style is INPUT/OUTPUT
malolactic
fermentation
common. The wine is fermented and matured in at least
alwayspresent
a proportion of oak giving a rounder body to the wine,
and spicy toasty notes. In Pessac-Leognan, Sauvignon winemaker's
choice
Blanc is blended with the non-aromatic Semillon grape, newlymadewine
which further adds to the body and richness of the wine.
Some New World countries also make a small proportion
of oak matured Sauvignon Blanc as a point of difference
from their usual fresh, fruity wines. Both California and
New Zealand are noted for doing this. These oaked
styles will be covered in section Other styles ofSauvignon newlymadewine maturation

~
Blanc on page 60.

Riesling
Riesling is capable of producing a variety of wine styles
from different regions in the wine world. It is very
tolerant of cold winters and buds late so avoids spring clarification
andstabilisation
frosts, making it suitable for cool climates. In such
locations it can produce wines with green fruit flavours
and often floral notes. In warmer climates it becomes packaging
richer in flavour, with more predominant citrus and
stone fruit, but arguably loses some delicacy. Riesling is
mid - to late-ripening depending on the style of wine winefor sale
being produced; left on the vine it can accumulate sugar
without losing its naturally high acidity, and is therefore
58 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

SWEETWINEMAKING
Most wines are fermented to dryness: the yeast consume all the sugars present in the juice. Sweet wines contain
unfermented sugar and they can be made in a number of ways:

Stopping
theFermentation Thespreadofnoblerotisneveruniform andseveralpickings byhand
Fortification
(theadditionofgrapespirit)isthetraditional
wayof maybeneededtoselectthebestgrapes. Thisisanexpensive processasit
stoppingfermentationwhilesugarisstillpresent.
Thiskillstheyeast requires
skilled
labourovera prolongedperiodoftime.Furthermore, in
andnofurtherfermentation ispossible,
although it radically
alters someregionsfamous forthisstyleofwine,suchasSauternes, theideal
thestructuralbalanceofthewine.(FortifiedWinesarecovered in conditions
fornoblerotdonotoccureveryyear.Ifconditions aretoo
Chapters43- 45.) dampthefunguswilldevelop toorapidly
andcausegreyrot,splitting the
Fermentationcanalsobestoppedbyaddinga highdoseof501 orby grapeberries
andencouraging infections.
Although Botrytis
cinereaisthe
chilling
thefermenting wine.Thiswinemustbefilteredto remove any causeofbothnobleandgreyrot,thetermbotrytisisfrequently usedas
remainingyeast.Oncethishasbeendoneit isvitalthatnoyeastcome a synonymfornoblerot,andtheterm'botrytised'isoftenseenonsweet
intocontactwiththewinebecause fermentation willthenresume. This winelabels.
isanapproach usedforhigh-quality
German Kabinett andSpiitlese
as
wellassweetsparkling winessuchasAstifromItaly.Stopping the Dryinggrapes to aspasserillage.
onthevine- Thisisoftenreferred
fermentationbyadding501 orchillingtypically
resultsinwinesthat Oncegrapeshavereached fullsugarripenesstheybeginto dehydrate and
arelowinalcohol. turnto raisinsonthevine,increasing
thesugarconcentrationinthejuice.
Warmdryautumns areneededforthisto happenorelsegreyrotcan
Adding
a Sweetening
Component develop.Thesewineshaveanover-ripe fruitcharacter
(driedfruit,tropical
Insomecountries,
particularly
Germany,medium-sweet winescanbe fruits)anda richly
texturedmouthfeel.Wines madeinthiswayare
createdbytheaddition
ofunfermentedgrapejuice,orSussreserve. Thisis sometimes labelledasLateHarvest.
madebyfiltering
thejuicebeforefermentationstarts,orbydosingitwith
501. Sussreserve
isaddedtodrywineswhentheyarereadyto bebottled. Dryinggrapes afterpicking - Thiscauseshealthy
harvestedgrapesto
Rectified
Concentrated
GrapeMust(RCGM) canalsobeusedtoachieve dehydrate,againconcentrating
thesugarinthejuice.Conditions
mustbe
thesameeffectandisoftenusedtoadda littlesweetness to high-volume dryandwarmforthisto besuccessful, andcaremustbetakento remove
inexpensive
wines. allrottengrapesortherotwillspread
. Thistechnique
isusedinthe
productionofthepassito
winesofItaly,suchasRecioto dellaValpolicella
Concentrating
GrapeSugars DOCG. Thewinescanhavea raisinyquality.
Manyofthebestsweetwinescomefromgrapesthatareextremely rich
insugar.Thiscanbeachieved
ina numberofdifferent
ways,allofwhich Freezing grapesonthevine- Healthy grapesarelefthanging onthe
concentrate
acidsandflavours
at thesametime. vineintothewintermonths . Whenfreezingtemperatures arrive,the
waterinthegrapepulpturnsto ice.Whenthegrapesarepicked and
Noblerot- Thisisusedintheproduction ofmostoftheverybest pressed,
thisiceremainsinthepressandthesugarcontentofthe
sweetwineincludingSauternes, andBeerenauslesen
Tokaji, and resulting
juiceisincreased
. Thistechnique
isusedto produce Eiswein in
Trockenbeerenauslesen
fromGermany andAustria. Itiscausedbythe Germany andlcewine inCanada. Thesewineshavea verypurevarietal
fungusBotrytiscinerea.
Thisisthesamefungusthatcausesgreyrot; character.
Thesameeffectcanbereplicated artificially
byfreezing picked
however,underspecific
conditionsnoblerotcanforminstead . First,the grapesat a winery.
grapesmustbefullyripebeforethedevelopment oftherot.Second, the
grapesmustbegrownina regionthatprovides humidmistymornings Whensweetwinesaremadebygrapesugarconcentration techniques,
followedbysunnydryafternoons. Damp conditionsinthemorning allow thealcoholic
fermentationstopsnaturally
whentheyeasthaveconverted
rotto develop
onthegrapes. Thefunguspunctures thegrapeskinwith asmuchsugarintoalcohol astheycan.Thiscanhappenat quitelow
microscopic
filaments,
leavingtinyholesintheskin.Thewarmsunny levelsofalcohol,
sometimes aslowas7%abv,because yeaststruggle
afternoons
slowthedevelopment oftherotandcausewaterto evaporate to survive
inverysugaryenvironments.
German Trockenbeerenaus/esen
fromthegrape,concentratingitsacids,flavours
andsugars. Thefungus areclassic
examplesofthisstyle.
alsogeneratesitsownuniqueflavoursinthegrape.Wines madefrom
grapesaffectedbynoblerothavedistinctivehoney, apricot,
citruszest
anddriedfruitaromas.
 WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 59

perfect for making well-balanced wines in a range of

sweetness levels. It is also widely used to make
botrytised dessert wines.
Riesling is one of the most long-lived white wines,
renowned for its ability to mature for years and
sometimes decades in bottle and still taste surprisingly
fresh. When mature, Rieslings develop flavours of honey
and toast, but still retain high levels of acidity. Some
Rieslings develop aromas that are often described as
petrol-like.
Germany is the homeland of Riesling. German Riesling
can be made in a range of sweetness levels. The sweet
wines are typically made from botrytised grapes. In
premium wines any sweetness, regardless of its level, is
always perfectly balanced against high acidity, creating
wines that can be very concentrated yet refreshing at
the same time. In Europe, Alsace and Austria also make
premium Rieslings. In Austria, Riesling can be made in a
full range of sweetness levels, but most wines are either
dry or very sweet. Alsace mainly specialises in dry
Rieslings; late harvest and botrytised sweet wines are
Botrytls
cinerea:
the fungusisclearto seeonthe grapeskins. made when vintage conditions permit.
Australia is well known for its Rieslings, particularly
those from the Clare and Eden Valleys. They are often
bone dry, with refreshing high acidity and many display
aromas of lime. Dry Rieslings are also made in
Washington State, USA. A fruity, off-dry style of Riesling
is generally produced in New Zealand and the Finger
Lakes AVA of New York State, USA.

Winemaking Choices
Aromatic grapes and juice need to be handled carefully
to retain the fruit and floral aromas of the freshly picked
grapes. 50 2 levels will be monitored throughout the
winemaking process. Crushed fruit or whole bunches
may be loaded into the press, either immediately or
after a little skin contact depending on the winemaker's
approach. The juice must be relatively clean before
thegrapeshaveshrivelled
Passer/I/age: butremain
fungusfree. fermentation to ensure there is nothing in the juice
that could mask the fruit flavours. A gentle method of
clarification will usually be used, such as settling.
Inert vessels are generally used for the fermentation
of aromatic varieties; any extraction of flavour from the
vessel may interfere with the pure fruit character from
the grapes. Stainless steel is often the material of choice
for New Zealand producers of both Sauvignon Blanc
and Riesling, allowing easy temperature control. Large
old oak vessels (foudres) are sometimes used for Riesling
in Alsace allowing a small amount of oxidation to take
place; this can enhance the texture of the wine and
add a little complexity to the flavours without adding
unwanted oak aromas. Cool fermentation temperatures
give a slow, steady fermentation, as well as encourage
the formation of primary fruit aromas and flavours in the
wine. The choice of yeast depends on the approach of
the winemaker.
Frozen
grapes:
thegrapeshavebeenleftonthevinetofreezeinthewinter.
Sauvignon Blanc will usually be fermented until dry;
Riesling on the other hand can be made in a whole
60 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
range of styles from dry to lusciously sweet. Premium -
quality sweet Riesling wines will generally be made by
prematurely stopping fermentation either by chilling or
adding 50 2, leaving the desired level of residual sugar.
For the sweetest Riesling wines made from botrytised
grapes, the fermentation stops naturally.
Aromatic grape varieties generally see very little post-
fermentation winemaking before bottling. High acidity is
a desirable feature in both Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling,
and therefore MLF is avoided by adding 50 2 to the wine
straight after fermentation. The buttery aromas that can
sometimes result from MLF may also interfere with the
pronounced fruit aromas of the wine. Riesling may
undergo a period of lees contact to add texture and
flavours. Aromatic grape varieties will generally be
bottled as soon as possible after fermentation; the
aromas gained from maturation in new oak are usually
not desirable. However, in Alsace, and sometimes in
Germany, Riesling may be kept in large old oak vats for
up to a year.
Riesling is rarely blended with other grape varieties.
Sauvignon Blanc is also usually a varietal wine, but, as
mentioned above, it may be blended with Semillon for
greater body as seen in some Bordeaux whites and the
wines of Western Australia.
Other styles of Sauvignon Blanc - To create the
creamy, spicy style of some Fume Blanc in California and
the whites of Pessac-Leognan in Bordeaux, Sauvignon
Blanc is barrel fermented. The winemaker may favour
ambient yeasts to achieve a greater complexity of
flavours. The wines are then matured on their lees for a
number of months during which time they will usually
undergo MLF.It is common to use new oak barrels for
at least a proportion of the wine.
LessAromatic Grape Varieties: Chardonnay and
Pinot Gris/Grigio
Chardonnay and Pinot Gris/Grigio are both more neutral
in aroma and flavour than Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling.
This can be very positive from a winemaker's point of
view, as they can arguably play a more active role in
influencing the style of the final wine. The key aim for
less aromatic varieties is to enhance the base material
provided by the grapes. This may be achieved by doing
relatively little and keeping the grape flavours in a
relatively pure form. Alternatively, the winemaker may
choose to use a range of techniques to add more
complexity and texture to the wine.
Chardonnay
Chardonnay can be grown and ripened without much
difficulty in a wide variety of climates. It is, however, early
budding, which means that it can suffer in areas where
spring frosts are common. In cool climates Chardonnay
can display flavours of green fruit and citrus, whereas in
more moderate climates the flavours lean more towards
fleshy fruits, such as white peach and melon. In warm
and hot regions ripe tropical fruits, such as banana and
pineapple, are typical. In such climates Chardonnay can
lose acidity quickly towards the end of the ripening
process, and thus the timing of the harvest is critical.
The subtle aromas and flavours of Chardonnay make
it the perfect blank canvas for a host of different
winemaking techniques. Purely focusing on Burgundy
in France, Chardonnay can take many different forms.
In the north of the region, the wines of Chablis often
have high acidity and show green apple and citrus
notes, sometimes with a hint of wet stones and slate. In
the Cote d'Or, the best wines combine subtle notes of
stone fruit with creamy oak flavours. Further south in
the Maconnais, the wines can be even more ripe and
rounded, with hints of toasty oak. Most wines go
through MLF and many producers use extended lees
ageing. With age the best wines develop complex
aromas of nuts and/or mushrooms.
Outside of Burgundy the style of Chardonnay, and
therefore the techniques used to make it, are more
dependent on the preferences of the individual
winemaker rather than the traditions of a particular wine
region. Many used to be heavily oaked but producers of
premium Chardonnay are now heading firmly away from
this style ofwinemaking. Regions that have built up a
reputation for premium Chardonnay include Russian
River Valley and Los Carneros in California; Adelaide Hills,
Geelong and Mornington Peninsula in Australia; Gisborne
and Marlborough in New Zealand; and Casablanca Valley
in Chile. However, this is not an exhaustive list and high-
quality Chardonnay wines are made in nearly every
winemaking country.
Pinot Gris/Grigio
This grape variety is called Pinot Gris in France and Pinot
Grigio in Italy. The wines from these two countries can
be very different in style. In other countries, winemakers
will generally, but not always, choose to label their wines
Pinot Gris or Pinot Grigio to indicate whether their wine
is more similar to the French or Italian style.
Premium Pinot Gris/Grigio wines can often be almost
unrecognisable from the huge volumes of less expensive
Pinot Grigios on the market .
Pinot Gris/Grigio is early budding and early ripening,
and in warm climates or when left on the vine it can
accumulate high sugar levels, but lose much acidity.
Alsace is the classic French region for this variety where
the wines are usually dry or off-dry, often with an oily
texture, ripe tropical fruit flavours and a hint of ginger
and honey . The grape skins often have a deep colour,
meaning that these wines can be golden in appearance.
A number of winemakers in New Zealand also label their
wines as Pinot Gris. These wines have the same viscous
mouthfeel and medium acidity, but usually show more
pure fruit flavours, and often have slightly more residual
sugar. Tasmania, Australia and Oregon, USA also make
Pinot Gris in a rich and often dry style.
The regions of Alto Adige, Trentino and Friuli- Venezia

Giulia in north -east Italy make high-quality Pinot Grigio
wines in a dry style. The wines here can show a much
greater depth of flavour than the cheaper versions made
in high volumes from the Veneto plain. The choice of
clone can be influential here as well as climate and
viticulture . The premium Pinot Grigios from the northerly
alpine regions of Italy are made from the Pinot Gris/
Grigio clones typically found in Germany and France,
which have small berries and are capable of greater
flavour concentration. By contrast, the high volume,
inexpensive Pinot Grigio wines from the Veneto tend to
be produced from a clone known for its pale skin and
large fleshy pulp . It produces relatively neutral wines,
especially when combined with high yields and early
harvesting.
Winemaking Choices
Winemakers face a range of options during the
winemaking process for less aromatic grape varieties
depending on the style they want to produce . As with
aromatic varieties, the grapes can either be crushed or
loaded into the press as whole bunches; the latter
technique being common for Chardonnay. For some
non-aromatic grape varieties, controlled exposure
to oxygen at this stage is often thought to improve
the wine's ability to age. This technique would be
detrimental for more aromatic grape varieties causing
them to lose some of their delicate aromas.
Clarification is likely to be carried out using a gentle
method such as settling. Depending on the style of wine
being produced, the winemaker may choose to leave
some solid matter in the grape juice for added
complexity and texture .
WHITEAND SWEETWINEMAKING 61
LEES
STIRRING
1. Thewinemaker
usesa rodto stirtheleesinthe barrel.
Therodislowered
to
the bottomofthebarrel,
wherea layerof leeshascollected
overtime.
2. Therodisdragged
through
theleesto stirthemup.
3.Withcontinuous
stirring
the leesbecomefullymixedintothewine.
Fermentation may take place in a range of vessels.
Stainless steel or concrete may be used to retain fresh
fruit flavours and are often seen in the production of
Chablis, the Pinot Grigios from north-east Italy, and Pinot
Gris from New Zealand. Large, old oak vessels are more
commonly used for Pinot Gris in Alsace. Small, new oak
barrels can be used to give toasty flavours and a rounder
texture , as seen with Chardonnay from the Cote d'Or.
Fermentation temperatures and the choice of yeast may
vary. Some Pinot Gris style wines contain residual sugar.
Winemakers in New Zealand may ensure their wines are
made in this style by prematurely stopping the
fermentation by chilling or adding SO2 • In Alsace, the
high degree of ripeness in the grapes may mean that the
fermentation stops naturally, leaving some residual
sugar.
There is an even greater range of options open to the
winemaker after fermentation . A substantial amount of
flavour can be added to wine made from non-aromatic
varieties at this stage. One of the most fundamental
decisions is whether to put the wine through barrel
maturation and, if so, whether all the wine or just a small
proportion will be matured in oak. New oak barriques
may be used to impart the toasty flavours often found
in Cote d'Or and New World Chardonnays. Older oak
and larger barrels, more typically used in the production
of Chablis and Pinot Gris/Grigio, impart less flavour but
still allow a gentle oxidation to promote complexity . In
contrast, a short storage period in stainless steel or
concrete will retain fresh fruit flavours.
MLF may be encouraged in non-aromatic varieties to
give the wines a rounder, creamier mouthfeel. It is used
in almost all the premium white wines of Burgundy,
62 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
including Chablis, where it helps to soften sharp acidity.
However, because MLF decreases the perception of
acidity and diminishes primary fruit flavours, it may not
be desirable for fruity styles of wine. Extended contact
with the fine lees is another technique that is often used
in the production of both Chardonnay and Pinot Gris to
give a richer, rounder mouthfeel. Many winemakers
enhance these effects using a technique called lees
stirring . This involves breaking up the sediment of fine
lees and mixing it with the wine.
Premium Chardonnay and Pinot Gris are not usually
blended with other grape varieties.
 RED AND ROS~WINEMAKING 63

Red winemaking is more involved than white

RedandRose
Winemaking
winemaking because the grapes must be fermented 9
on their skins in order to extract both colour and tannin. This chapter will focus on the various ways
in which colour and tannin can be extracted and how winemakers use these techniques to make
inexpensive and premium red wines. As in the previous chapter there will also be a focus on
internationally important grape varieties, in this case Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir,
Syrah/Shiraz and Grenache/Garnacha.

The processes and main choices involved in making red
wine can be seen in the diagram on page 65. The key to
red winemaking is the successful extraction of colour and
tannin from the skins of black grapes, which is achieved
by including the skins in the fermentation vessel.This
has two important consequences. First, there are
considerably more options to consider before, during and
after fermentation than is the case in white winemaking .
Second, pressing happens after fermentation and not
before. Note also that in red winemaking malolactic
fermentation (MLF) is standard practice rather than a
stylistic choice as it is in white winemaking.
CRUSHED FRUIT FERMENTATION
The vast majority of fruit used in red winemaking is
destemmed and crushed. Therefore the techniques that
are linked to this approach will be considered first.
Pre-fermentation Extraction
Once the fruit has been crushed, some winemakers
prefer to leave the grapes to macerate for a period at a
low temperature before allowing the fermentation to
start. This is sometimes referred to as cold maceration or
cold soaking. The purpose of this maceration is to extract
colour and flavour compounds . Tannins are more soluble
in alcoholic solutions and are therefore not readily
extracted at this point in the winemaking process.
Temperature Control During Fermentation
Red wine fermentation temperatures usually range
between 20°c and 32°C, depending on the style being
made. These temperatures, which are higher than
those used in white winemaking, are necessary to aid
extraction of colour, flavour and tannin. However, care
must be taken to ensure that the temperature does not
exceed 35°( as this may kill the yeast. Precise control of
temperature during the fermentation process can allow
the winemaker to influence the amounts of colour ,
flavour and tannin that are extracted. For example,
although tannins become more soluble as alcohol levels
rise, a winemaker can reduce their extraction by lowering
the temperature towards the end of the fermentation.
Cap Management Techniques
If left to itself, a fermenting red wine will soon have a
thick mass of pulp and skins on its surface. This mass is
known as the cap. If the cap is left to float, little colour,
flavour or tannin w ill be extracted from it. There are
many different cap management techniques a
winemaker can use to overcome this, and these methods
may be combined or used at different stages of the
fermentation. The level of extraction can be controlled
by altering the duration of each technique and the
number of times this is practised each day.
Punching down - Traditionally this meant punching
the cap down by hand with paddles on the end of sticks.
This posed certain dangers for the winery workers, as
there was always the possibility of someone being
intoxicated by carbon dioxide . Today, the same effect can
be achieved with mechanical paddles. This is a widely
practised technique and is very effective at extracting
colour and tannin. Consequently, winemakers need to
take care not to overwork the cap by punching down
too vigorously or too often. This is particularly important
at the end of the fermentation when tannins are more
easily extracted. If too much tannin is extracted, the
finished wine can taste overly bitter and astringent.
Pumping over - This involves drawing off fermenting
juice from the bottom of the vat and pumping it up on
to the top, wetting the cap. Pumping over is a popular
extraction technique and is a good way of dissipating
heat and oxygenating the juice .
Rack and return - The fermenting juice is drained from
the fermenting vessel into another vessel, leaving the
cap behind. The juice is then pumped back over the
cap. This is normally only used once or twice during a
fermentation as it can be very extractive . Like pumping
over, it is a very good way of dissipating heat.
Rotary fermenters - Fermentation takes place in
rotating horizontal tanks. This keeps the juice in constant
contact with the skins.
Fermentation Vessels
These cap management techniques mean that red wines
are usually fermented in large vessels. Many are open -
topped so that the grape skins can be worked easily:
64 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
these vessels can be made from oak, concrete or stainless
steel. Fermentation in oak barrels is impractical for red
wines as it would be almost impossible to maintain
sufficient contact between the skins and the juice.
Post-fermentation Extraction
Maceration after fermentation encourages the further
extraction of tannin, which may or may not be desirable.
Therefore, the length of time that the wine stays on its
skins once fermentation is complete depends on the
style of wine being made. Some winemakers have found
that very long periods of post -fermentation maceration
can help to create a smoother tannin structure.
Press Wine
When the maceration has finished, the free run wine is
drawn off the skins and the remaining mass is pressed,
creating press wine. At the start of pressing, this press
wine may be similar in composition to the free run wine,
but as pressing continues the wine becomes deeper in
colour and higher in tannin. Some winemakers will
separate the wine from different stages in the pressing
(these are called press fractions). Later press fractions
may then be used to adjust colour and tannin in the final
blend.
WHOLE BUNCH FERMENTATIONS
As has been noted, the vast majority of red wines are
made solely with crushed fruit. However, some
winemakers include whole bunches of uncrushed grapes
in the fermentation. In some cases the uncrushed fruit
may make up the entire vat; in others, only a small
percentage may be used to make a more subtle
contribution to the flavour of the wine. Importantly, if
whole bunches are used, the winemaker must ensure
that the grape stems are fully ripe: if not, the tannins in
the stems can give the finished wine an undesirable
bitter taste.
The objective of this technique is to create an oxygen-
free environment for the uncrushed fruit. This lack of
oxygen has a number of outcomes. First,the berries create
some alcohol in their cells, without the involvement of
any yeast. This is referred to as intracellular fermentation.
Second, and more importantly, a range of distinctive fruity
aromas is created inside the berry, which gives wines
made in this way unique qualities.
There are three forms of whole bunch fermentation:
Carbonic maceration - This involves placing only whole,
uncrushed bunches into vats that are then filled with CO2
to remove all the oxygen. This causes the intracellular
fermentation to start. Once the level of alcohol in the
grape reaches 2 per cent the grape skins start to split and
the grapes release their juice. The grapes are generally
pressed at this stage to separate the juice from the skins.
Yeast then complete the fermentation off the skins.
Importantly, this method extracts colour from the
grapes, but little tannin, and the resulting wines are soft
and full of fruit, with distinctive notes of kirsch, banana,
bubble gum and cinnamon-like spice.
Semi-carbonic maceration - This is a similar but slightly
different technique that does not involve filling the vats
with CO2 • The vats are filled with whole bunches . The
grapes at the bottom of the vat are crushed under the
weight of the grapes above and some juice is released.
Ambient yeast start to ferment the juice. This
fermentation produces CO2 , which fills the vat and the
remaining intact berries undergo carbonic maceration.
As the intact grapes begin to split and release their juice
the grapes are pressed and yeast complete the
fermentation off the skins.
Some notable premium Pinet Noirs are made using
this technique although the alcoholic fermentation
continues on the skins. In this instance the grapes will be
progressively broken up using punching down over the
course of the first few days. An ever-decreasing amount
of carbonic maceration takes place until all the grapes
are broken up. The alcoholic fermentation will then
continue on the skins and may be followed by a post-
fermentation maceration . This approach can result in
a better integration of the aromas from intracellular
fermentation with aromas from the grape variety. It
results in wines with a fresher fruit character.
Whole bunches with crushed fruit - A further variation
is to mix whole bunches with crushed grapes in the
fermenting vessel at the start of the fermentation.
Although the whole bunches in the vat are not
blanketed in (0 2, they are largely submerged by the
crushed grapes and kept away from oxygen, therefore
intracellular fermentation takes place. The whole
bunches are progressively crushed during the
fermentation as the cap is regularly punched down.
More 'carbonic' characteristics can be achieved by raising
the percentage of whole bunches that are present at
the start of the fermentation. This technique is thought
to give the wine a silkier texture and a brighter, fresher
fruit character.
MATURATION OPTIONS
The option of whether or not to use oak is perhaps the
most important decision when it comes to pre-bottling
maturation in red wine production. Virtually all red
wines undergo MLF and their more robust flavours and
textures, compared with most white wines, mean they
generally benefit less from extended time on their lees.
Oak is widely used in red winemaking. As with white
wines, this may be in the form of oak barrels, or oak
staves or chips that have been added to an inert vessel.
The trend for winemakers to mature their premium red
wines entirely in small new oak barrels is declining in
most wine regions. Now, many wine producers are
aiming for greater subtlety and integration, using oak
vessels of different ages and larger sizes. However, a
winemaker's best wines will still often be aged for longer
 RED AND ROSE WINEMAKING 65

MAKING DRY RED AND ROSEWINE

grapes coverwithC02 carbonic
~
maceration

direct
grapesorting ....... •
wholebunches __.. semi
-carbonic
maceration
drainandpress

7
pressing
destem

crush juice

crushed
fruit

Sometimes
pre-fermentation
maceration semi-carbonic
Sometimeswhole fermentations malolactic
bunches
areadded continue
onthe fermentation
shortperiod tocrushed
fruit. skins
.
alcoholic
fermentation
onskins
newlymadewine
post-fermentation
maceration

drain
•
blending

freerunwine
+ l
clarification
and
stabilisation

skins press packaging

wineforsale

malolactic
fermentation malolactic
fermentation

blendwith
whitewine ~

blending
CRUSHED WHOLE
FRUIT BUNCH
maturation OPTIONS OPTIONS

otherwine otherwine PROCESS

• t
blending
musthappen
winemaker's
choice

clarification
andstabilisation INPUT
/OUTPUT
musthappen
winemaker's
choice
packaging

ROSE
OPTIONS
wineforsale
66 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
and with more new oak than their lower level wines. The
best wines will usually be made with higher-quality,
more concentrated fruit that can support a greater level
of new oak flavours.
BLENDING
The blending of two or more grape varieties is fairly
common in red wine production, and is often used to
enhance or balance out certain aspects of the wine, such
as colour, body, tannin, acidity or flavour. The use of
different press fractions to boost the colour, flavour and
tannin of the more delicate free run wine is another
widely practised technique. The wine's complexity can
also be enhanced by blending wines matured in oak
vessels of different ages, sizes and toasting levels. If a
more subtle oak influence is sought, a winemaker may
blend wines matured in oak with wines matured in
stainless steel or concrete vessels.
Clarification and Stabilisation
The majority of red wines will undergo some form of
fining and/or filtration to improve the clarity and stability
of the wine. However, some winemakers avoid these
processes believing that they harm the wine's structure.
Gradual sedimentation naturally occurs on all wines that
are subjected to a long maturation before bottling,
improving the clarity of these wines without filtration.
PRODUCING HIGH-VOLUME, INEXPENSIVE RED WINES
The grape-growing areas responsible for high-volume,
inexpensive wines tend to be warm, sunny and dry, and
for that reason the black grape varieties used are those
that can thrive in these climates. Cabernet Sauvignon,
Merlot, Syrah/Shiraz and Grenache/Garnacha are all ideal
candidates. Not only are they all suited to warm or hot
climates, but due to the concentration of colours,
tannins and flavours in their skins, they can produce
fruity wines with adequate colour even at high yields.
Compared with premium wines from each grape variety,
these high-volume red wines may display less colour,
lighter tannins, and less intense and complex aromas
and flavours. Often, the specific characteristics that make
these grape varieties so distinct can be diminished,
leading to wines that can seem quite homogeneous.
By contrast, Pinot Noir is a grape that is rarely used in
the production of high-volume, inexpensive wines. It is
hard to grow, prefers cool climates and it can be difficult
to extract enough colour and tannin when grown at
high yields. It is therefore less suited to high-volume
winemaking compared with many other grapes.
As with white wines, high -volume, inexpensive red
wines may either come from a single grape variety or be
a blend of varieties. Blended wines may be labelled with
a description of the style such as 'fruity red'.
Winemaking Choices
Typically these wines are made in a fruity, low-tannin
style. To retain fresh, primary fruit characters, the juice
and wine are usually handled protectively with 50 2
levels being monitored throughout the winemaking
process. The grapes for these wines are usually
destemmed and crushed on arrival at the winery . Due to
the warm or hot climates where most of these grapes are
grown, tartaric acid may need to be added to raise the
acidity. A pre-fermentation maceration may take place,
but this process can tie up vat space and therefore is not
always possible in a high throughput winery .
Fermentations will generally take place using
commercial yeast at around 22°C to 25°C in order to
maximise fresh fruit flavours. Different wineries may use
different fermentation vessels; these can be static and/or
rotary. The frequency of cap management procedures
will vary according to the exact style of wine being
produced and the grape variety, but typically the cap will
not be heavily worked . Post-fermentation maceration is
generally avoided due to constraints on vat space and
time, and also because the additional tannins this can
extract are often not desirable in these easy-drinking
styles. If extra structure is needed, the winemaker may
macerate a small proportion of wine and blend it with
the remainder before bottling .
Fruity wines with low tannins can also be produced by
carbonic or semi-carbonic maceration. These techniques
are often used on inexpensive wines made from
Grenache, and are also widely used on basic Beaujolais.
There are many options open to the winemaker
regarding the maturation of the new wine. The
winemaker can choose to store the wine in stainless steel
until bottling, making a wine with pure fruit flavours.
Sometimes, a period of oak ageing may be used to smooth
any harsh tannins and add spicy or toasty flavours. Oak
maturation for these wines may only be a matter of
months, and if barrels are used, they will usually be second-
or third-fill (on their second or third usage), with new
barrels reserved for higher-quality wines . Alternatively,
oak staves or chips may be added to stainless steel or
concrete vats to obtain toasty flavours quickly.
Just as with white wines at this quality level,
consumers expect high-volume, inexpensive red wines
to be clear and without sediment. The wines are typically
stabilised, fined and sterile filtered before bottling . Even
though the shelf life of these wines tends to be very
short, 50 2 levels will be topped up at bottling to reduce
the risk of oxidation.
PRODUCING PREMIUM RED WINES
Cabernet Sauvignon
Cabernet Sauvignon is a thick -skinned variety and
therefore has an abundance of colour, flavour and
tannin. It is also late ripening and in some of the cooler
places in which it is grown, it can struggle to ripen fully if
the weather is poor, giving wines with astringent tannins
and herbaceous flavours.
Cabernet Sauvignon is the classic grape of the Haut-
Medoc in Bordeaux. Here, it makes long -lived wines that
often display grippy tannins in their youth, together with

some cedar and blackcurrant leaf aromas. With age, the
tannins soften and the flavours become more expressive.
The wines are usually blended with a proportion of
Merlot, which ripens earlier and gives juicy plum fruit
flavours and a smoother texture to the wine. Within
Europe, Cabernet Sauvignon is also found in the south of
France, in Italy and in Spain. In these regions, Cabernet
Sauvignon is generally blended with indigenous grape
varieties, such as Sangiovese in Italy and Tempranillo in
Spain.
Outside of Europe, Cabernet Sauvignon is seen in both
varietal and blended styles. The ripeness it attains from
the warm temperatures and long hours of bright sunlight
in many regions of these countries gives full-bodied
wines with ripe blackcurrant and black cherry notes and
smooth tannins . Classic regions include the Napa Valley
in California; Coonawarra and Margaret River in Australia;
Hawke's Bay in New Zealand; Stellenbosch in South
Africa; and Colchagua Valley in Chile.
In the winery, Cabernet Sauvignon is usually
destemmed and crushed . The stems on whole bunches
of this variety can often give a herbaceous and
astringent character to the wines and are therefore
discarded. Cabernet's thick skins mean that it is capable
of producing wines that are deep in colour. The
winemaker may choose to maximise the extraction of
colour from the grape skins by leaving the grapes to
macerate before fermentation begins.
Fermentation temperatures for Cabernet Sauvignon
tend to range from 26°C to 30°C, warm enough for
sufficient extraction yet cool enough to promote fresh
fruit flavours. Cabernet Sauvignon grapes have high
levels of tannin , and therefore high temperatures and
extractive cap management techniques are generally
avoided towards the end of fermentation, especially if the
tannins are not fully ripe. A period of post-fermentation
maceration, however, may be used to encourage a more
gentle extraction of tannin and to soften existing tannins .
The structure of Cabernet Sauvignon wines means
they are well-suited to oak maturation and bottle ageing.
ROS~WINEMAKING
In basic terms, rose wines can be made in one of three ways (see flow chart Making Dry Redand RoseWineon
page 65). In all cases oak is rarely used.
DirectPressing
Theblackgrapesarecrushed andpressed inthesamewayasinwhite
wineproduction.Thisextracts
a littlecolourfromtheskinbutcarehas temperaturesasifitwerea whitewine.
to betakennottoextracttoomuchtannin.Thismethodoftenproduces
themostdelicately
colouredrosewines.
ShortMaceration
Blackgrapesarecrushedandallowed to maceratetoextractflavour
and butsomefruity,inexpensive NewWorldrosewinesaremadeinthis
colour.
Thedurationofthemaceration willdependonhowmuchcolour way.
andtanninthewinemaker wantstoextractfromthegrapeskins.This
RED AND ROSE WINEMAKING 67
The intense flavours, medium to full body and high
tannins mean that a high proportion of new oak can
often be used without overpowering the wine . French
oak is widely used, with 225-litre barriques being the
most popular size of barrel. The period of maturation
can last anywhere from six months to three to four years,
with 12 to 18 months being typical.
Blending often plays a vital role in Cabernet
Sauvignon wines. On its own, Cabernet Sauvignon can
have high tannins and a lack of body and therefore it is
often blended with other grape varieties, particularly
Merlot, which can provide a certain softness and fruit
to complement Cabernet's lean structure. Shiraz is
sometimes used to play a similar role in Australia.
Merlot
Merlot is considered the other great grape of Bordeaux .
It buds and ripens earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon,
with which it is frequently blended. Merlot is dominant
in Saint-Emilion and Pomerol.
The best quality Me riots tend to follow one of two
styles. Some are made from grapes that are harvested
as late as possible to generate the maximum possible
degree of intense purple colour, concentrated
blackberry and plum fruit, and soft, velvet-textured
tannins. These wines are often matured in new oak to
add toasty flavours. This is the 'international style; and it
is made with great success in many New World countries,
the south of France, as well as some Bordeaux estates.
The other style is produced by harvesting the grapes
earlier to make a wine of medium body and alcohol, but
which has higher acidity and more of a fresh red fruit
character, as well as some vegetal, leafy aromas. The
second approach is rarely found outside of Bordeaux.
Merlot is made using very similar techniques to
Cabernet Sauvignon. The grapes are destemmed and
crushed, and a pre-fermentation maceration may
enable the winemaker to extract greater colour and
flavour if desired. The skins of the Merlot grape tend to
be a little more supple than those of Cabernet
macerationmayormaynotextendintothestartoffermentation. The
freerunjuicewillthenbedrainedofftheskinsandfermented
at cool
Blending
Asmallquantity ofredwineisaddedtoa whitewineto produce
a rose.
Thisisnotpermitted inthe EUwiththeexception
ofroseChampagne,
68 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
PUMPING
OVER
1. Pumping
overbyhand.
2. Pumping
overby
machine.Noteeachtank
haspipework
witha
spraythatcanbemoved
intopositionfor
pumping
over.
Sauvignon so less rigorous extraction may be needed
during fermentation.
The toast, vanilla and clove notes of new oak tend to
suit the juicy, plum fruit of Merlot, and oak maturation is
often used to enhance complexity. As with Cabernet
Sauvignon, 12 to 18 months in oak is common.
Pinot Noir
In contrast to Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir is an early
budding and early ripening variety that produces grapes
with a thin skin. It is a very old variety and therefore
there are many different clones available with varying
characteristics. Pinot Noir can be made in a range of still
wine styles - from light and fruity with red cherry notes,
to complex and earthy with flavours of spice and forest
floor. Colour and tannin can be tricky to extract from
the skins, therefore it is important to maximise the
extraction without overworking the juice. If this happens,
the elegance of the primary aromas can be lost or
overwhelmed.
As an early ripening variety Pinot Noir is best grown in
cool and moderate climates. This means it is the perfect
black variety for the vineyards of Burgundy. At an entry
level, the wines can be very light, often with marked
acidity and a hint of oak to provide structure. However,
the wines from better sites in the Cote d'Or have greater
intensity and complexity. They can range from delicate
and almost floral, to more tannic and spicy. However,
there is always the risk that in very cool vintages the
grapes, especially those grown in the lesser vineyard
sites, may not ripen fully, leading to wines with vegetal
notes such as cabbage and wet leaves.
Within Europe, Baden in Germany is also known for
the high-quality of its Pinot Noir wines. In the New
World, high-quality Pinot Noirs can be found from a
number of regions, including Los Carneros and Sonoma
(California); Martinborough, Marlborough and Central
Otago (New Zealand); Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula
and Tasmania (Australia); Walker Bay (South Africa) and
Casablanca Valley (Chile). Finding areas with the right
climate is very important for Pinot Noir. If it is planted in
a region that is too hot, the fruit flavours become jammy
and unattractive.
Pinot Noir grapes may be handled in a number of
different ways when they reach the winery . Some
winemakers will choose to destem and crush their fruit.
Typically a period of pre-fermentation maceration will
take place to maximise colour and flavour extraction
from the skins. Other winemakers may decide to include
a proportion of whole bunches in the ferment, a practice
that is becoming increasingly popular. This practice
generally enhances the red fruit and floral characters of
Pinot Noir. The whole bunches are gradually crushed by
a series of punch down operations, and fermentation
continues on the skins once the grapes have been
broken up.
It is common for Pinot Noir fermentation temperatures
to rise to above 30°C. Cooler ferments may be used for
lighter, fresher styles but warm temperatures enable
more colour, flavour and tannin to be extracted for
longer-aged wines. Post-fermentation maceration is
not widely practised for Pinot Noir.
Like Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir is also a grape
that is often matured in oak barrels and it is usual for
premium wines to spend between 12 and 24 months in
oak. Pinot Noir's delicate flavours mean that too much
new oak can be overpowering, so many winemakers
will use second or third-fill barrels and only a small
proportion of new barrels.
Pinot Noir is not usually blended with other grape
varieties. However, the winemaker may blend different
vineyard plots or wines that have undergone different
treatments in the winery to increase complexity or
improve consistency. The best wines can develop in
bottle for many years, gaining flavours of forest floor
and mushroom.
Syrah/Shiraz
Syrah grapes are small with thick, darkly coloured skins
and they will not ripen in very cool climates. It is a grape

that can produce wines in a range of styles. Depending
on the climate in which the grapes are grown and the
winemaking techniques to which it is subjected, Syrah
can range from medium-bodied with pepper and fresh
black fruit aromas, to smooth and full-bodied with
intense, very ripe black fruit flavours and hints of
liquorice . Syrah's intensity of fruit flavours, together
with its deep colour and high tannins, makes the best
examples suitable for long-term ageing.
In Europe, Syrah is most famously grown in the
Northern Rhone in France.The climate here is at the
coolest limit for Syrah production and therefore wine
styles will vary depending on the vineyard site. Lesser
sites produce quite light wines with simple black fruit and
herbaceous flavours, and often slightly grippy tannins.
South-facing slopes, such as those found in Cote Rotie
and Hermitage can produce fuller bodied wines with
berry flavours and hints of pepper, often complemented
by notes of meat and leather after a little ageing.
Syrah is also widely grown in Languedoc and
Roussillon in France, where it is blended with other
black varieties such as Grenache, Mourvedre, Carignan
and Cinsault. The warmer climate here provides wines
with riper flavours and tannins.
In the New World, Australia has a well-established
reputation for its Syrah, here called Shiraz. Hot regions ,
such as the Hunter and BarossaValleys, produce soft
earthy, spicy styles of Shiraz with concentrated black
fruit aromas. Cooler regions, such as Great Southern,
Geelong and Heathcote, produce leaner, more peppery
styles. Other classic areas in the New World producing
Syrah are Chile, South Africa, Hawke's Bay in New
Zealand, and Washington State in the USA.
Winemaking technique has an important impact on
the style of Syrah/Shiraz that is made. Full-bodied,
intensely ripe wines with high alcohol can be produced
in warm and hot climates. These wines have typically
been subjected to vigorous cap management to extract
maximum colour, flavour and tannin from ripe or over -
ripe grapes. Toasty flavours from a high proportion of
RED AND ROSEWINEMAKING 69
PUNCHING
DOWN
1. Punching
downby
hand.
2. Mechanical
punching
down.Thisdevice
canbemovedonan
overhead
railto work
eachindividual
tank
inturn.
new oak may complement the concentrated fruit
flavours.
Winemakers in warm or hot climates can also choose
to make a more restrained style, which often starts with
harvesting the grapes earlier, giving wines with lower
alcohol. These winemakers, together with those in
moderate climates, tend to use gentler cap management
techniques and may include a proportion of whole
bunches in the fermentation. A fine tannin structure
may be achieved by an extended post-fermentation
maceration to extract and smooth tannins, and a
number of winemakers are swapping their 225-litre
barriques for 300- 500-litre barrels, and using older oak.
All of these techniques can result in the production of
more restrained, elegant wines .
Grenache/Garnacha
Grenache is a late-ripening grape variety and needs to
be planted in warm or hot climates. Conveniently, it also
has a high tolerance for drought conditions. Its sweet,
thin -skinned grapes give wines that are high in alcohol,
low in acidity and are full-bodied with soft tannins and
red fruit flavours.
In Spain, Grenache is known as Garnacha and it is an
important blending partner in the wines of Priorat and
Rioja. In Priorat, Garnacha is blended with Carignan to
produce deeply coloured wines with high levels of
tannin, fresh black fruit and toasty oak . In Rioja,
Garnacha is mainly planted in Rioja Baja and, in blends
with Tempranillo, it contributes perfume, body and
alcohol to the wine. It is also widely grown in Calatayud,
Carinena and Navarra. A number of regions also produce
rose wines from Garnacha.
Grenache is the most widely planted grape variety in
the Southern Rhone. It arguably makes its finest wines in
the appellation of Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Here, it is usually
blended with other grape varieties typical of the south of
France,in particular Syrah and Mourvedre, to produce full -
bodied, richly textured wines with concentrated spicy red
fruit. Grenache is also widely planted in Languedoc and
70 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Roussillon where it is often blended with varieties such as
Syrah, Mourvedre, Carignan and Cinsault. The wines may
vary in style depending on the blend of grapes and the
vineyard climate but most tend to have a spicy, perfumed
character reminiscent of the local herbs.
Outside Europe, the highest-quality Grenache is
probably produced in Australia, particularly in the
BarossaValley and McLaren Vale. These wines used to
be produced in intensely concentrated, full-bodied
styles with high levels of alcohol. Now, they are made
with more restraint. Old bush vines yield low volumes of
highly concentrated grapes, giving robust, ripe wines
with intense flavours of red berries and peppery spice.
Grenache tends to be destemmed and crushed on
arrival at the winery. Pre-fermentation maceration is
common, promoting the extraction offlavour and colour
before alcohol levels rise in fermentation. Some producers
choose to retain a proportion of whole bunches to
enhance the ripe red fruit flavours of this grape.
Fermentation is usually conducted in open top
fermenters, often made from stainless steel or cement,
though some producers may choose old oak. Gentle cap
management techniques, such as punching down, are
used on premium wines to produce wines with more
finesse. Post-fermentation maceration may be carried
out if the winemaker wants to enhance the tannic
structure of the wine. However, usually Grenache will
be drained off the skins at the end of fermentation.
Grenache is usually matured in large vessels such as
foudres made from old oak, as the toasty notes from
new oak can overwhelm Grenache's fruit flavours.
Grenache is rarely made as a varietal wine and more
usually blended with other varieties. In hot climates it
can be jammy and high in alcohol and therefore grape
varieties that are even more tolerant of heat, such as
Carignan and Mourvedre, can lend fresher fruit flavours
as well as greater tannin and colour to the blend.
 FACTORSTHAT AFFECTTHE PRICE OF WINE 71

Factors
thatAffectthePriceofWine~here are a num_beroffactors that_
influence the price of a bottle of wine.
It is impossible to discuss all of these in detail in this chapter, not least because there are so many
10
differences between individual markets. However, it is possible to highlight the key common factors that
apply throughout the world. These include the costs associated with the production, packing, transport
and retailing of wine.

PRODUCTIONCOSTS In addition to practical considerations, the price of

Production costs can be divided into grape growing and grapes can be dramatically affected by market forces
winemaking. (see page 72).

Grape Growing Winemaking

Establishing a vineyard is very expensive. The land itself
is not cheap, especially if it is located in a region with a
reputation for producing premium quality wines. The soil
needs to be prepared, vines bought and planted and the
trellis (if one is to be used) built. It takes many years to
see a return on these initial investments .
In an established vineyard, vines need attention
throughout the year. Labour is usually the largest
production cost. This can be kept low by relying on a
seasonal, casual workforce or mechanisation. If growers
are able to share labour or machines then further savings
are possible. However, in some isolated vineyards or sites
with extremely steep slopes these economies are not
available and production costs are much higher.
The most obvious costs involved in winemaking are
equipping and maintaining the winery with the
necessary equipment. The most high-tech machines can
be very expensive but even small, modestly equipped
wineries will need to invest a lot of money relative to
their size. Some equipment (such as bottling facilities)
can be shared, reducing some of these costs.
Another important consideration is the amount of
time the wine may need to be kept before release for
sale. Some wines are matured for several months or
even years, as required by local production regulations .
Storage facilities can be expensive to maintain.
Furthermore, a great deal of money is tied up in stock
that cannot be sold to generate a profit straight away.

Incredibly
steepvineyards,
suchastheseinMosel,
are
moreexpensive
to cultivate
thanflatland,addingtoa
producer's
costs.
72 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Any delay in being able to take a profit from the wine
needs to be factored into the sales price.
PACKAGING
Bottles, labels, capsules, closures and cartons all need to
be designed and purchased. Unusually shaped or heavy
bottles cost more. It is cheaper to export wine in bulk
and bottle it in the market where it is to be sold but this
is only an option for large producers and it is not always
permitted by local wine laws.
TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND SALES
For a very small number of producers the cost of getting
a wine to market is negligible because they only sell
their wine to people who visit their winery. However,
the majority of producers seek to sell their wine further
afield, often in both domestic and international markets.
Transport, distribution and sales are a very complex
part of the wine trade and are highly regulated. In the
majority of cases, producers have to rely on other
businesses to transport and distribute their wines,
therefore it is important that they choose partners who
offer both value for money and accessto reliable sales.
TAXES
Nearly every government in the world taxes alcoholic
beverages. The level of tax charged varies significantly
from country to country but it can add substantially to
the price of a bottle of wine.
Such taxes are seen as essential in controlling the
consumption of alcohol by increasing the retail price and
are an important source of revenue for governments.
RETAILERS
Most wines are sold in shops or restaurants and these
businesses need to make a profit from these sales.Wines
will generally cost more in restaurants than in shops. This
is because restaurants expect to generate more profit
from wine, but also because the price takes account of
the occasion, the environment and the level of service.
MARKET FORCES
Ultimately, the price of a bottle of wine is determined by
how much the destination market is prepared to pay for
it. The costs of production, packaging, distribution and
retail must all be taken into account to ensure the
product is commercially viable.

TYPES OF WINE PRODUCER

There are three main types of wine producer: co-operatives, merchants and estates. None of these words has
legal significance and they rarely appear on labels. Throughout the world it is quite common for a single
producer to make different wines that are bottled under estate and merchant labels.

Co-operatives businesses canoperateonaverysmallscaleandfocusonpremium

These arewinebusinesses ownedbytheirmembers, typicallygrape wineproduction, oroperateonalargescaleandproduce a rangeof
growers. Thegrowers delivertheirgrapes to awinerythatisownedby winesat differentqualitylevels.
theco-operative andrunbya winemaking teamthatisemployed by Merchants arecommon throughout theworldbutespeciallyoutside
theco-operative. Thisisgoodforthegrowers because theyare of Europe.Intheseregions grapegrowers havefarlargerholdings
guaranteed a buyerfortheirgrapes butit cansometimes be compared with European growersandthistypeofcontractual
challenging forthewinemaker whomightnotalwayshavecomplete arrangement ispopular
withproducers whoonlyhaveto dealwitha
controloverthequalityofthegrapes supplied bytheiremployers . relatively
smallnumberofgrowers . Manyofthelargewinebrands are
However, thisdoesnotmeanthatco-operative winesarealways madethisway.
inferior,andinsomeregions, thelocalco-operative regularlyproduces Merchants aresometimes referredto usingtheFrenchnameforthis
someofthebestwinesfromthearea. typeof business:negociant.
Co-operatives areverycommon in Europe.Thisisbecause the
average vineyard holdingfora growerin Europe issosmallthatit is Estates
rarelyeconomical forthemto produce andmarkettheirownwines . These businesses makewineonlyfromthegrapes thattheygrow.Asa
Co-operatives doexistin therestoftheworldbuttheyareless result,theytypicallyproduce wineona relatively
smallscale.Thisgives
common. theproducer thegreatest
amountofcontrolintheproduction process
andconsequently, in mostregions,
theseproducers areresponsible
for
Merchants thebestwines.However, becauseestatesrelypurelyontheirowncrops,
Merchants buygrapes,
juiceorwinefromeithergrowers orco- theycanhavefewerblending optionsandthiscanbeachallenge in
operatives. Merchants
will havecontractswiththeirsuppliers
and,in yearswherethegrowingconditions havebeenpoor,for example dueto
theory,havegreater controlovertheirsourcematerial
thansomeco- frostor hail.
operatives. Producers
canrejectgrapes thatarenotupto standard but Estatewinesaremadethroughout thewinemaking worldandare
in regions wheregrapes arein highdemand orlimitedsupplyit canbe sometimes referredto usingtheFrenchnameforthistypeof business:
difficultto guarantee
a regularsupplyofsuitable
grapes.
These domaine.

Where high demand exists for a product that is
available in limited supply, the retail price can far
outweigh the costs. For example , over the last ten years,
demand for premium estate wines from Bordeaux has
put pressure on supply, driving up prices substantially.
However, market forces may in time lead to a reversal
of this trend .
FACTORSTHAT AFFECTTHE PRICEOF WINE 73
While some wine businesses are profitable, there are
others that struggle due to lack of demand. Some steep
vineyard sites in Mose! have been abandoned because
the costs of production could only be recovered by
pricing the wines at a level consumers were not
prepared to pay.
74 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
WineandtheLaw In countries where it is legal to purchase and consume alcohol,
11 legislation relating to wine is concerned with three important issues:
ensuring it is safe for human consumption; checking the information on the label accurately describes
what is in the bottle; and, as alcohol is both toxic and addictive, providing the necessary regulations to
reduce the harm it can cause to individuals and societies.
FOOD SAFETY
With regard to food and beverage legislation, the
primary concern of the authorities will always be to
ensure that what is being sold is safe and fit for human
consumption . This is a complex and technical area of
the law and concerns the many processing agents
and chemicals that are used by grape growers and
winemakers. The vast majority of these products are
not discussed in Chapters 4 to 9 and also, unlike food
labelling, they hardly ever feature on wine labels .
However, one example that can illustrate the
importance of this legislation is 50 2• 50 2 is almost
universally used in winemaking, but ifit is consumed in
very high doses it can be toxic. Even though the levels of
50 2 found in wine are very small, this chemical's potentially
harmful effects on human health means that its use in
winemaking is very tightly regulated. In most countries
the words 'contains sulfites' must appear on the label if the
amount of 50 2 in a wine is above a certain level. In practice,
a small amount of 50 2 is produced naturally during
fermentation so these words are likely to be required even
if no 50 2 is added in the winemaking process.
LABEL INTEGRITY
It is the responsibility of the person or company that
puts a product on sale that the description of the
product and any claims made on the packaging are
accurate. This of course means that labelling information
needs to be clear and able to be checked . Wine is no
exception and there are many dos and don'ts when it
comes to wine labelling. However, certain aspects are
more important than others.
Geographical Indications
Geographical indications ('Gls') refer to a product's
region or place of origin and are a common feature on
wine labels . This is because the area where grapes are
grown can have a defining influence on the style and
quality of the wine. A GI is a designated vineyard area
within a country. These areas can be very large and cover
an entire region (e.g. Bordeaux) or they can be very
small covering no more than a single vineyard (e.g. La
Romanee in Burgundy).
Understandably, the use of Gls is tightly controlled to
ensure a wine is genuinely the product of the grapes
grown in the location stated on the label. For wines that
sell at a premium price, fraud is a very real risk. The use of
Gls is relatively easy to control within the boundaries of
a single country because only one legal jurisdiction is
involved . However, it is less straightforward if a producer
in one country decides to label their wine with a GI from
another country.
Therefore, over time, the World Trade Organization
(the global body that manages international trade
agreements) has developed a system for Gls that is now
used by all major wine-producing countries . This system
relies on defined boundaries and regional names. This
ensures that everyone uses the same approach and as
a result it is much easier for individual countries or
groups of countries to reach agreements that recognise
and respect each other's Gls. For example, 'Chablis' was
used as a labelling term by Australian producers . Of
course, these wines could never have been labelled as
such when sold in the EU but now, as a result of a trade
agreement, this term can no longer be used in Australia
either. In exchange for more equitable trading
arrangements , the Australians agreed to recognise and
prohibit the use of EU Gls on their labels.
The rules and regulations are complex but there are
two important points of interest. First, if a GI is stated on
the label then typically at least 85 per cent of the liquid
in the bottle must come from the stated GI. This rule
does not apply universally and it is best to see this as a
standard from which there is some deviation: some
local laws are less strict and others are more strict (for
example, for PDO wines 100 per cent of the grapes must
come from the region stated on the label). Similar rules
can also apply to vintage dates and grape varieties .
Second, there are significant variations between the
way that GI legislation is written in the EU and non-EU
countries.
European Union - European Union (EU) wines with a
GI are divided into two quality categories : wines with a
Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and wines with
a Protected Geographical Indication (PGI). Broadly
speaking, PDOs are smaller areas with more t ightly
defined regulations, whereas PGls are larger and have
fewer regulations. Although PDO and PGI are permitted
label terms, they rarely appear on the label. Instead,
producers tend to use long-established traditional
labelling terms . For example, Appellation d'origine
contr6/ee (AC) is used in France instead of the French
term for PDO (which is Appellation d'origine protegee).
 WINEAND THELAW 75

That said, the French term for PGI- Indication

geographique protegee (IGP) - is increasingly used on EXAMPLES OF EU AND NON-EU WINE LABELS
labels instead of the traditional term Vin de Pays. These two Chardonnay labels, one from Burgundy
European Gls are unique because, typically, local and the other from California, show the labelling
laws will also specify what grape varieties can be grown, conventions typical of EU and non-EU countries.
and what grape growing and winemaking techniques The Chablis is not varietally labelled and the legal
can be used. By identifying the grape varieties and category (here abbreviated to Appellation controlee)
processes that were used to produce a region's best is clear to see. On the other hand, Chardonnay is
wines, the system was designed to protect what was prominent on the California label and the legal
seen as the unique identity of local wines, promoting category, AVA, is not shown.
quality and preventing fraud. Therefore, in theory,
each PDO produces wines with a unique flavour that
cannot be copied by any other wine. This is reinforced
by the fact that according to PDO regulations 100 per
,) ,o
cent of the grapes must come from the stated region of
origin for these wines . Note that many PDO wines do
not state the grape variety on the label. This can mean
that some of the finest expressions of Chardonnay, for
example, come in bottles labelled as Chablis AC or
Meursault AC.
Given that the PDO system is very restrictive, many
producers prefer to make wines in the PGI category
because it allows the use of non-traditional varieties in
the blend (for example Sauvignon Blanc in the south
of France) and the rules governing production are less ALBERT BICHOT
strict. However, local laws are still likely to regulate vine
yield and limit production volumes . The PGI category
is very diverse and can include wines of exceptional
quality made using grapes grown in vineyards that
simply fall outside of the PDO boundaries, as well as
high-volume inexpensive wines from international
grape varieties such as Chardonnay and Merlot. Unlike
PDO wines, the grape variety or varieties are usually ROBERT MONDAVI
stated on the label. WI NERY
Wine without a GI is the category that offers European
producers the most flexible production rules. For
example, it allows brand owners to create multi-regional
blends by sourcing grapes from vineyards throughout a
country, or even multinational blends by sourcing
grapes from different countries in the EU. There are no
•.
,
other limits on production beyond those that are
necessary for product safety and accurate labelling.
The individual regulations for each country and region
can be found in their relevant chapter in Section 3 of this
book. Legally Defined Quality and Style Indications
There is another set of labelling terms, that has evolved
Non-EU countries - Nearly all non-EU wines in the in the EU and been defined by local laws, to indicate
international market fall into the category of wines both quality and style. These terms are observed by all
with a GI. Each country has developed its own way of EU countries . The EU has been keen to limit the extent
dividing its vineyard areas into Gls. Sometimes political to which these labelling terms are copied in other
boundaries are used but more frequently vineyards are countries . For example, Australia has a long tradition of
divided into other more specific areas, such as regions, making high-quality fortified wines in a Sherry style.
zones, districts and so on. However, importantly, there These w ine were labelled using Sherry terms such as
are no local laws to define and limit what grape varieties Fino and Amontillado but this is no longer permitted.
can be planted . Unl ike in the EU,the legal terms (such as
AVA, Zone or Ward) are rarely seen on the label. SAFE CONSUMPTION
The individual regulations for each country can also be When consumed in moderation, alcohol is not regarded
found in the relevant chapter in Section 3 of this book. as harmful to health . However, alcohol can significantly
76 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
affect the behaviour of anyone who consumes too much
(often in very socially unacceptable and dangerous
ways). For some people it can be highly addictive and,
when consumed to excess,it can have a very negative
impact on both short- and long-term health. In some
cultures alcohol is not considered socially acceptable
and its consumption is banned as a result.
In countries where alcohol consumption is permitted,
legislation is used to try and control accessto alcohol
and limit its potentially harmful effects. Legal controls
focus on two areas in particular. First, a minimum legal
age is set for both the purchase and consumption of
alcohol. These restrictions seek to limit young people's
accessto alcohol as this age group is considered more
vulnerable to its potentially harmful effects.
Second, there is a legal limit on the amount of
alcohol someone can have in their blood when driving
a vehicle. This is typically expressed in terms of
milligrams of ethanol per millilitres of blood. Alcohol
reduces co-ordination, slows reaction times and
increases risk-taking. Therefore driving or operating
machinery under the influence of alcohol significantly
increases the risk of injury and death for the
operator/driver and those around them.
As well as sett ing and enforcing regulations, some
governments also encourage safe consumption by
publishing sensible drinking guidelines. Typically,
alcoholic drinks are broken down into fixed quantities
of alcohol or'units : and governments recommend the
maximum number of units men and women should
consume in the course of a day and over the course of
a week.
Many governments also often place limits on the
advertising and marketing of alcohol. This can be
through voluntary industry codes, through direct
legislation, or a combination of both. These are normally
designed to place limits on the lifestyle claims that can
be made for a product in advertisements and/or
encourage or require the use of responsible drinking
messaging in advertising and on packaging .
 INTRODUCTION TO FRANCE 77

Introductionto FraneeFr~nce produces huge vo~umes of wine in a w'.de r~nge of styles.

It 1stherefore more practical to cover these wines m a number
of short chapters rather than in one long chapter. In this brief introduction we cover the wine laws that
12
apply throughout France, and show how the different wine regions relate to each other on the map.

FRENCH WINE LAWS

The geographical indications (Gls)below are common to all the wine regions in France.Where additional
labelling terms exist, these will be covered in Chapters 13 to 21.

PDOWines PGIWines
TheFrench forPDQisAppellation d'origine protegee(AOP) butthe TheFrenchforPGIisIndication
geographique protegee (IGP).
traditional
termAppellation d'origine
controlee (ACorAOC) ismore Manyproducersusethistermontheirwinelabelsalthough
the
widelyseenonwinelabels.Itiscommon foroneplotoflandto be traditional
termVindePays(VdP)isalsooftenseen.
coveredbybotha genericanda moreprestigious appellation.
Eachyear
theproducercanchoose whichappellationtheywishto use,a decision VindeFrance
ofteninfluenced
bythequalityofthevintage . InChapters
13to 21PDQ Wines
withouta GIaretermedVindeFrance.
wineswillbereferred
to as'appellation'
wines.

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·~_;,. ~ 2000-4000 m
~ ., p
-~.,,.,,.
-,! r e l-....... 1000-2000 m
-"\,•-· ' ' 1,;- ~ ,-s
ANDQR~8,.'
500-lOOOm
SPA IN
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
42' N 42' N 200- 500 m

0- 200 m
78 UNDERSTANDINGWINES: EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Bordeaux
Bordeaux is the largest appellation
13 value. It is home to many of the most prestigious names in fine wine. However, these
wines only represent a tiny proportion of total production and there is a massive gap between the
resources available to a few very wealthy producers and the vast majority of growers and producers.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING
Bordeaux has a moderate maritime climate that benefits
from the effect of the Gulf Stream. This warming ocean
current extends the growing season: spring frosts are
rarely a problem and grape ripening can continue well
into October. However, the Atlantic also brings high levels
of rainfall and humidity. The vineyards are protected from
the worst of the Atlantic storms by the Landes forest and
the coastal sand dunes that lie to the west of the region.
Rain falls throughout the year and can disrupt flowering
and fruit set, promote rot and dilute the flavours in the
grapes at harvest. Consequently, vintage variation is an
important consideration in Bordeaux although the top
producers can greatly reduce the differences in style and
quality between the vintages by rejecting unhealthy
and unripe grapes. Changes in canopy management
techniques have resulted in healthier grapes (plus a
decline in the use of sprays) and a marked rise in the
levels of sugar and flavour development at harvest time.
GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING
Almost all red Bordeaux wines and most Bordeaux
whites are produced from a blend of grape varieties. The
variability in the weather, in particular rainfall, means
Avineyard
inthe Haut-
Medoc
showingthehigh
gravelcontentof thesoil.
region in France, in terms of both volume and
that it can be very risky to rely too heavily on one variety.
The different varieties permitted in Bordeaux flower and
ripen at different times, meaning that one bad frost or
heavy shower is unlikely to ruin an entire crop.
Thirteen grape varieties are permitted under the
appellation regulations, but in practice three black
grapes and two white predominate.
Black Varieties
Cabernet Sauvignon dominates in the Haut-Medoc,
and it is also very important in the Bas-Medoc and the
Graves.The high stone/gravel content of the soils here
raises vineyard temperature and consequently these are
the only areas where Cabernet can reliably ripen. Here it
can account for three-quarters of the blend in the finest
wines.
Cabernet Franc is widely used in Saint-1:milion and,
to a lesser extent, in the Medoc and Graves. It produces
wines with less body and tannin than Cabernet
Sauvignon. It can have herbaceous or stalky flavours
when unripe but when ripe it can contribute vibrant fruit
and floral notes to a blend. Like Cabernet Sauvignon it
prefers well drained warm soils.
Merlot is the most widely planted variety in Bordeaux
and is particularly important in the premium wines of
Saint-1:milion and Pomerol. This is because Merlot can
successfully grow on the cooler clay soils found in these
areas, whereas Cabernet Sauvignon would struggle to
ripen. Merlot's softness means it is usually the grape
that is predominant in high volume, inexpensive wines.
Petit Verdot has far smaller plantings than the three
black varieties above. It ripens fully only in very hot
years, giving a very deep-coloured, tannic wine that
ages slowly. It never plays more than a minor role in a
blend, where it is used mainly to add tannin, colour and
some spicy notes.
Winemaking practices are very varied. This is a reflection
of the style of wine being made and the resources
available to the producer. There is little agreement over
which fermentation vessels produce the best wines:
some of the best producers use the traditional oak vats
as well as steel or concrete vats to increase their
blending options.
Most wines are blended in the spring following the
vintage, although some winemakers prefer to keep
their different parcels of wine separate until the end of
maturation. In order to maintain the quality and style
 BORDEAUX 79

of their top wine, most of the leading chateaux now
make second and even third wines from blends that are
not suitable for the grand vin (best wine) . Some wine
may even be sold off to a negociant.
Top-quality red Bordeaux is aged in small oak
barriquesof 225 litres. In the finest chateaux, all the wine
may be put into new casks.Lesserproperties may use a
smaller proportion of new casks and generic Bordeaux
wines are unlikely to see oak at all.
Constant improvements in the winery have led to riper,
fruitier and more concentrated wines even in difficult
vintages.
White Varieties
Given its thin skin and affinity for noble rot, Semillon is
the most important variety for sweet wines in Bordeaux.
It is also blended with Sauvignon Blanc in the premium
dry white wines of Pessac-Leognanand Graves,where it
adds body to these wines.
In Bordeaux, Sauvignon Blanc produces wines with
citrus and green fruit aromas. It is used increasingly for
varietal, dry white wines: the one exception to the
generalisation that all Bordeaux wines are blends. In
blended wines it provides high acidity, which is
particularly necessary for sweet wines. Muscadelle has a
pronounced grapey, floral flavour and plays an important
supporting role in sweet and dry white wine production .
It only makes up a small percentage of any blend.
Similar to the red wines, dry white Bordeaux is also
made in a range of styles.Those at the lower end of
the market tend to be fresh and fruity, fermented in
temperature controlled, inert vesselswith minimal
further ageing, but some show toasty hints of oak.
Premium dry whites from Pessac-Leognanare frequently
fermented and matured in new oak barrels and have
a richness and concentrated nutty flavour overlaying
the fruit. The great sweet wines of Bordeaux are made
from fruit that has been infected by noble rot. The best
examples are fermented and matured in new oak barrels
for anything up to three years.
REGIONSAND WINES
The Dordogne and Garonne rivers combine to form the
Gironde Estuary and divide the Bordeaux vineyards into
three broad areas.West and south of the Gironde/
Garonne lie the districts of Medoc, Gravesand Sauternes.
This area is often referred to as the Left Bank. Most of the
area between the Dordogne and the Garonne is covered
by the appellation Entre-Deux-Mers. Finally,the principal
districts to the north and east of the Gironde and
Dordogne are Saint-Emilion and Pomerol, commonly
referred to as the Right Bank.
There are over 50 different appellations in Bordeaux.
They range in size from the very large generic

BORDEAUXCLASSIFICATIONS
With the exception of Saint-Emilion, Bordeaux's classification systems lie outside of the appellation system.
Furthermore, the classifications do not rank individual vineyards but individual estates, commonly known as the
chateaux. Over the years the estate may vary in size due to the purchase or sale of individual vineyard plots. Thus
a chateau name is more of a brand than a designation of a specific vineyard.

TheMedoc andSauternes Graves (Pessac-Leognan)

In1855,ontheoccasion oftheParisUniversal Exhibition,
theBordeaux ThewinesoftheGraves areclassified
withparallel,butseparate,
lists
Chamber ofCommerce wasapproached to produceanofficiallistof forredandwhitewines.There isnoranking:
all listedwinesmaysimply
theirbestredwinesfromtheMedoc andwhitewinesfromSauternes. callthemselvescrusclasses.
Allthecrusclasse
chateaux nowliewithin
Thisisnowknownasthe1855Classification. Overtheintervening years thelimitsofthePessac-Leognan, asthisappellation wascreated
after
theclassifiedchateaux haveundergone numerous changes intheir theGraves classification
wasdrawnup.
number, sizeandownership, andin thequalityofthewinemade;
howfarthe1855Classification actually represents
thecurrentquality Saint-Emilion Grand Cru
levelsofthewinesisa constant source ofdebate.Nevertheless, the Theclassification
systemin Saint-Emilion
isintegrated intothe
classification
stillstands
virtuallyintact.Chateauxthatarelisted appellation
system. WithinSaint-Emil
ionthereisaseparate appellation
withinthisclassification
arereferred to ascrusclasses.
IntheMedoc, Saint
-Emilion GrandCru,andwithinthisappellation thereisa
thechateaux weredividedintofiveranks. Thetoprankconsists of classification
ofthebestchateaux.Thelowerstepwithinthe
Chateaux LafiteRothschild,Latour, Margaux andMoutonRothschild, classification
issimplySaint-Emilion
Grand CruClasse.Above thiscomes
together withChateau Haut-Brion fromtheGraves. InSauternes there Saint
-Emilion PremierGrand CruClasse,
whichissubdivided into
arethreeranks, Chateau d'Yquem occupyingthetoprank. PremierGrand CruClasse
A(thebest),andPremier Grand CruClasse B.
The1855Classification accounted foronlyaverysmallnumber of Therearereclassifications,
withthepossibility
of promotion and
theestates oftheMedoc andtherefore ofau
afurtherclassification demotion,whichoccurat leastonceeverytenyears .
bourgeoiswaslaterintroduced fortheotherchateaux. Currently, cru
bourgeoisisonlyawarded to winesin aspecificvintage,ratherthanto
thechateau itself,andthereforewinesfromnewvintages mustbe
submitted eachyearto gainclassification.
80 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
KEY
100- 200 m
0- l00m 45"30 ' N
Bay of
Biscay
45•oo·N
BORDEAUX
e 44"30 ' N
t--~~,........_ _ _._,_~----,-,
SOkm
30mllH
t.
f\J
appellations, which cover the whole vineyard area, down
to the small commune appellations. Unlike Burgundy,
these various appellations do not form a neat hierarchy
based on quality and it is easier to look at them in
groups based on the styles of wine made in them .
Generic Appellations
The output of the generic appellations is mainly red
labelled as either Bordeaux or Bordeaux Superieur (the
latter designation has slightly stricter appellation rules and
requires a higher level of alcohol in the final wine) . The
remainder is white labelled as Bordeaux and rose labelled
as Bordeaux Rose or Bordeaux Clairet. The standard of
these basic Bordeaux wines has improved considerably
and continues to do so as export-focused producers are
trying to ensure that their wines can compete with
similarly priced wines from other parts of the world .
At their best, red Bordeaux and Bordeaux Superieur
are early drinking medium-bodied wines with ripe red
and black fruit, and sometimes cedar notes from oak.
The cheapest can be lighter in body and have more
astringent tannins than the better wines . The best
Bordeaux rose is fresh and fruity with an increasing
number of producers making high-quality examples.
Clairet is a style of wine that is mainly popular on the
French market. It undergoes a longer maceration than a
typical rose and is deeper in colour and fuller in body.
~
FR C E '-.__,.,..,
_J
~
45 00 ' N
White Bordeaux is increasingly dominated by Sauvignon
Blanc and shows a vibrant grassy character.
The Reds of Medoc and Graves
The Medoc lies to the north of the city of Bordeaux and
Graves lies to the south . The northernmost part of the
Medoc is called the Bas-Medoc, and the wines from
here are labelled simply Medoc . Here, the soil is
predominantly clay, but there are outcrops of gravel.
These wines tend to have a higher proportion of Merlot
in the blend than those just to the south and tend to
be more early-drinking in style. From Saint-Estephe
southwards lies the more highly rated area of the
Haut-Medoc . Within the Haut-Medoc there are a
number of smaller appellations , sometimes referred to
as 'communes: in which most of the higher classified
chateaux can be found . From north to south, the four
with the highest reputation are Saint-Estephe, Pauillac,
Saint-Julien and Margaux. These wines have a high
percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend and
generally display a core of blackcurrant fruit,
complemented by cedar notes from oak. They can have
grippy tannins when young, and often have a long
ageing potential.
Immediately to the south of Bordeaux lies the Pessac-
Leognan, the most highly rated area in Graves. Soils, like
those of the Haut-Medoc, are gravelly and well-suited to
 BORDEAUX 81

Cabernet Sauvignon, but in general the wines are a little

lighter in body and more fragrant than the finest wines of
the Haut-Medoc. Wines from the top chateaux are made
with as much care as any in Bordeaux, with prices to
match. Graves extends to the south of Pessac-Leognan,
making red wines that are similar in style, but less
concentrated and complex, and usually with a higher
proportion of Merlot.

Saint-Emilion and Pomerol

The wines of the Right Bank are dominated by Merlot
and to a lesser extent Cabernet Franc. Saint-1:milion is
the larger of the two principal appellations, with three
distinct groups of vineyards on differing soils. First are the
vineyards on a plateau to the north and west of the town
of Saint-Emilion. Here, areas of warm, well-drained gravel
and limestone soils encourage the inclusion of Cabernet
Franc and, occasionally, some Cabernet Sauvignon.
Second, there are vineyards on the escarpment to the
south and east with clay limestone soils. The most
prestigious wines of Saint-Emilion come from these two
sub-regions. The wines have medium to high tannins but,
compared with the more structured wines of the Left wines (and the term garagiste used to describe the Newoakbarriquesbeing
Bank, they have a soft and rich mouthfeel with complex winemaker); however, many of them are now famous madeinacooperagein
red berry fruit and plum aromas, developing tobacco in their own right and have been classified within the Bordeaux.
Theheatis
and cedar notes as they evolve. Finally, the vineyards on Saint-Emilion appellation system. neededto softenthewood
sandy soils at the foot of the escarpment are typically a Pomerol and Saint-Emilion are surrounded by a group soitcanbebentintoshape.
source of lighter-bodied, less prestigious wines. of appellations that produce Merlot dominated wines
The reputation of nearby Pomerol is as high as that of that are stylistically similar to the more famous
Saint-Emilion. The wines tend to be richer, with a spicier, appellations.
blackberry fruit character.
A movement that has been particularly associated Cotes de Bordeaux
with these Right-Bank appellations is the appearance of There is a group of lesser-known red wine appellations
full-bodied, incredibly ripe wines made in tiny quantities that have agreed to share the name Cotes de Bordeaux.
from small plots of land, and with no expense spared in The appellations of Blaye, Cadillac, Castillon and Francs
the vineyard or the winery. The collective term vins de are able to put their names in front of Cotes de
garage was once frequently employed to describe these Bordeaux. The wines from these appellations tend to be

Asortingtableina vineyard
intheMedoc. Someproducers
chooseto dothis inthe
winery.
82 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Thebotrytis-affected
grapes
usedforSauternes
cannot
beharvested
bymachine
andmustbeselectively
pickedbyhand.
Merlot based and meant for early drinking. The best
wines can offer excellent value for money. The producers
in Cotes de Bourg who make wines of a similar style
chose not to join this group. Note that Premieres Cotes
de Bordeaux is a sweet wine appellation, unconnected
with the Cotes de Bordeaux group.
Premium Dry White Wines
A few appellations are permitted to produce dry white
wines. Entre-Deux-Mers, a large appellation located
between the Rivers Garonne and Dordogne, can only
produce white wines (red wines from this area must
be labelled with a generic appellation name). The
appellations of Graves and Pessac-Leognan are
permitted to produce white wines as well as reds. The
white wines of Graves and Entre-Deux-Mers tend to
be made from Sauvignon Blanc in an unoaked style.
Pessac-Leognan is the home of many of the very best
dry whites, and here the whites may be eligible for cru
clam! status. They tend to be blends of Sauvignon Blanc
and Semillon and have usually been fermented and/or
matured at least partly in new oak, giving a medium to
full body and toasty oak flavours. Some producers in
Medoc and Sauternes also produce premium dry whites.
However, these wines cannot be sold using these
appellations and instead they are sold using the generic
Bordeaux appellation.
Sweet Wines
The top sweet wine appellations of Bordeaux are
grouped on the banks of the Garonne and its tributary
the Ciron. The rivers create the ideal misty autumn
conditions for noble rot to develop on fully ripened
grapes. The level of noble rot in the vineyard varies from
year to year. Passeri/logeis needed to help concentrate
sugars in years when there is little noble rot.
The best wines come from Sauternes, which lies on
the west bank of the Garonne. Within Sauternes lies the
village of Barsac. Producers in Barsac have the right to
use either the appellation of Barsac or that of Sauternes.
In these appellations, Semillon dominates because of its
thin skin and susceptibility to botrytis. Sauvignon Blanc
supplies refreshing acidity and fruity aromas, and
Muscadelle, where used, adds exotic perfume. The best
wines tend to be high in alcohol, sweet yet balanced
by high acidity, and display the apricot and citrus peel
aromas of noble rot, along with notes of toast and vanilla
from oak fermentation and/or maturation.
There are a number of other sweet wine appellations
near Sauternes that are made in a similar style.
 THE DORDOGNE AND SOUTH WEST FRANCE 83

TheDordogne
andSouthWestFranceThesewi~esmaybedivided'.ntotwo
groups. First, there are the wines of
the Dordogne, many of which are made from the same grape varieties as those used in Bordeaux.
14
Second, there are a number of regions that make wines from varieties often never seen in Bordeaux,
with styles that differ considerably - these we shall call the wines of South West France.

THE DORDOGNE
To the east of the vineyards of Entre-Deux-Mers lie the
vineyards of the Dordogne. Here the climate is similar
to that of Bordeaux, although with less moderating
maritime influence. The major appellation is Bergerac,
which may be used for both red and white wines made
from the same varieties as in Bordeaux. Monbazillac is
a source of good value botrytised sweet wines made
from Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc.
SOUTH WEST FRANCE
Cahors is situated to the east of Bordeaux. Historically,
these were described as 'black' wines, and were very
tannic and long -lived. The region is located either side of
the River Lot. Now a broad range of styles is produced ,
depending on whether the vineyards are in the fertile
valley bottom , on the poorer soils of the slopes or on
the plateau above. The most important grape variety is
Malbec. The other varieties planted are Merlot and
Tannat. At their best, the wines are aged in oak, deeply KEY
coloured , high in tannin, with intense, dark berry fruits.
- 1500m+
They mature slowly to reveal notes of cedar and earth.
1000- 1500 m
To the south-east of Bordeaux, there is considerable
production of IGP wines, of which the most important 500- 1000 m
is Cotes de Gascogne.These are generally dry, light - 200- 500 m
bodied white wines made from Ugni Blanc,with aromas
100- 200 m
and flavours of green apples.
Further south towards the Pyrenees is Madiran. Here, 0- lO0m

FRANCE THEDORDOGNEAND
SOUTHWESTFRANCE

45' N

Bay a f
Biscay

44"N

~-,·--
•,./

I
SPAIN j ~
(....._1(._'-·
84 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
red wines are produced from blends led by the deeply
coloured, high tannin variety Tannat. These wines
traditionally needed a long period of bottle ageing to
soften their tannins. Today, riper grapes and modern
winemaking techniques mean that the best wines have
concentrated black fruit and high levels of softer riper
tannins.
Right in the foothills of the Pyrenees is Juram;:on
where both dry and sweet white wines are made. The
most important are the complex sweet wines made
from the high acid Petit Manseng. The grapes remain
free of botrytis and undergo passeril/age. The wines have
pronounced apricot and grapefruit aromas, sometimes
accompanied by spicy notes from new oak.
 BURGUNDY 85

Burgundy
The large number of producers and appellations in Burgundy can make this region
seem very complicated. However, in essence Burgundy is quite simple. It is the home
of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir and this region still provides the benchmark of excellence for these
15
varieties against which all other producers of these wines around the world are judged.

CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING
Burgundy covers a wide area and the climate ranges
from cool continental in the north around Chablis to
moderate continental further south. Rain can frequently
disrupt both flowering in early summer and harvest later
in the year. Pinot Noir is particularly susceptible to grey
rot and this can also be a problem in a wet growing
season. Among the other natural climatic hazards that
the grower may face are spring frosts, particularly in the
Chablis region, where they can appear as late as May,
and localised summer hailstorms, which can often
destroy considerable proportions of a grower's crop.
A vineyard's location is extremely important in
determining its quality level in the appellation hierarchy.
Basic village-level vineyards tend to be located on flat
sites or at the bottom of slopes, whereas those of premier
cru or grand cru level are often found mid-slope. These
desirable hillside locations are less prone to frost than
those on flat land. The highest-quality vineyards
generally have a south or east facing exposure, offering
protection from prevailing westerly winds.
The soils in Burgundy are very varied. A large number
of small geological faults, combined with gradual
erosion, mean that precise soil types change significantly
over small areas.These variations are often linked to
subtle changes in the styles of the wines although the
exact role the soil plays in this is the subject of much
debate. What is certain is that the soils on the hillsides
tend to be shallower with better drainage, whereas the
soil on the flat land is deeper and more fertile.
For the best wines, 16 to 18 months' barrel ageing is
normal. Generally speaking, the better wines will be
aged in a proportion of new oak, although this will
depend on the producer.
Chardonnay
Chardonnay accounts for nearly half the total vineyard
area. The character of Chardonnay varies dramatically
from the lean, steely, high-acid wines of Chablis in the
north of the region, via the often fabulously complex,
expressive wines of the Cote d'Or, to the more full-
bodied, riper-fruited wines of Macon in the south.
Burgundian winemakers were the pioneers of the
techniques that are now associated with premium
Chardonnay production around the world: barrel
fermentation, barrel ageing (typically six to nine
months), MLF for white wines and use of the lees during
maturation. Some of the most expressive and sought -
after Chardonnays made using these techniques come
from the Cote d'Or. Debates continue regarding how
much new oak is appropriate, and the ideal level of Vertical
shootpositioning
toasting for barrels. Whichever techniques are used, the onthe hillat Corton.
Light
best wines are well-balanced and complex expressions canclearlypenetrate
the
of Chardonnay that can mature in bottle for a decade canopyandthefruitis
or more. unshaded.

GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINEMAKING
The vast majority of wines in Burgundy are produced
from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, although other grape
varieties including Aligote and Gamay are also grown .

PinotNoir
Pinot Noir accounts for over a third of the total vineyard
area. It is grown throughout the region, but the most
important plantings are in the Cote d'Or. Classic
Burgundian Pinot Noir has red fruit flavours in youth that
evolve into flavours of earth, game and mushroom as
the wine matures. The wines tend to have high acidity
and low to medium levels of tannins, but this can vary
according to the vineyard, the producer and the vintage.
A wide range ofwinemaking techniques is used on
Pinot Noir, varying from producer to producer. The use
of whole bunches has gradually become more popular.
86 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY Around 15 years ago it started to be noticed that some

1000 m+ BURGUNDY
,__ --,----'---.--'
~~ Burgundian Chardonnays were not ageing as expected.
30mllei Some bottles of many premium wines showed signs of
500-1000 m
premature oxidation for their age. This is now an
200-S00m established problem in Burgundy but as yet no cause,
0-200 m whether it be vineyard- or winery-based, has been
identified definitively.
47"30 ' N

Other Varieties
Aligote is a white grape that tends to produce neutral
- GRANOCRU
- PREMIERCRU
wines with high acidity . It is capable of mak ing high-
quality wines when grown in sites where it can reach full
ripeness, but as these locations are usually reserved for
more profitable Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, such wines
are rare. Gamay produces early drinking red wines with
47"00'N 47'00 N ripe berry fruit and low tannins. It can be used in some
regional appellations, but only Pinot Noir is allowed for
wines of village level and above.

BURGUNDY APPELLATIONS (REGIONS, VILLAGES

AND VINEYARDS)
Chablis
Chablis is a village appellation that lies in the valley of
the River Serein in the northern-most part of Burgundy.
The best vineyards are generally planted on slopes with
favourable south-facing aspects. Some of these lesser
vineyards are classified as Petit Chablis. The major
climatic problem of the region is frost. Sprinklers and
heaters are both used as protective measures. The only
grape permitted is Chardonnay.

Thehillof Corton
isonthe
leftandthemainslopeof
theCoted'Or
isontheright.
Beauneisinthedistance.
TheVillages
vineyardsareon
theflatwhereasthepremier
cruandgrandcrusitesare
ontheslopes.
 BURGUNDY 87

Basicvillage level Chablis is often grown on north - KEY

facing slopes and flatter land, whereas the premiercru COTED'OR 5OO- lOOOm
and grandcruvineyards are located on the south-facing
2OO- SOOm
hillsides,giving greater concentration and ripeness to
these wines.
Petit Chablis and Chablis can be very austere, with
green fruit and high acidity; however, the better - Gra dscrus
examples display riper fruit flavours. The wines of CJ COTE'otN~TS
CJ HAUTESCOTE-5.DE
NUITS
Chablis Premier Cru and Chablis Grand Cru tend to CJ COTEDEBEAUNE
be located on hillside sites with a better aspect. They CJ HAUTESCOTESDEBEAUNE
generally show riper, more concentrated fruit (citrus, BOURGOGNE

rather than green apple), and have more body, yet are
still balanced by high acidity. A number of producers
ferment or age a portion of their grandcruand
sometimes premiercruwines in old oak, which can give
47"N
a rounder texture and subtle flavours. Others prefer to
retain pure fruit flavours by fermenting and storing the ANCE
wines in stainless steel or concrete .

The Cote d'Or

The vineyards of the Cote d'Or form the heartland of
Burgundy. The MassifCentral runs alongside the western
limit of the Cote d'Or, providing favourable east and
south-east facing hillside vineyard locations.
The Cote is split into two. Many of the fullest-bodied,
longest-lived Pinot Noirsare produced in the Cote de
Nuits. The more southerly Cote de Beaune also produces
red wines from Pinot Noir,generally in a fruitier style, but
it is more famous for producing the best Chardonnays
in the region. This is reflected in the appellation system.
Allof the red grandscrus,except one, are produced on
the Cote de Nuits,while all the white grandscrus,except
one come from the Cote de Beaune.

THE HIERARCHYOF BURGUNDYAPPELLATIONS

Regional
Appellations onthelabel.Occasionally,
ifthewinecomesentirely
froma single
Theappellations ofBurgundy forma hierarchybasedonthequalityof vineyard asa premier
thatisnotrecognised cruorgrand cru,the
thevineyard sites.Atthebaseofthehierarchy aretheregional vineyard
namemayappearaswell.Notetheterm'village'issometimes
appellations.
Theyaccount forhalfoftheproduction oftheregion. usedinsteadofcommune.
Mostregional appellation winescomefromvineyards thatdonot
havetherighttoa superior appellation,
although therearesomewines SingleVineyard
Appellations:
Premiers
Crus
andGrands
Crus
thathavebeendeclassified froma superior appellation.Such Above thevillage arethepremier
appellations cruandthengrand cru
declassification
maybedueto excessive yieldsorbecause a quality
- sites- vineyards thathaveconsistently
madehigh-qualitywines.Itis
mindedproducer wantsto preservetheprestigeofthesuperior rarethatthevineyard willbelongtojustoneowner(thisistermeda
appellationbynotincluding lower-quality
wines. monopole); mostvineyards willbedividedbetween a number of
Bourgogne Rouge andBourgogne Blanc arethemostgeneric different owners, eachofwhomwillgrowandharvest theirindividual
appellations
andcancomefromanywhere inBurgundy. Theyare parcelofvines.
usuallymadefromPinotNoirandChardonnay. Inall,therearemorethan600premiers crusspreadbetweenChablis,
Therearealsoa numberofregional appellationsthateachcover theCoted'0randtheCoteChalonnaise. Together,theyprovide
slightly
morerestricted areas.TheseincludeBourgogne Hautes Cotes approximately a tenthofBurgundy's production.
These winesmust
deNuits,Bourgogne Hautes CotesdeBeaune andBourgogne statepremiercru onthelabel.Ifthewinecomesfroma singlevineyard
CoteChalonnaise. IntheMaconnais theregional appellationsinclude the nameofthevineyard alsoappearsonthelabel.Producers mayalso
Macon forredandwhitewinesorMacon Villages forwhitewines blendwinesfromvarious premiercruvineyardswithina village
inwhich
only. casenovineyard nameappearsonthelabel.
Atthetopofthehierarchy arethegrand cruvineyardsaccounting
for
Commune
Appellations littlemorethan1percentofthetotalproduction. Thereare33ofthese
Thenextstepinthehierarchy
isthatofcommuneappellations
suchas intheCoted'0randoneinChablis. Theycanberecognised bythefact
ChablisorGevrey
-Chambertin.
Theseaccount
forabouta thirdofthe thatonlythevineyard appearsonthelabel.Thetermgrand crumust
totalproduction.
Usually,
justthenameofthecommune willbegiven appearonthelabel.
88 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY On the Cote de Beaune, the important villages (and

500- 1000 m COTECHALONNAISE their grands crus) are Aloxe-Corton (Corton, Corton-
RUL.(:
Y & MACONNAIS • Charlemagne), Beaune, Pommard, Volnay, Meursault,
200- 500 m
Puligny-Montrachet (Montrachet), and Chassagne-
MERCUREY•
i----~--..,20mlles
""" t.
N Montrachet (Montrachet). All, with the exception of
GIVRY o Pommard and Volnay, produce white wine as well as red.
Chalon-
sur-Sa6ne The three villages with the highest reputation for their
white wines are Meursault, Puligny-Montrachet and
Chassagne-Montrachet, with the last two villages
sharing the grand cru of Montrachet.
Cote de Nuits-Villages can be a red or a white wine
and is produced from those vineyards that lie on the
Cote de Nuits, but that do not qualify for one of the more
famous village appellations. Cote de Beaune-Villages
46 30'N
must be red and can come from any one, or a
combination, of the villages on the Cote de Beaune;
however, there are exceptions.
The regional appellations of Bourgogne Hautes Cotes
de Nuits and Bourgogne Hautes Cotes de Beaune are
POUILLY
-
FUISS~_,... --.ll"< ~ A \ to the west of and at a higher altitude to the main strip
of vineyards. Their altitude and greater exposure to
winds gives them a cooler climate and means that the
MACON _ wines typically have slightly less body and
MACONVILLAGES D concentration.

The Cote Chalonnaise

From north to south, the key villages of the Cote de The Cote Chalonnaise lies to the south of the Cote d'Or.
Nuits (with their most famous grands crus sites) are Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are also the main grapes here,
Gevrey-Chambertin (Chambertin, Chambertin Clos de but due to the higher altitude of these vineyards the
Well-exposed
vineyards
in Beze),Vougeot (Clos de Vougeot), Vosne-Romanee harvest is later and ripening less reliable. Also, although
Pouilly-Fuisse
underthe (Romanee-Conti, La Tache and La Romanee), and Nuits- the vineyards are still found on hillsides, their aspect is
Roche
deSolutre. Saint-Georges. less consistently towards the east. As a result the wines

are lighter and tend to mature earlier. These wines are
seen as less prestigious than those of the Cote d'Or.
There are four village appellations. Rully produces
more white wine than red. It is also an important centre
for the production of sparkling wine. Mercurey is the
village on the Cote Chalonnaise whose red wines enjoy
the highest reputation. Givry, whose reds are
particularly admired, is the smallest of the village
appellations. Montagny produces only white wines.
These communes each have premier cru vineyards but
no grandscrus.
Bourgogne Cote Chalonnaise applies to all wines
made on the Cote Chalonnaise from Pinot Noir for red,
and Chardonnay for white. It is classified as a regional
appellation.
Maconnais
Chardonnay is the most widely planted grape of the
Maconnais, and the reds tend to be made of Gamay,
although some Pinot Noir is still grown.
Macon, the local regional appellation , can be red or
white . The better white wines show a good balance of
fresh apple or citrus fruit, medium acidity and medium
BURGUNDY 89
to full body . There may be a hint of creaminess from MLF.
The reds tend to be light and fruity and made for early
drinking .
Wines labelled Macon Villages or Macon, followed
by the name of a particular village, are white wines that
generally represent excellent value for money. Certain
individual villages, such as Lugny, have built up a
considerable following for their wines. A wine called
Macon Villages may come from any one, or a combination,
of the villages. The wines are generally similar in style to
white Macon, but tend to display more ripeness, body
and character.
There are a number of village appellations in the
Maconnais region, of which the two most famous are
Pouilly-Fuisse and Saint-Veran. The best wines from
these villages display ripe notes of tropical and stone
fruits and most are matured for a period of time in barrel
to enhance texture and add flavours. The vines are
planted on the limestone slopes of the Roche de Solutre
with east and south-east exposures. These amphitheatre -
like slopes, which act as natural suntraps, help produce
some of the richest and ripest Chardonnays in Burgundy,
which are often complemented by toasty oak flavours.
90 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
Although it is possible to make red, rose and white wines in Beaujolais, production
16 Beaujolais
is dominated by the red wines made from Ga may. Therefore only these wines will be
considered here. Styles range from wines that are light and fruity and best consumed when young, to
those that can develop complexity with bottle age.
GRAPE GROWING
The climate here is similar to the southern Maconnais
and is ideally suited to the early budding and ripening
Gamay. If not well managed, Gamay can produce large
yields, which results in lower-quality wines. It is therefore
no surprise that the best wines are made from grapes
grown in the granite soils that have low levels of
nutrients. This limits the yields and as a result the
flavours in the grapes are more concentrated. The
traditional method of pruning in the region is called
gobelet.The vines are pruned to spurs around the head,
and then the shoots are tied together, to hold them
vertically. However, an increasing number of grape
growers are now training their vines along wires to
allow for mechanisation.
Gamay gives fragrant wines with aromas of raspberry
and cherry fruit. The wines rarely have more than
medium levels of tannin and body, and the lightest
styles can even be served lightly chilled.
Gamayvinesengobeletearly
intheseason.
APPELLATIONS AND WINES
There is a hierarchy of appellations in Beaujolais. At the
bottom is the regional appellation of Beaujolais, this is
followed by Beaujolais Villages and at the top are the
individual appellations of the Beaujolais crus.
Beaujolais and Beaujolais Nouveau
To the east and south of the region lies the alluvial plain
of the River Sa6ne and it is here that Beaujolais is
produced, mainly by carbonic maceration and semi-
carbonic maceration . This is also the major source of
Beaujolais Nouveau, a wine that is specifically made
for early drinking. It cannot be released to the consumer
until the third Thursday in November after the vintage,
and cannot be sold by growers or negociantsafter the
following 31 August. Wines labelled as Beaujolais
Nouveau can only be of Beaujolais or Beaujolais Villages
quality; the ten cruscannot be sold in this way. Both
Beaujolais and Beaujolais Nouveau are light in body
BEAUJOLAIS MACONNAIS
lOmllH
• Beaujola
is crus
FRANCE
46 °N 46 N
BEAUJOLAIS
KEY lO00m+ 500 - l000m 200 - S00m

and tannin, with red berry fruit and often notes of
kirsch, banana and cinnamon-like spice from carbonic
maceration.
Beaujolais Villages and the Beaujolais Crus
To the north and west of the region, the vineyards are
planted on a series of rolling hills, where the granite soils
are found. Thirty-nine villages here have the right to call
their wine Beaujolais Villages. Individual village names
rarely appear on wine labels. Beaujolais Villages tend to
be made from blending wines from different villages.
Ten villages are entitled to their own appellation ;
these are the Beaujolais crus.The four with the greatest
BEAUJOLAIS 91
production are Brouilly, Morgon, Fleurie and Moulin-
a-Vent. Moulin-a-Vent and Morgon often produce the
most structured wines. The fruit concentration and level
of tannins mean that these wines can improve with
bottle-ageing. Brouilly and Fleurie tend to produce
lighter, more perfumed styles. A range of techniques
may be used in the production of these wines . Many of
these wines undergo a crushed-fruit fermentation and
some will receive oak ageing, often in large vats rather
than casks;the wines rarely display pronounced aromas
or flavours of new oak. Other producers use semi-
carbonic maceration or a small proportion of whole
bunches to give brighter fruit aromas.
92 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

AlsaceLocated on the border between Germany and France, Alsace is unusual for a French wine
17 region in that most of its wines are varietally labelled. Still wine production is focused on
aromatic white grape varieties made in dry, off-dry and sweet styles. Some red wine is also made.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING
Alsace has a cool to moderate continental climate. The
Vosges Mountains shelter the vineyards from the
prevailing westerly, rain-bearing winds and the lack of
clouds results in sunny summers and dry autumns.
These conditions ensure that the grapes can achieve
high levels of sugar ripeness, although in the driest
years drought can be an issue.
The best vineyards are located on the steepest slopes
with east and south-east aspects.The more northerly part
of the vineyard area has the coolest climate and the least
protection from the Vosges.The lesservineyards lie on the
plain between the Vosgesfoothills and the Rhine. Here
the grapes are often used for the production of Cremant
d'Alsace,the local AC sparkling wine. (Cremant is covered
in more detail in Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World.)
Alsace has had a dramatic geological history and as a
consequence there is a great variety of soils in the
vineyards that lie on the foothills of the Vosges.This
geological complexity is a key factor that contributes
to the variety of styles of wines produced, and the
influence of geology on wine production is more clear
here than in many other regions.
Grape growing practices vary depending on whether
the vineyards are on slopes or on the plain. On the
slopes vines are trained low to benefit from radiated
heat and the rows are oriented to maximise the vine's
exposure to the sun. Harvesting is done by hand. On the
plain the vines are trained high to minimise the risk of
spring frosts. Organic and biodynamic viticulture is
widely practised in Alsace in part due to the low disease
pressure in the sunny, dry conditions.
Many growers face a key logistical challenge at harvest
time because they have a number of small plots of vines,

ALSATIAN APPELLATIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

The appellation system in Alsace is very simple. There are only two principal appellations for still wines: Alsace
and Alsace Grand Cru. There are two other classifications for Alsace wines: VendangesTardivesand Selectionde
grains nobles.These depend upon the sugar ripeness of the grapes. Both Alsace and Alsace Grand Cru wines can
apply to use these terms.
However, this simplicity can cause problems as producers seek to distinguish between the different qualities
of wine that they produce. Becauseof this, it is common to find on labels statements such as Reservepersonnel/e
and Cuveespecia/e.These, however, have no legal status.

Alsace Manygrandscrusareconsideredbysometopproducersand
Alsaceaccountsforthevastmajorityoftheregion's production
. Most commentatorsto befartoolargeandencompasslandnotworthyofthe
winesaremadefromasinglegrapevarietyandthesewinesare appellation.
Forthisreasonsomeproducerswithgrandcruvineyards
varietally
labelled.
If agrapevarietyfeaturesonthelabel,100percent choose
notto labeltheirwinesasgrandcru.
ofthegrapes usedmustbefromthenamed variety.
Asmallnumber of
blends arealsomade; thesewinesarenotvarietallylabelled.
Some Vendanges Tardives(VT)
villageshavetherightto addtheirnameto thisappellationforcertain Thismeans'LateHarvest'.
These winescanonlybemadefromoneofthe
stylesofwine,although suchwinesarerare. fournoblevarieties
andmusthavea specific
minimumsugarripeness
dependingongrapevariety.Inthebestwinesthegrapeswill have
Alsace Grand Cru undergonepasseril/age,
andtheremaybesomeinfluence of noblerot.
There areover50vineyardsthateachhavetheirowngrandcru
appellation.
Thewinesmustbeproduced fromasinglenoblegrape Selection deGrainsNobles (SGN)
variety(Riesling,
Muscat,
Gewurztraminer orPinotGris);however,
a few Thesewinescanonlybemadefromoneofthefournoblevarieties and
exceptionstothisruledoexist.Thelabelmuststatethenameofthe musthavea certainminimum sugarripenessdependingongrape
vineyard,thevintageand,whereappropriate,thegrapevariety. variety
. Minimumsugarripeness
levelsaresethigherthanthoseforVT,
ControversyhasdoggedtheAlsace GrandCruappellation
fromthe andareusuallyachievedwithnoblerot.Thesewinesarenotproduced
start.Themajorissuecontinuesto bethatofvineyardboundaries. everyyearandonlyeverin smallquantities.
 ALSACE 93

planted with different varieties. Because the varieties

ripen at different times, the vintage may be spread over
quite a long period. This normally starts towards the
middle of September and may last until the end of
November or even the beginning of December for VT and
SGN wines (see section Alsatian Appellations and
Classifications).

WINEMAKING
AND WINESTYLES
A range of grape varieties is grown in Alsace. The most
important are Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris and
Muscat, often termed the 'noble' varieties. They are the
only grapes that can be used for VT, SGN and grand cru
wines.
The vast majority of Alsatian wines are made from a
single grape variety. Blended wines tend to be
inexpensive and made from juice that was not selected
for varietal wines. They are either labelled Edelzwicker or
Gentil, or otherwise they carry a producer's brand name.
Some very high-quality blends are made, including some
from grand cru vineyards, but these are very rare indeed . not typically show as much floral character as those from Aviewacrossto grandcru
Most of Alsace's grape varieties are aromatic and Germany. vineyards.
Aspectand
therefore winemaking is focused on retaining the steepnessof slopearevital
aromas and flavours of the grapes. Traditional producers Gewurztraminer ingredients
to qualityin
ferment their wines in large old oak barrels, often more Gewurztraminer is renowned for its pungent aromatic Alsace.
than 100 years old. On the inside of these there is a thick spicy nose, reminiscent of lychees, roses and sweet
tartrate deposit, which prevents the wood from having baking spices. The skin of the grape has a light pink
any influence on the wine . In modern cellars, stainless tinge, giving a golden colour to some of the wines.
steel vats are now more commonly used, facilitating the
control of temperatures at the time of fermentation. MLF
is normally not encouraged for aromatic varieties since
this would mask the pure fruit flavours, although some
producers allow it to occur. Bottling usually takes place
in the spring following the vintage, while the wine is
young and fresh. Most wines are then ready to drink, 48 ·3o·N

but many are capable of further evolution in the bottle .

With the exception of VT and SGN styles, the best wines
have traditionally been dry but in recent years more and
more wines, particularly at grand cru level, have been
made with noticeable sweetness. This has presented
producers with a problem as there is no official labelling
scheme to indicate the level of sweetness in a wine and
consumers often have no indication on the bottle to tell
.,...,
,.<>"'
...,
them whether they are buying a dry or sweet wine. VT
GERMANY
wines can vary in style even more, ranging from dry to
48' 00' N 4s•oo·N
medium sweet; again, there is no official requirement to
indicate the level of sweetness in the wine. SGNwines are
always sweet although the extent of the influence of
noble rot will vary from wine to wine. Knowing the house
style of the producer can therefore be very important.

Riesling
Mulhouse o
) KEY

\
•t !'
l000m+
Riesling is the most widely planted of the noble varieties .
The best are medium- to full -bodied, dry with medium ALSACE '...
,,. r 500-l000m

alcohol, high acidity and display citrus and stone fruit

(
/ (__,,..-- 200-S00m
aromas often with a pronounced stony/steely character. 50km
' " 10
" " ·-... )
:> . SWI •ZERLAND
47"30°N 100- 200m
However, many wines are now being made with some " 30mlle5

0- l00m
residual sugar. As a point of comparison these wines do
94 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Large
oakvatsare textured and have a pronounced flavour intensity with
traditionaltotheregion,but fresh and dried fruits and a honeyed character.
nowmanywinemakers are
usingstainlesssteelor, Muscat
increasingly
forreds,small There are a number of grape varieties called Muscat, two
oakbarrels. of which are grown in Alsace. The best wines come from
a
Muscat Blanc Petits Grains, and are intensely aromatic
with flavours of orange blossom, rose and grape. They
tend to have a light to medium body and low to medium
a
acidity. Unfortunately, Muscat Blanc Petits Grains is
prone to poor fruit set and rot, and so the less aromatic
Muscat Ottonel is more widely planted because it can be
relied on to crop more regularly.

Other Grape Varieties

Gewurztraminers tend to be full-bodied with a rich oily
texture, low to medium acidity and high alcohol: wines
of 14% abv are not uncommon.
PinotGris
The best Pinet Gris are rich, full-bodied and high in
alcohol, but often with more acidity than Gewurztraminer.
They can have a similar colour to Gewurztraminer, but
are less aromatic. On the palate they can be richly
Pinot Blanc is widely planted. It tends to be grown in the
more fertile soils of the plain rather than on the better
sloped sites. It is widely used for the production of
sparkling wines, but as a still wine, it is generally light,
simple and refreshing, and non-aromatic in style.
Auxerrois has similar characteristics to Pinet Blanc, but is
slightly spicier and more full-bodied. It is sometimes
blended with Pinet Blanc. Sylvaner used to be widely
planted but has now made way for noble varieties. It can
give wines that are delicately perfumed with some
richness but far less than Gewurztraminer. It is best drunk
young. Pinot Noir is the only black grape permitted in
Alsace. Typically these wines lack the weight and
concentration of Burgundian Pinet Noir and are often at
their best as a light fruity red or rose. Some winemakers
make more concentrated wines with new oak flavours.

TheLoireValleyThe Loire is France's longest river. However, the most important
of the Loire Valley only lie along the last few hundred kilometres of the
river as it flows west towards the Atlantic. This is a very varied wine region that is made up of a large
number of appellations. No one signature style is produced here; instead, there is an incredibly diverse
range of white, red and rose still wines.
The Loire Valley can be loosely grouped into four sub-
regions. From east to west they are the Central Vineyards,
Touraine, Anjou-Saumur and Nantais . These are not
appellat ions themselves and, furthermore, unlike most
other French regions there is no regional generic
appellation for the whole of the Loire. (Production of
Rose de Loire and Cremant de Loire is focused in Anjou
and Saumur respectively.) There is, however, an IGP -
Val de Loire - that covers the whole region. These wines
are typically straightforward wines displaying freshness,
a light body and simple fruit flavours.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING
The different sub-regions of the Loire Valley are subject
to different climatic influences . Overall the climate is
cool, but the Central Vineyards, which are well inland,
have a continental climate whereas the Nantais region,
with its coastal location, experiences a maritime climate.
The vineyards of Anjou are slightly warmer and drier
than might be expected given their proximity to the
ocean. They are protected by the Mauges hills and
certain vineyards there benefit from warm stony soils.
By comparison Touraine , which is further inland, has a
cooler, wetter climate and clay soils.
The vineyards lie at the northern limit for the
production of the grape varieties grown, and variations
in the weather patterns from year to year can mean that
vintages differ widely . Fungal disease linked to high
levels of rainfall can be a part icular issue. As with many
other cool climates the best vineyards tend to be those
that experience the most sunshine and warmth. The
most desirable locations are therefore those with a
southerly aspect, generally on the mid-slope, and facing
the river for extra heat and reflected light.
WHITE GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINE STYLES
Many grape varieties are permitted in the Loire. Only the
most important local varieties are discussed here.
Sauvignon Blanc
Sauvignon Blanc is mainly grown in the Central
Vineyards and Touraine . The Central Vineyards area has
by far the smallest production of the four sub-regions,
but it contains two of the most prestigious appellations
for Sauvignon Blanc wines: Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume.
These vineyards are located on very chalky, well-drained
stony soil. The wines from these regions tend to be dry
THE LOIREVALLEY 95
vineyards
18
and high in acidity, w ith hints of green apple and wet
stones. It is often said that those from Pouilly-Fume have
subtle smoky notes. Certain individual villages such as
Chavignol , and vineyards such as Les Monts Damnes
(both in Sancerre), have created high reputations for
particularly expressive wines. Some of these wines are
able to evolve in the bottle, although in most cases
Sancerre and Pou illy-Fume are not wines for ageing.
Winemaking techniques vary from producer to
producer . Gentle pneumatic pressing and temperature -
controlled stainless steel vats are used to create fresh,
fruity wines. Certain producers ferment and mature their
wines in old oak vessels and keep the wines on the lees
to give them a broader texture. A few use new oak.
Whether or not MLF takes place depends on the style
of wine the producer wants to create, and is most likely
to be encouraged in cooler vintages in order to lower
the acidity of the wines.
To the west and south of Sancerre, Sauvignon Blanc
is also produced from vineyards lying on the tributaries Oneofthetopvineyards
in
of the Loire. Here the most important appellation is Sancerre
. Notethewell·
Menetou-Salon, which provides a source of more drained
chalkysoilinthe
moderately priced wines made in the same style as foreground
andthesection
Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume. of vineyard
inthe
The majority of Sauvignon Blanc, however, comes background
thathasbeen
from the Touraine region. Here, this grape is used to clearedforreplanting.
 96 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

make white Touraine, a generic appellation that covers
the whole of the Touraine region. The wines often
appear under a varietal label such as Sauvignon de
Touraine. They often have less concentration than those
from the more prestigious appellations, and are usually
made in a simple fruity style.
Chenin Blanc
Chenin Blanc is a high acid non-aromatic grape variety
that is responsible for the greatest white wines of both
Touraine and Anjou-Saumur. One peculiarity with this
variety is that even within one bunch it is common for
grapes to reach different levels of ripeness. This can
result in green, herbaceous aromas if care is not taken
during the harvest to exclude unripe grapes. For this
reason, several passes through the vineyard may be
necessary at harvest time to ensure grapes are picked
at the desired level of ripeness.
The wines made from Chen in Blanc can be dry or
KEY
sweet, still or sparkling . The variety of styles that this
1000m+
grape produces is directly related to the degree of
500 - 1000 m ripeness that it has achieved at the time of picking.
200 - 500 m Barely ripe fruit (with only enough sugar to produce a
wine with 10-11 % abv) is used for sparkling wines,
100- 200 m
while the dry, medium and sweet styles of still wine
0- 100m reflect the use of increasingly ripe berries, including
those shrivelled in the sun or affected by noble rot .
Recent years have seen a move to seek greater ripeness
even for dry wines, giving wines with higher alcohol
levels that often have a few grams of residual sugar.
Young wines can have flavours that vary from fresh
apple through to tropical fruit, depending on the
ripeness of the grapes. The dry wines can also have a
steely, smoky character and the sweet wines often have
the apricot and citrus peel flavours of noble rot . Dry
and sweet Chen ins can age for decades. With age, they
become richer and rounder and develop aromas of
honey , toast and hay, which balance well with the high
acidity common to all of these wines.
Climate and soil can both have an important influence
on the style of Chen in Blanc wines, and as a result there
are clear differences between wines made in different
regions . Vouvray, located to the east of the city ofTours,
makes both still and sparkling Chenin Blanc wines . The
still wines range in style from dry to lusciously sweet
depending on the vintage. The cool climate and clay
soils here mean that Vouvray tends to be light to
medium in body, with fresh fruity and floral notes . It is
rarely fermented or matured in new oak. To the west,
Saumur and Anjou have similar climates and soils.
Saumur is renowned as a source of sparkling Chenin
Blanc made by the traditional method, whereas Anjou is

48 N 48.N

MENETOU-
SALON"--...,a
..f.ql!'r .-
SANCERRE

47°N -
SAUMUR-
CHAMPIGNY

ATLANTIC
OCEAN FRANCE

46.N

THE LOIREVALLEY • Nantais

Anjou-Saumur

LJ Touraine

o TO 20 30 40 50mlles
CentralVineyards
,,

better known for dry wines, that are often (but not
always) matured in new oak.
Savennieres and Coteaux du Layon are located
towards the west of Anjou-Saumur. The relatively warm,
dry climate here compared with that ofTouraine leads to
wines that are medium- to full-bodied, and less floral in
style . Savennieres produces full-bodied Chenin Blanc
in a dry style. Air circulation around these well-exposed
vineyards impedes the development of noble rot, but
enables late-harvested Chenin Blanc grapes to be used
for full-bodied, complex dry wines. The best wines are
noted for their ability to evolve for decades in the bottle.
Coteaux du Layon makes some of the most renowned
sweet wines in the region. The appellation is located in
the sheltered valley of the River Layon to the south of
the Loire, where noble rot develops well. The two most
favoured sites, Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux, have
their own appellations and rank among the world's
greatest sweet wines.
Melon Blanc
This variety is sometimes referred to as Muscadet or
Melon de Bourgogne . It ripens early and is frost-resistant,
making it well suited to the cool climate.
The vast majority of Melon Blanc is grown in the
Nantais region, which lies mainly to the south of the
Loire as it reaches the Atlantic. The wines are generally
known as Muscadet and are made in a number of
different appellations, usually with Muscadet in their
title. The appellation of Muscadet covers the widest
area but the greatest production comes from the more
highly regarded appellation of Muscadet Sevre et
THE LOIREVALLEY 97
Chenin
Blanc
bushvinesin
Savennieres.
Maine. All wines from the Muscadet appellations are dry
with medium alcohol (the maximum permitted alcoholic
strength for the wines is 12% abv). Traditionally, the
wines were fermented in large old oak vessels but now
concrete or stainless steel vats are more common. The
wines display high acidity, a light body and subtle green
fruit flavours. They should be drunk young.
Muscadet (Sevre et Maine) Sur Lie is a speciality
from the area. The wine is bottled in the spring following
the vintage, having spent the winter on its lees (lie is the
French for lees). This lees contact gives the wines a richer
texture. The wine is handled very little, to retain delicacy
and freshness.
RED GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINE STYLES
Cabernet Franc
Cabernet Franc is well suited to the Loire as it flowers and
ripens early. It is made in a range of styles, dependent on
site climate and soil, as well as winemaking techniques.
In Touraine, Cabernet Franc is grown in Chinon to the
south of the Loire and Bourgueil and Saint-Nicolas-de-
Bourgueil to the north. In all of these appellations light,
fruity wines for early drinking tend to come from sandy
soils, whereas fuller-bodied, more tannic versions come
from south-facing slopes with limestone and clay soils.
Some producers choose to mature their wines in oak,
and the best wines have the capacity to evolve in bottle
over many years.
To the west, Saumur and Saumur-Champigny also
produce red wines from Cabernet Franc. Overall the wines
here tend to be lighter in body and tannin than those from
the Touraine appellations, but display juicy berry fruit and
98 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
sometimes floral notes. They tend to be best drunk young,
particularly Saumur, and can often be served chilled. There
are, however, a few producers making fuller-bodied styles
that are capable of further ageing.
Other Black Varieties
Gamay is the second most planted black grape variety
in the Loire and is mainly planted in Touraine and Anjou
where it makes fruity, usually early drinking wines . A
small amount of Pinot Noir is grown in the Central
Vineyards. The best sites are usually reserved for
Sauvignon Blanc, and so these red wines tend to be
quite rare and generally light in style.
ROS~ WINE STYLES
Rose wines are mainly produced in Anjou-Saumur with
significant amounts also made in Touraine and Sancerre.
Rose de Loire can be produced in both Anjou-Saumur
and Touraine, but in practice it is mainly made in Anjou-
Saumur. It is always dry and must have a minimum of
30 per cent Cabernet Franc and/or Cabernet Sauvignon
grapes in the blend. Anjou-Saumur has another two
appellations for different styles of Rose, of which the
highest quality is Cabernet d'Anjou . This is always
medium-sweet in style and is made from a blend of
Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Rose
d'Anjou is less sweet and is made predominantly of
Grolleau (a local high yielding black grape) blended
with Cabernet Franc and other local varieties . The rose
wines ofTouraine can be made from a wide array of
black grape varieties and are generally dry, fresh and
fruity in style . Sancerre rose must be made from Pinot
Noir and is usually pale in colour, light in body and dry
with delicate fruit flavours.
Rose wines may be made either by direct pressing or
a short maceration on the skins. They are usually
fermented in inert, temperature-controlled vessels to
retain fruit flavours.
 THE NORTHERN RHONE 99

TheNorthern
RhOne Many of the vineyar_dsof th.e Northern Rh~ne ar_esituated on steep
slopes next to the River Rhone between V1enne m the north and
Valence in the south. Although they are responsible for only a small percentage of the total production
19
of Rhone wines, these northern vineyards are home to many of the premium wines.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING

At this point along its course the Rhone Valley is quite
narrow and steep. The vineyards are mainly planted close
to the river where the best sites occupy steep slopes
with a south-facing aspect. These sites often lie in lateral
valleys that feed into the Rhone, valleys that also serve
to protect the vines from the cold north winds known
as the mistral, which can easily damage them . Vines are
supported either by an individual stake or by a tepee-like
arrangement of stakes. The climate is similar to that of
Beaujolais: moderate and continental. Temperatures are
noticeably cooler than in the Southern Rhone.

GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING

The Northern Rhone is most closely associated with
powerful red wines made from Syrah. However,
although only a small amount of white wine is made it
has a significant reputation thanks in large part to the
popularity ofViognier among drinkers of premium
wines.
Black Varieties
Syrah is the only black variety permitted in the Northern
Rhone. At this latitude and with the cooling effect of
the mistral, Syrah is at the very northern limit of where it
can ripen successfully. Consequently the most prized
sites for Syrah have southerly exposures and are on very
steep slopes. This is particularly important in the cooler
northern reaches of the region.
The wines tend to be deeply coloured and have Tyingvinesontostakeswith
medium to high levels of tannin with black fruit , and raffiainthesteepvineyards
sometimes black pepper or floral aromas. The use of of CoteRotie.Each
vineis
oak is dependent on the winemaker; some use a high individually
staked.
proportion of new oak for their best wines whereas
others prefer to use older oak or larger barrels.
Fermenting Syrah with white varieties has traditionally
been practised in a number of the crus, but this
technique is now rarely seen. The addition of the white
grapes can help to stabilise the colour extraction from
the red grapes; Viognier in particular can also add an
extra aromatic intensity to the wine.

Thevineyards
of Hermitage
riseuponwell-exposed
steepslopesbehindthe
townofTain.
100 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY Cotes du Rhone can be made here too. Most of these

1500m+
crusof the Northern Rhone are tiny, with only Saint-
Joseph and Crazes-Hermitage covering a significant
1000-1500 m
45 "3D"N 45 •3o''N area.
500- 1000 m

200- 500 m CoteRotie

These vineyards around the town of Ampuis are the most
100- 200 m
northerly appellation of the Rhone valley. Cote Rotie,
0- 100 m
--
,.
:.
FRANCE
which translates as 'roasted slope; gives some idea of
their exposure to the sun. Only red wines are produced,
: although up to 20 per cent Viognier can be added . Its
use is limited and, when it is used, it is unusual to include
more than a small percentage. These wines are deeply
SAINT-
JOSEPH coloured, full-bodied, spicy and the best have an
I'
aromatic, floral freshness and textural elegance that
/ distinguishes them from Hermitage.

Condrieu
CROZES- This is a white wine made solely from the Viognier grape.
HERMITAGE
The area under vine has grown significantly in recent

1J~ l:::::~:g:E
years and the best wines come from low-yielding old
vines, grown on steep, well-exposed, terraced vineyards .
Tournon- ) Chateau-Grillet is a single property appellation within
ur-Rh6ne CROZES -
7 HERMITAGE Condrieu that produces wines in a similar style.
R./sere

t•..,cf\
45 ·oo ·N
NORTHERN o Valence
RHONE
20 aokm
t
\Smiles N terraced vineyards nearTournon, which can have a
White Varieties
Viognier makes full-bodied white wines with perfumed
aromas of blossom and apricots, and flavours of stone
fruits. The wines tend to have low acidity and high
alcohol as the grapes do not develop their signature
aromas until very late in the season when they have
reached a very high level of sugar ripeness. The grapes
need careful handling in the winery so that the wines do
not develop an overtly oily character that can overwhelm
the varietal aromas. New oak is increasingly being used
but it too has to be handled carefully as oak flavours can
easily overwhelm primary aromas. A small number of
wines are made in an off-dry style from late-harvested
grapes.
Marsanne and Roussanne are also grown in the
Northern Rhone and are usually blended together.
Marsanne has richness and weight whereas Roussanne
offers acidity and a perfumed fruit characteristic. These
wines do not have the aromatic intensity ofViognier but
they can age well and develop complex hazelnut aromas.
REGIONS AND WINES
Most of the wines in the Northern Rhone come from one
of the cru appellations, although theoretically generic
Saint-Joseph
Saint-Joseph runs along the western bank of the Rhone
from Condrieu in the north to Tournon in the south. The
vast majority of the wines here are reds made from
Syrah. Some white wines are made from Marsanne and
Roussanne.The best wines generally come from the
flavour intensity and structure similar to Hermitage.
Excellent wines are also produced just south of Condrieu.
Large volumes of relatively light-bodied wines, often
incorporating elements made using carbonic
maceration, come from the more fertile, flatter sites on
the valley floor and the plateau above the slopes. These
wines can be among the lightest-bodied of the Northern
Rhone, expressing the pepper-perfumed aspects of the
Syrah grape.
Hermitage
Hermitage is located on a steep south-facing slope,
behind the town ofTain-l'Hermitage. It is divided into
a number of /ieux-dits,named sites, which are not part
of the appellation system. They vary in steepness and
aspect, which gives wines of subtly different style and
body. The best Hermitage has traditionally been a
blend of wines from these different sites, but some
producers have started to release wines made from
specific lieux-dits.Red Hermitage is generally the fullest-
bodied of the Northern Rhone red wines and ages well.
Although up to 15 per cent of Roussanne and Marsanne
may be fermented with Syrah, this is now rarely done
and instead they are made into white wines that
account for approximately a fifth of Hermitage's
production.

Crozes-Hermitage
The most important appellation in terms of volume is
Crazes-Hermitage, whose vineyards lie on mixed terrain
around the hill of Hermitage. North of Hermitage the
vineyards are on slopes whereas most of the vineyards to
the south of Hermitage are on a flat plain. The red wines
are made from Syrah (with the option of adding up to
15 per cent Marsanne or Roussanne).Their quality, style
and price varies significantly depending on the location
of the vineyards. Lighter wines are from the higher
yielding flatter sites in the south. More concentrated,
complex and tannic wines come from vines growing on
the steeper slopes to the north. Some of the more
THE NORTHERN RHONE 101
expensive wines may be aged in oak. However, overall
the red wines of Crazes-Hermitage do not enjoy the
same reputation as those from Hermitage and Cote
R6tie. Some white wines are also produced.
Cornas
This is the most southerly of the red wine crusand is
by far the warmest. The vineyards lie on the sheltered,
well-exposed sun-baked south-facing slopes of the
many lateral valleys that exist here. Unlike the other
appellations, Comas must be made from 100 per cent
Syrah. The wines are deeply coloured, full-bodied, and
in a style and quality similar to Hermitage.
102 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
TheSouthern
RhoneThe vineyard area ~f the So~thern Rhone i~ much ~reater than that
20 of the Northern Rhone and 1t produces an 1mpress1verange of
wines, from high-volume and inexpensive to premium. Production is dominated by red wine, although
there are some high-quality white and rose wines too.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING
The Rhone valley opens out south of Valence and the
vineyards are planted on much flatter terrain than those
of the Northern Rhone. Many, but by no means all, of
the best sites have very stony soils that absorb the sun's
heat and warm the vineyard, aiding ripening. In some
sites, particularly in areas of Chateauneuf -du-Pape, these
stones or ga/ets completely cover the soil surface. The
climate in the south is different too. It is Mediterranean,
with mild winters and warm dry summers when drought
can be a problem. In this part of the Rhone the north
winds known as the mistralgain speed and can cause
extensive damage to vineyards. There are fewer slopes
to protect the vines from the wind, meaning windbreaks
have to be planted. For the most part, Grenache is bush-
trained low to the ground to offer protection from the
wind and to benefit from the warmth of the soil. Syrah is
more easily damaged in the wind and it benefits from
the support offered by trellising systems.
GRAPEVARIETIES
AND WINEMAKING
Instead of the wines being made from just one ortwo
different varieties, as is the case in the north, Southern
Thevineyards
ofthe
SouthernRhonearenot
restricted
to a narrow
valley
astheyareinthenorthand
manyareplantedonflat
openterrain.
Rhone wines are often complex blends. In certain
circumstances wines are made from a dozen or more
grape varieties.
Black Varieties
Grenache dominates most of the red wines of the
Southern Rhone and is by far the most widely planted
variety. The warm summers mean that Grenache can
ripen fully here, producing wines with concentrated
spiced red fruit flavours . However, in hot years the fruit
flavours can become baked and jam my. Syrah and
Mourvedre play a supporting role to Grenache. Syrah
provides blends with extra colour and tannin but it can
struggle in the hottest sites. Mourvedre, on the other
hand, is at the northern limit of where it can ripen
successfully and thrives in these locations. It is deeply
coloured and very high in tannins. When it is fully ripe it
can develop dense black fruit flavours as well as gamey
and meaty aromas that are highly prized by many top
producers, especially in Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Cinsault
can also perform a supporting role in red wine blends
providing red fruit flavours rather than tannin or colour,
but it is best known as a blending partner to Grenache in
the production of fresh, fruity roses.
It is not only the range of grape varieties used that
varies, but also the winemaking methods. Consequently,
it is almost impossible to describe a typical Southern
Rhone red, although all winemakers must find a way of
managing potentially high tannins and high alcohol
levels in order to produce a balanced wine. Techniques
vary from cold pre-fermentation maceration and storage
in stainless steel to warm extractive fermentations in
traditional open fermenters and maturation in large
old oak vessels. Usually winemakers will make up their
blends from wines that have been fermented using
different techniques. New oak is used by some, although
a number of traditional producers believe it overwhelms
the flavours of Grenache. The styles of the wines vary
from light- to medium-bodied fresh, fruity wines with low
tannins to highly tannic full-bodied reds with flavours of
spice, meat and/or earth .
White Varieties
The cultivation of white grapes remains a minority
concern in the Southern Rhone. There is no Southern
Rhone equivalent to Condrieu or Viognier. Clairette,
Grenache Blanc and Bourboulenc are the notable
additions to the Northern Rhone trio ofViognier,
 THE SOUTHERN RHONE 103

Marsanne and Roussanne, which are also grown here. Anoldbushvinein

The best whites are usually richly textu red and full- Chateauneuf-du-Pape.
The
bodied, high in alcohol, with low to medium acidity and largestones,orgalets,are
subtle fruity aromas. New oak is rarely used. clearlyvisiblecovering
the
soilsurface
.
REGIONSAND WINES
In the Southern Rhone, production is d ivided between
the regional and village appellations and the crus.

Generic Appellations
Cotes du Rhone accounts for more than half of the
entire production of appellation wines in the Southern
Rhone, most of which is red wine . Most are medium-
bodied, fruity but simple wines. Fruity roses and white
wines are made under this appellation too.
Within the Cotes du Rhone, a number of villages are
entitled to call their red and, in some cases,white and
rose wines Cotes du Rhone Villages. To qualify, more
stringent minimum alcohol levels and maximum yields
must be observed and a greater percentage of the blend
must be made from Grenache, Syrah and Mourvedre .
There are a number of individual villages that can add
their name on the label if 100 per cent of the wine comes
from the named village, for example, Cotes du Rhone
Villages Cairanne. These are the best w ines outside of
the crus,and have more body, structure and spiced red
fruit flavours than generic Cotes du Rhone. All of these
named villages have the option to apply for crustatus.

Chateauneuf-du-Pape
Situated on the east bank of the Rhone, Chateauneuf-
du -Pape is by far the largest of all the crusin the Rhone
valley . It has a particular place in French wine history,
because it was the first area to have Appellation contr6/ee
status .
The vineyard area is notably flat, although small
variations in aspect can have a marked impact on how
well Syrah and Mourvedre perform. The appellation 's
size and the associated wide range of soil types, aspects 44'00'N 44'00'N

and the large number of grape varieties winemakers can

choose from (13 in total) means that there is a lot of
diversity among the red wines for which the appellation
0 Nimes
is most famous. Grenache dominates as elsewhere in the
Southern Rhone. Some very successful Chateauneufs
are 100 per cent Grenache, while others make far greater
use of the gamey, meaty quality of Mourvedre. The best
wines are all full-bodied and richly textured with COTESDU RHONE D
concentrated spiced red fruit flavours that balance the

-!
COTESDU RHONEVILLAGES--
characteristic high alcohol. Unfortunately, the very
factors that offer consumers such interest and variety
also mean there is a lot of mediocre Chateauneuf that is
rather dilute and unbalanced by the high alcohol. A
small quantity of white Chateauneuf-du-Pape is made . Goffe du Lion 1----,-0--~ •~0 - ,~,. - ,,,~
, Mkm

Tavel and Lirac

These are the only two Southern crusthat are on the
KEY - 1soom+ 1000- 1500 m 500- l000m
west bank of the Rhone. They are most famous for the
production of rose. The roses, made mainly from 200-S00m 100- 200 m 0- l00m
104 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

Avineyardin 6igondas.
The
redwinesfromthiscruare
oftensimilar
in styleto the
morefamousChateauneuf·
du-Pape.

Grenache and Cinsault, are full-bodied compared with
Provence roses, intensely flavoured and capable of
developing greater complexity when aged in bottle (for
more information see section Provence in Chapter 21).
Only roses can be made in Tavel. Lirac also produces top
quality red and white wines in the style of Chateauneuf-
du-Pape.
Other Villages Promoted to Crus
Other Southern Rhone villages that lie in and around the
hills to the east of Chateauneuf have been promoted to
cru status. Gigondas and Vacqueyras are the two most
long-standing crus.They make red wines, usually
Grenache-led blends, in a similar full-bodied, spicy style
to Chateauneuf-du-Pape and many of the wines are as
good as those that come from the more famous
appellation. However, given the global success of
Chateauneuf-du -Pape these crusare likely to remain in
the shadow of their more famous neighbour. Some crus
also permit rose and white wine production . Beaumes de
Venise has a separate AC for its fortified Muscats called
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise. See Chapter 45 Fortified
Muscats for more details .
 SOUTHERN FRANCE 105

Southern
FranceThe vineyards of southern France lie along the Mediterranean coast
from Italy in the east to the Spanish border in the west. They are split into
three broad areas: Languedoc and Roussillon to the west of the Rhone, and Provence to the east. The
21
prevalence of the local IGP, Pays d'Oc, for the wines of Languedoc and Roussillon, alongside a number
of more traditional appellations means that a great diversity of wine styles can be found in this part of
France.

CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING
This region has a warm Mediterranean climate with
summer temperatures often in excess of 30°C, mild
winters and low rainfall levels especially during the
growing season. Consequently, in most years this area
can offer ideal conditions for growing grapes.
However, the region is by no means uniform.
Vineyards planted inland in the foothills of the
mountains that surround this region are noticeably
cooler than those on the coastal plain and often have
less fertile, well-drained soils that are better suited to
quality viticulture. Strong winds can also have a
significant impact on the climate. Cool dry winds blow
from the north, cooling the eastern and western ends
of the region. The mistralblows down the Rhone valley
and the tramontane blows through the gap between the
Massif Central and the Pyrenees.
The warm dry climate means that the biggest grape
growing challenge is drought, whereas fungal diseases
are less of a problem here than anywhere else in France.
However, the region can occasionally experience
summer floods.
GRAPEVARIETIES
AND WINEMAKING
Black varieties account for the majority of the plantings
in the region . The last 20 years has seen dramatic
changes to the composition of the vineyards and today
both black and white wines reflect a mix of local and
international varieties.
Black Varieties
The most important local varieties include Grenache
and Syrah. Grenache is well suited to the warm, dry
summer climate, whereas Syrah tends to perform better
in the cooler sites. Carignan is also widely grown. This
grape is naturally high in tannin, acidity and colour but
can lack fruit or finesse, although old vine Carignan on
poor soil can produce quality wines. Its popularity in the
past was due to its ability to produce enormous yields;
however, plantings have been reduced significantly, a
trend that is likely to continue. Nevertheless, it is still so
widely planted it is permitted by all AC regulations. There
are smaller plantings of Cinsault, which is used in rose
production or to add red fruit flavours to red blends.
Mourvedre can ripen successfully only in the warmest

Ploughing
during
the
growing
seasonto keep
weedsundercontrol.
106 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
KEY
- 2000m+
Massif
1500- 2000 m , Central
1000- 1500 m
FRANCE
500- l000m
200- 500 m ,.
44 N
100- 200m
0- 100 m
\
,
G o ffe du
Lio n
MEDITERRANEAN
42'N
SPAIN
sites and plays an important role in blends adding
richness, colour and complexity . There are also significant
plantings of international varieties, particularly Merlot,
but also Cabernet Sauvignon, that are used in the
production of IGPwines.
Most wines of the South of France have benefited
from investment in modern equipment, improved cellar
hygiene, temperature control, oxygen management and
the judicious use of new and old oak. Semi-carbonic
maceration is practised by some producers as it can play
an important role in softening the tannins in Carignan.
White Varieties
Grape varieties that were not traditionally grown in the
region now dominate the plantings of white varieties.
Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc are the two most
widely planted varieties and are used in the production
of IGPwines . There are smaller but still significant
plantings of Viognier . The most widely planted local
varieties are Muscat and Grenache Blanc. Muscat is used
in the production of sweet fortified wines, but is also
sometimes used to make dry wines with aromatic
grapey aromas. Grenache Blanc makes dry wines that
have a soft peachy fruitiness, full body and low acidity,
but tend to oxidise easily. It is often blended with other
local or Rhone varieties. There are a number of local
varieties that are grown throughout the region such as
Picpoul in Pinet, Mauzac in Limoux, Maccabeu in
Roussillon, Rolle in Provence and Clairette in Languedoc
and Provence that are prized in their specific locales. Of
these, Picpoul is perhaps best known, producing wines
with refreshing high acidity and green fruit and citrus
flavours.
Pays d'OcIGP D
LanguedocAC ~
SEA
SOUTHERN
FRANCE
40 60 km
LANGUEDOCAND ROUSSILLON
The majority of the wines from the south of France come
from the vineyards of the departements of Aude, Herault
and Gard traditionally known as Languedoc, whereas the
vineyards of the departement Pyrenees-Orientales are
known as Roussillon. There is a large coastal plain area
between Beziers and Montpellier. Further inland and
towards the Spanish border the vineyards become more
hilly and rugged.
Appellation Wines
Languedoc is a generic appellation that covers all the
appellation vineyards from the Spanish border to
Nimes. The best sub-regions within Languedoc can add
their names to the label alongside Languedoc AC, for
example, Pie-St-Loup. Above this there are a number
of more geographically specific appellations such as
Cotes du Roussillon and Minervois, which have their
own individual regulations. Certain areas within these
appellations have been recognised for their quality and
now have their own sub-appellations such as Minervois-
La Liviniere. The appellation system continues to evolve
as the sub-regions of the Languedoc apply for full AC
status.
Most appellations permit the production of red, white
and rose. The vast majority of these wines are red and
based on the quartet of grapes: Carignan, Grenache,
Syrah and to a lesser extent Mourvedre . It is very difficult
to describe a typical wine from each of the appellations,
not only because of the possible variations in the blends
but also because many appellations cover significant
geographical areas with different climatic and soil
conditions dominating in different zones. The cooler

areas produce wines with more finesse and lighter
tannins and often produce the best Syrahs. In the
warmer areas Mouvedre is at its best and wines have
greater body and some meaty, gamey flavours. However,
in the larger appellations, wines can often be blends of
these different styles. The best wines are full-bodied and
have concentrated spicy red fruit often with oak flavours.
Rosestend to be soft and fruity wines .
A few examples can show this diversity. Cotes du
Roussillon is more consistently rugged and
mountainous than the other areas of the Languedoc.
Bright sunlight , low rainfall and particularly strong winds
can produce concentrated wines . The best vineyards
are in the north and qualify for Cotes du Roussillon
Villages. Fitou, just to the north of Cotes du Roussillon
Villages, is split into two separate areas: a warm coastal
strip that produces fuller-bodied wines and another
cooler area inland and at altitude, where lighter wines
predominate. Corbieres covers warm sites near the
coast and vineyards planted at altitude that are cooled
by the tramontane.It has been subdivided into 11 sub-
regions, the best of which, Boutenac, has its own AC.
Minervois lies on the slopes of the Massif Central. The
vineyards do not reach the coast but vary in their
qualities due to altitude, the richness of the soil and
the extent of their exposure to the cooling influences
from the Atlantic. It too is subdivided and the best sub-
region, La Liviniere, has its own AC.
Whites can vary as dramatically as the reds depending
on the grape variety and location . Picpoul de Pinet is
near the coast, the cooling sea breezes helping to retain
the natural high acidity of the Picpoul grape . By contrast,
Limoux benefits from the cooling effect of altitude and is
a source of premium oaked Chardonnays.
SOUTHERN FRANCE 107
IGPWines
More IGP wines are made in this area than in any other
region of France, and they are vital for the commercial
survival of grape growing in the south of France. Most
are sold under the regional name of Paysd'Oc, which
covers all the departementsthat make up Languedoc-
Roussillon. The success of these wines is the result of a
number of factors . The IGP regulations permit a wider
range of grape varieties as well as varietal labelling, and
the warm, sunny climate means that large volumes of
ripe, fruity wines can be produced here relatively easily
compared with other areas of France and therefore
many of the wines are excellent value for money.
PROVENCE
The landscape is very varied and is broken up by many
prominent ranges of hills . These offer protection from
the mistral,and provide a great variety of different site
climates and soils. Roses account for the vast majority of
production. These wines tend to be very pale in colour,
light-bodied and dry on the palate, and display delicate
flavours of grapefruit and red fruits. Red wines range
from fresh and fruity to more full-bodied, barrel-matured
styles. The best white wines often make a feature of the
aromatic qualities of Rolle or Clairette.
Cotes de Provence is by far the largest appellation in
Provence. Roses account for the vast majority of
production. Along the coast there are three isolated
pockets of vineyards, each with its individual Appellation
contr6/ee.The most important of the three is Bandol,
located to the east of Marseille. It produces premium
reds based on the Mourvedre grape, which is able to
ripen reliably on the region 's south-facing terraces slopes.
These are dark, full-bodied wines with powerful tannins,
and they require bottle age before they show their full
spectrum of bramble, meat and liquorice-spice flavours .
108 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
GermanyGermany is the country producing the highest concentration of world-class Rieslings.
22 Whether dry and steely, medium-sweet and floral, or lusciously sweet, German
winemakers' mastery of this variety is unquestionable. However, there is more to German wines than
one variety. In particular, the amount of red wines being made is increasing and Pinot Noir, here called
Spatburgunder, has a growing reputation for premium quality.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING
Most of the wine regions in Germany have a cool
continental climate, with all the associated problems,
although the vineyards in the far south in Baden are
not iceably warmer. Summers can be wet; however, the
rain generally declines in autumn during the final stage of
ripening. The long, cool ripening period gives the grapes
time to reach sugar ripeness while retaining their acidity.
When the conditions are right, noble rot will develop and
botrytised sweet wines can be made in every region in
Germany. Annual weather conditions vary considerably,
leading to significant variation in the quality, quantity
and styles of wine made from year to year.
In such marginal conditions, small differences in
vineyard location can make significant differences in the
quality of wine. In nearly all regions the best sites are
found on steep and often stony slopes with a southerly
aspect, which maxim ise the available heat and sunlight.
Vineyardswitha favourable These vineyards have to be worked by hand and on the
aspectanda high most extreme slopes equipment has to be manoeuvred
ofslateonthe into place by winches. On these slopes, vines are head-
concentration
surfacebenefitfromextra pruned, individually staked and the canes tied in at the
warmth. top of the stake to maximise grape exposure to light and
circulation of air. Where vineyards are located near a
river, reflected sunlight can also help the grapes to ripen,
and the air movement created by flowing water can help
protect against frosts.
Because of the fact that wines are classified by must
weight (the level of sugar in the grape juice), the harvest
can be spread out over a number of weeks and months.
It is possible to make a range of Qua/itcitsweineand
Prcidikatsweineeach year from an individual vineyard.
Pickers will pass through the vineyard several times in
order to ensure that they get the ideal grapes for each
category of wine. Grapes can also be sorted and
categorised after each picking.
GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINESTYLES
In order to satisfy the demands of the local market, the
ongoing trend in German winemaking is for dry styles of
wine. These wines, both red and white and at all quality
levels, will quite often simply be sold as Qualitcitsweine.
Prcidikatsweineare largely the preserve of white wines
and in order to keep things simple these styles will only
be discussed in the context of Riesling which, in terms
of vineyard plantings and wine quality, is the most
important grape variety in Germany. It is important to
note that other grape varieties are also produced as
Prcidikatsweine.
Riesling
Riesling is the most widely planted grape variety in
Germany. The variety expresses itself differently from
region to region, and even from vineyard to vineyard,
due to variations in the climate and soil. Flavours can
range from delicate and floral to a richer peachy fruit
character. Wines can range from bone dry to lusciously
sweet. The dry styles are often labelled as Qualitcitsweine.
They range from light and fruity to very concentrated
and intense and many of the very best are labelled
GrossesGewcichs(GG)- see section German Wine Laws
and Labelsopposite. On the other hand, nearly all wines
labelled as Prcidikatsweinewill have residual sugar, but
up to the category Ausleseit is possible for these wines
to be made in a dry style. The key to understanding
Prcidikatsweineis to think of them as an indicator of
style.
Kabinett - These wines are the most delicate
Prcidikatsweine.Rieslings made in this style will be light
 GERMANY 109

in body, with high acidity and flavours of green apple or
citrus fruit often balanced with residual sweetness . The
sweet styles will have an alcohol level between 8-9%
abv whereas drier styles can reach 12% abv. It is possible
to sweeten these wines after fermentation by adding
unfermented grape juice (Siissreserve) but this is not a
technique that is used to make high-quality wines. The
best sweet styles of Kabinett are made by stopping the
fermentation early, before the yeast has converted all of
the sugar in the juice to alcohol. This achieves a better
sugar/acid balance.
Spatlese - These wines are made in the same way as
Kabinett but they are more concentrated, riper and
have a little more body, alcohol and, where relevant,
sweetness, compared with a Kabinett wine from the
same region. Citrus and stone fruit aromas (peach or
apricot) are common characteristics of Spiitlese wines
made from Riesling.
Auslese - These wines are made from individually
selected extra-ripe bunches of grapes. Whether dry or
sweet, Auslese wines are richer and riper compared with
Spiitlese wines from the same region and regardless of
style noble rot can play an important part in the flavour
profile of these wines.
Beerenauslese (BA) and Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) -
Noble rot is essential to achieve the must weights
necessary for TBA. It is not essential for wine labelled
BA(it is possible to reach the minimum must weight
without noble rot); however, noble rot is typical for these
wines. Some sites are well suited for these wines but
BAand TBAare not necessarily made every year and

GERMAN WINE LAWS AND LABELS

The vast majority of wine produced in Germany is PDOand this will be the focus here. Some PGIwines are made
and they are labelled Landwein. Wine without a GI is simply labelled Deutscher Wein.
ForPD0winethereare13delimited regions,
someofwhicharecovered Minimum must Category
of PDO
wine Winestyle
inthischapter. However,theseregionsarenotlinkedto specific
grape weightat harvest
varieties
asisthecaseinthewidely copiedFrench appellation
system. lowest Qualitiitswein dryto medium
sweet
Instead,
winesaretypically varietally
labelled
andclassified
by Priidikatswein

!
minimum mustweightat harvest.Therearetwofundamental levels • Kabinett drytomediumsweet
inthesystem, Qualitatswein andPradikatswein, andthelatteris •Spiitlese drytomediumsweet
subdivided intosixPriidikat
categories.EachPriidikat
canbemadein •Auslese drytosweet
• Beerenauslese
(BA) sweetonly
a varietyofdifferent
sweetness levels.
Thekeyinformationisshown
•Eiswein sweetonly
inthetable.
highest (TBA) sweetonly
• Trockenbeerenauslese

WineLabels
AllPD0winesmustcomefromonlyoneregionandthenameofthe Thereisnothingonthelabelto indicate
whethera wineisfroma single
regionwillappearonthelabel.ForPriidikatsweine
thePriidikatlevel vineyardornotbuttheretailpriceisnormally
a veryreliable
indicator.
willalsoappearonthelabel.Varietal
labellingiscommon andlabels
mayalsoinclude information
aboutthefollowing threeareas: Indications ofquality- ThePriidikatlevelsarea goodindicator of
style,somethingdiscussedinthesectionRiesling. However, thereare
Sweetness- Drywinescanbelabelled andwinesthatareoff-
trocken nolegallydefinedlabellingterms,suchasPremier CruandGrand Cru,
dryormedium canbelabelled Someproducers
halbtrocken. feelthat thatcanbeusedto indicate thequalitylevelofa wine.
hasa negative
halbtrocken association
withlowerqualitywinesanduse Thishastosomeextentbeenaddressed byanindependent group
thetermfeinherbinstead.Unlike
theothertwoterms,feinherb
isnot ofGerman wineproducers calledtheVerband Deutscher
legally
defined.Many winesdonothaveanyindicationofsweetness on Pradikatsweingiiter (VDP). Themembers haveclassifiedtheir
thelabelbutthiscanoftenbededuced fromeitherthewinecategory vineyardswhich,byconsensus, includethevastmajority ofthebest
orthealcohollevel. sitesinGermany.
Thisclassification
istypicallyonlyseenonlabelswhenmembers
Vineyard location- Thisiscommonly statedonGerman winelabels. makedryQua/itiitsweinefromthebestvineyard sites.Thesedrywines
Thenameofthevillage comesfirstandthisisfollowedbythenameof arecalledGrosses Gewachs andthisisindicated bythelettersGG
thevineyard.Forexample,
a winelabelledPiesporter
Goldtropfchen
is anda bunchofgrapesthatareembossed ontheneckofthebottle.
fromthevineyard ofGoldtropfchen
locatedinthevillage
ofPiesport. Thevarieties
permitted bytheVDP varyfromregionto region.Itis
Thevastmajorityofthewineslabelledthiswaywillbefromsmall importantto notethatGrosses Gewiichsisa trademark oftheVDP and
singlevineyards.
However,
lowerqualitywinesthataremadefrom isnotpartoftheGerman winelaw.Nevertheless, theseareconsidered
grapesthatcomefroma largenumber ofneighbouring vineyards
can to betheverybestdrywinesmadeinGermany.
belabelledinthesameway(forexample, Piesporter
Michelsberg).
 110 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
GERMANY
80 100 km
49
GERMANY
,/ / \-
·,__,..
KEY volumes vary considerably when they are made. These
2000 - 4000 m wines are sweet and low in alcohol with flavours of
honey, dried stone fruit, candied peel and flowers .
1000- 2000 m
They rank among the best sweet wines in the world .
500- 1000 m
200-500 m Eiswein - These are genuine rarities and are made
0-200 m
infrequently. Importantly, noble rot is not a key
component of this style and the focus is rather on
varietal purity . The best of these wines achieve a very
fine balance between acidity and sweetness.
Winemakers also seek to maintain varietal flavours,
which can be accentuated by using carefully selected
yeast, handling the juice with care and avoiding
processes that could mask the flavours of the grape,
such as MLF or new oak.
Other White Grape Varieties
Miiller-Thurgau (Rivaner) is a crossing made in the
1880s between Riesling and Madeleine Royale. It ripens
earlier than Riesling but it does not have the same high
level of acidity or flavour intensity. It can produce an
attractive floral and fruity wine but in Germany it rarely
produces wines of high quality . It remains the second
most widely planted white variety but it is now in steady
decline as the market for the inexpensive medium -dry/
medium -sweet Qua/itiitsweine made from the variety has
declined.
Silvaner is the third most widely planted white grape
variety and is mainly found in those regions where it
has traditionally been strong, in particular Rheinhessen
and Franken. Silvaner is made in both dry and sweet
styles. It generally gives wines that are both less acidic
and less overtly fruity than Riesling and can sometimes
have an earthy quality . On the right site it is capable of
producing high-quality wines.
There are important and growing plantings of
Grauburgunder/Rulande r (Pinot Gris) and
Wei8burgunder (Pinot Blanc), which are often labelled
using the French or Ital ian name and typically made
in a dry style.
Black Grape Varieties
Spatburgunder (Pinot Noir) is the third most planted
grape variety in Germany. It thrives in the warmer
vineyard areas and is particularly important in Pfalz
and Baden. Wines are dry and either relatively light and
fruity or made in a more concentrated style that often
includes oak aromas.
Dornfelder is the other black variety that is widely
planted. It produces particularly deeply coloured wines .
Other varieties include Portugieser, Trollinger and
Schwarzriesling (Meunier). These varieties typically
produce light-bodied and fruity wines although
intensely coloured and flavoured examples with some
oak character exist. The vast majority of these wines
are sold as Qualitiitsweine and consumed by the
domestic market .
WINE REGIONS
Mosel
This region includes the River Mose!, from where it joins
the River Rhine (Rhein) to the German border and its two
small tributaries, the Saar and the Ruwer. White grapes
and Riesling in particular dominate production. Riesling
is the only permitted variety for GG wines .
Production is concentrated in the centre of the region
in an area known as the Middle Mose! where there are a
number of villages that have an established reputation
for top -quality wine . The best known are Piesport,
Bernkastel and Wehlen. The best vineyards are found
on very steep slopes with slate soils right next to the
river. The Rieslings here are typically lighter in body ,
lower in alcohol and higher in acidity compared with the
wines of Rheingau, Rheinhessen and Pfalz. Floral and
green fruit flavours predominate.
The cooler Saar and Ruwer account for only a tiny
percentage of the overall plantings in the Mosel. The
best wines are similar in both style and quality to the
Middle Mosel often showing an even higher level of
acidity . In cooler vintages grapes from even the best
sites do not ripen fully and are used in sparkling wine
production.

Nahe
The vineyards of the Nahe are spread over a wide area
that lies in between the Mosel and Rheinhessen. The
best vineyards are situated on the banks of the River
Nahe itself in the short section between the villages of
Schlossbockelheim and Bad Kreuznach. These vineyarl;ls
are on steep south-facing slopes. The best wines are
made from Riesling, which is the most widely planted
variety here, and can be made in a style that lies in
between that of the Mose I and the fuller bodied wines
from Rheingau, Rheinhessen and Pfalz. This is the only
permitted variety for GG wines. They have the
pronounced acidity of the Mose I but they can have a
slightly riper fruit character as the climate here is warmer.
Rheingau
The Rheingau is a small but prestigious region. Most
vineyards are situated on the slopes of the north bank
of the River Rhine (in the west of the region) and the
River Main (in the east) and have a southerly aspect. This,
combined with the protection offered by the Taunus hills
to the north, provides optimal conditions for ripening
grapes.
The majority of the vineyards lie on the slopes to the
west of the region and surround the villages of
Johannisberg and Riidesheim. Riesling dominates
plantings and the majority of the wines are made in a
dry style. The Rieslings have a medium to full body and
a distinct ripe peach character to their fruit flavours. The
humid conditions generated by the Rhine mean that
some of Germany's best BA and TBA wines are made
here too. The vineyards to the east of the region on the
Main are centred around the village of Hochheim. The
Rieslings can be riper and fuller bodied due to a slightly
warmer climate . Some excellent Spatburgunder is also
made here to the west of Ri.idesheim in the village of
Assmannshausen. GG wines can be made from Riesling
or Spatburgunder.
Rheinhessen
This is the largest vine-growing region. A very broad
range of black and white varieties are planted here.
Mi.iller-Thurgau and Riesling are the two most planted
varieties of either colour. Black varieties, mostly
Dornfelder, Portugieser and Spatburgunder, make up
approximately 30 per cent of the plantings. GG wines
here can be made from Riesling or Spatburgunder .
The reputation of Rheinhessen was based on the
steeply sloping vineyards on the west bank of the Rhine
centred around the village of Nierstein. This area, often
referred to as the Rheinterrasse, produces some of the
fullest-bodied Rieslings in Germany.
In recent years a number of growers working in areas
that do not have a long-standing reputation for wine
production (for example the area in the south of the
region near Worms) have started to produce top-quality
wines. As a result, Rheinhessen has gained a reputation
for innovation and excellence.
GERMANY 111
Pfalz KEY
Pfalz is the second largest wine-growing region in 500- 1000 m
Germany . The majority of the vineyards can be seen as
200- S00m
a continuation of the vineyards of Alsace. They run in a
narrow 80 kilometre strip north from the French border 100- 200 m
and lie to the east of the Haardt Mountains, which are a 0- l00m
continuation of the Vosges.This means that the Pfalz is
the driest of the German regions and in very warm years
the vines can suffer from water stress.
Riesling is the most widely planted variety and has
the longest reputation for high-quality winemaking.
Mi.iller-Thurgau is also widely grown, while plantings of
Grauburgunder and Wei8burgunder are gradually
increasing. Black grapes account for just under 40 per
cent of the vineyard area. Dornfelder is the second most
widely planted variety of either colour and there are
significant plantings of Portugieser (for the local market)
and Spatburgunder (which is gaining an international
reputation). GG wines can be made from Riesling,
Wei8burgunder or Spatburgunder.
The most established quality vineyards surround
Forst and Deidesheim, an area often referred to as
Mittelhaardt. Set on the steep slopes to the west of the
villages, the vineyards here produce a ripe, fuller-bodied
style of Riesling. As has happened in Rheinhessen, young
and energetic growers are making top-quality wines
outside of this core region. The majority of wines are
now made in the drier styles.
Baden
Baden is the warmest and most southerly wine region
and produces the fullest-bodied German wines with the
highest alcohols. Baden's vineyards are spread over a
large geographic area although in terms of vineyard
area it is only the third largest vine-growing region in
Germany. Most of the vineyards are spaced out over a
narrow strip of land that follows the Rhine to the Swiss
border . Nearly a third of the plantings are concentrated
112 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Aspectandslopearekey
factorsthatdetermine
fruit
qualityinMosel,
in the areas of Kaiserstuhl and Tuniberg, which are
situated opposite Colmar in Alsace.
The best vineyards are on the south-facing slope of the
Kaiserstuhl (an extinct volcano) and make the most of the
available warmth. This area has developed a reputation
for top-quality Spatburgunder, the most widely planted
variety in Baden. There are also substantial plantings of
Mi.iller-Thurgau, followed by Grauburgunder,
Wei8burgunder and then Riesling. GG wines can be
made from a range of white and black varieties.
Franken
White winemaking dominates in Franken but, unusually
for Germany, Riesling is neither the most widely planted
nor is it considered to be the most prestigious grape
variety. Here Silvaner comes into its own. The early
flowering and ripening Silvaner is susceptible to frost
damage, and is planted in the warmest sites.
Consequently, Silvaner is able to achieve a concentration
that is rarely achieved elsewhere in Germany.
The best wines from the south-facing slopes around
Wi.irzburg are dry with a richness on the palate and
often an earthy quality. They are bottled in distinctive
flask-shaped bottles. GG wines can be made from
Silvaner, Riesling, Wei8burgunder, Grauburgunder or
Spatburgunder.

AustriaAustria is best known for the quality of its dry white wines, both from its own grape
variety Gruner Veltliner, and from Riesling. However, Austria is also home to many fine
red wines made from the local varieties such as Zweigelt and Blaufrankisch and sweet botrytised dessert
wines made from Welschriesling.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING
The Alps cover the western parts of Austria and
consequently the wine producing areas are found at the
eastern end of the country. These vineyard areas have
a cool continental climate, with short summers and
very harsh winters. The more northerly regions can
experience cooling northerly winds, whereas those
closest to the Hungarian border are warmed by easterly
winds. There is much less variation in annual weather
patterns than in northern Europe.
GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING
White Grape Varieties
The most widely planted variety is Gruner Veltliner,
a high-quality grape that has given Austria a point of
difference in export markets. It tends to produce fresh
but unexciting wines if yields become too high, but
when grown with care it is capable of producing full -
bodied, concentrated wines with naturally high acidity.
In youth it often gives flavours of citrus or stone fruit,
sometimes with hints of white pepper, and develops
layers of honey and toast as the wine ages.The majority
of producers ferment and store their wines in stainless
steel, however, old oak casksare also commonly used,
and some producers may mature a proportion of their
best wines in new oak barriques.
AUSTRIANWINE LAWS
The vast majority of wine made in Austria is PDO.PGIwines are labelled Landwein and wines without a
geographical indication are labelled Wein.
PDOWines
There
arefourfederalstatesandafurther16smaller
areasthatqualify
forPDQstatus caneitherhavethestatusQualitiitswein
. These orDAC.
Qualitatswein- Thefourfederalstatesandsevenofthesmaller areas
aredesignated
fortheproduction ofQualitiitswein.
Winescanbemade
from35permittedgrapevarietiesandthewinescanbemadeinany
style.
AQua/itiitswein
mayalsobelabelled witha Pradikatlevel.This
labelling worksinthesamewayasthePriidikatsweine
system thatexist
in Germany.
InAustria
thesetermsaremainlyreserved formedium-
sweetandsweetwinesandtherearetwoadditional Priidikate.
These
areAusbruch,
whichisa classification
betweenBeerenaus/ese
(BA)and
AUSTRIA 113
23
The second most planted white variety is
Welschriesling (note this is not the same grape variety
as Riesling).When produced in a dry style its wines are
usually fresh but simple, displaying citrus and green
apple flavours and high acidity. However, due to its
susceptibility to botrytis it is also capable of producing
high-quality dessert wines.
Riesling is less widely planted and the best examples
tend to come from Wachau, Kamptal and Kremstal.
These are usually dry and medium- to full-bodied, with
ripe, peachy primary fruit. The best examples are capable
of maturing in bottle.
Other widely planted varieties are Chardonnay, Muller-
Thurgau and Sauvignon Blanc, the last of which has a
growing reputation particularly in the southern region of
Steiermark.
Black Grape Varieties
The most widely planted black variety is Zweigelt
(Blaufrankisch x St Laurent) which gives very deeply
coloured reds with soft tannins and bramble fruit.
Blaufrankisch, which is the most highly regarded of the
Austrian black varieties, produces wines with medium
tannins, high acidity and a peppery, sour cherry flavour.
St Laurent is an Austrian speciality that gives wines
similar in character to Pinot Noir. Oak ageing is common
Trockenbeerenaus/ese
(TBA),andStrohwein
orSchi/fwein,
where
bunches of grapes
arelaidoutonbedsofstraworreedsduringthe
winter,to concentrate
sugars.
Districtus
Austriae Controllatus (DAC) - Nineofthesmaller wine
regions
haveelected to become DAC.lfthe producers in a regioncan
agreeonagrapevariety(orvarieties), a styleof wine(andasetof
regulations
to gowithit) thattheythinkbestreflects theirarea,then
theregioncanbeawarded DACstatus. Once thishashappened, only
winesthatconform to thisstylecanusethenameoftheappellation.
Otherwinesmadeintheseareas thatdonotconform to thisstylecan
onlybelabelledwiththenameoftherelevant federalstate.
114 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

KEY (Styria), and Wien (Vienna). The first two account for the
4000 m+

2000 - 4000 m

1000- 2000m

500- lOOOm
AUSTRIA

t---~~--,~,m-llu~•ookm
•1 CZECH
REPUBLIC

49 N
vast majority of production .

Niederosterreich (Lower Austria)

This is the largest of the regions for both production and
exports . The majority of the vineyards lie on the banks
of the Danube and further north towards the Slovak
200-500 m
border. Of the eight sub-regions, Wachau is the most
0- 200m
renowned for high-quality dry wines made from either
Gruner Veltliner or Riesling. Steep, often terraced, south -
facing vineyards next to the Danube maximise exposure
48 'N
48N
to the sun, and allow GrunerVeltliner and Riesling
AU,STRIA
.,. , f} )- grapes to develop highly concentrated flavours. To date,
,. Wachau has not chosen to become a DAC and has
.-
t··
.,,r~ '--J instead relied on its own classification system. Kamptal
,,
.......,_\. Ne~~f:dlersee
DAC and Kremstal DAC lie just north ofWachau and
(' ,...✓•
\ > BURGENLAND
produce wines in a similar style and quality from either

4TN
0 Graz -~ Gruner Veltliner or Riesling.
Weinviertel DAC is Austria's largest vine -growing area
..l-5 47N
/ HUNGARY and was the first Austrian DAC.The wines can only be

,.-·----~._;-·-·---t-·(.( made from Gruner Veltliner. There are two levels to this
DAC. Klassikwinesmust be made in a light, fresh and
..,,. \.
•-"'-•y-'' SLOVENIA ("''·.h...., fruity style with no discernible oak flavours . Reserve
wines must have a higher minimum alcohol and are
allowed to be matured in oak.
for these wines. A number of producers are blending
these Austrian varieties with international varieties such Burgenland
as Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon or Merlot. This region lies to the east of Austria, along the border
with Hungary, and is best known for top-quality sweet
REGIONS AND WINES wines and red wines. Dry whites are made too,
For PDO wines, the four federal states are principally from Pinot Blanc, Welschriesling, Gruner
Niederosterreich (Lower Austria), Burgenland, Steiermark Veltliner and Chardonnay.

Wachau issituatedina
steep-sidedvalleycutoutby
the River
Danube.

Neusiedlersee, a vast shallow lake in the north of the
province, is the key for sweet wine production in this
region. The vineyards for sweet wine production are
situated on the low-lying ground near the lake to
benefit from autumn mists that come from the lake and
the wetland regions on its margins. These are ideal
conditions for botrytis, which can almost be guaranteed
every year. Welschriesling is one of the most widely used
grape varieties for these sweet wines .
AUSTRIA 115
The best red wines in Austria come from the higher
ground away from the lake and in the hills further south.
Zweigelt is the most widely planted variety. Other
varieties including Blaufrankisch and St Laurent, and
internat ional varieties such as Pinot Noir, Merlot and
Cabernet Sauvignon are also grown. Neusiedlersee is a
DAC for Zweigelt. There are three DACs for Blaufrankish,
the largest of which is Mittelburgenland.
116 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

24 TokajThe region of Tokaj (note the wine it produces is called Tokaji) is located in the foothills of the
Carpathian Mountains in the far north east of Hungary and close to the Slovakian border. It
has a long-standing reputation for producing premium botrytised sweet wines, but Late Harvest sweet
wines and dry wines are becoming more popular.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE VARIETIES
Tokaj's climate is moderate and the best vineyards are
located on hillside slopes with southerly aspects.The
Bodrog and Tisza rivers and their many tributaries help
generate the early morning humidity necessary for the
development of noble rot.
There are three principal white grape varieties that are
used in the making ofTokaji; they are often blended.
Furmint is the most widely planted variety and makes
concentrated, high acid white wines with flavours of
apples when young, developing into nuts and honey as
they age. It can make premium quality dry white wines
but due to its late ripening and susceptibility to botrytis
it is better known as the principal grape variety used
for sweet Aszu wines. Harslevelu is also late ripening
and contributes perfume to a blend. Sarga Muskotaly
a
(Muscat Blanc Petits Grains) is also used for its aromatic
qualities.
WINE STYLES
Tokaj has long been famous for its sweet wines, which
rank among the best in the world, but producers are
increasingly making top-quality dry wines as well. The
dry wines are bottled in 75 cl bottles whereas the sweet
wines are by tradition bottled in distinctive 50 cl bottles.
Depending on the degree of noble rot development,
a producer will often make a number of different styles
of wine in each vintage. To allow for this, pickers may
separate the grapes into three different categories during
the harvest. Where noble rot has been widespread
pickers pass through the vineyards several times
selecting individual aszu (rotten) grapes. Bunches that
remain unaffected by noble rot are collected separately.
There is also a selection known as Szamorodni, which
means 'as it comes'.This involves bunches that are
partially affected by noble rot. These three different
harvests can then be used to make a variety of different
styles of wine.
DryWines
Dry wines without botrytis - This category is gaining
importance. It allows producers to make wine in years
where there is not much noble rot. These dry wines can
vary in style from simple, unoaked wines that are made
to be drunk young to more concentrated age-worthy
blends, which are often fermented and matured in new
oak. These wines are usually made from Furmint.
Tokaji Szamorodni - These wines are made from the
grapes harvested as Szamorodni and may be dry (szdraz)
or sweet (edes),depending on the amount of noble rot
that is present. By the nature of the harvest the dry

TOKAJI SWEET WINE LAWS

As of the 2013 vintage, the producers ofTokaj have been working in line with new regulations regarding the
winemaking and labelling of their sweet wines. At the time of writing, these regulations were awaiting EU
approval. If these laws are approved it is still essential to be aware that wines made to the traditional laws
(vintages up to and including 2012) will still be on the market for many years. It is therefore useful to be familiar
with both the traditional laws as well as the proposed changes.

TraditionalLaws 2013Laws
Theminimum residualsugarforTokaji
Aszuwastraditionally 60g/Land Theminimum residual
sugarforTokaji Aszuhasbeenraised to 120g/L.
thewineswouldbelabelled ona scaleofthreeto sixputtonyos Thisisthelevelofsugarthatwastraditionally needed forawineoffive
depending onthelevelofresidual
sugarabove thisminimum amount. puttonyos.Wines witha lowerlevelofresidual sugarmustnowbe
Minimum ageingrequirementswerestipulatedwhereby thewineshad labelledasLateHarvest orTokaji
Szamorodni depending onhowthey
to spend24months in oakandcouldonlybereleased fromtheJanuary aremade .ThelabellingtermAszuEszencia hasbeenabolished (but
inthefourthyearafterharvest.
ThesweetestwinesintheAszticategory notethatthetermTokajiEszencia stillexistsforwinesmadefromthe
couldbelabelled
AszuEszencia; aminimum of 180g/Lresidual sugar free-runjuiceofasztiberries).
WinesintheTokaji Aszucategory arealso
wasrequired. nowsubject to shorterageingrequirements; a minimum of 18months
in oakisneeded andthewinescanbereleased intheJanuary ofthe
thirdyearafterharvest.

wines will show noble rot characters. The wines must be
aged in cask for a minimum of one year and be two years
old before release. Most wines are aged for longer. Casks
for the dry wines are not completely filled, to enable
f/or-like yeast to form naturally on the wine; the wine
develops a character similar to that of a Fino Sherry. This
yeast does not have a role to play in the sweet styles,
which consequently may have an oxidative character
although the modern trend is to produce a less-oxidative
wine by filling casks for sweet wines completely.
Sweet Wines
Aszu wines - The production ofTokaji Aszu starts with
a base wine that is made from healthy grapes. Before,
during or after fermentation, the aszu berries are
macerated in the base wine. The maceration usually lasts
for 12 to 60 hours. Traditionally the botrytised berries
were made into a paste, but using uncrushed aszu
berries avoids the extraction of bitter flavours. This
mixture is pressed and then the wine is matured for a
period oftime in oak.
The amount of aszu berries used determines the
sweetness of the final wine. The unit used to express the
level of sweetness is the puttony. Classic Tokaji is deep
amber, with high acidity and intense aromas, and
flavours of orange peel, apricots and honey. The wines
become more concentrated and intense as they rise up
the sweetness scale.
TOKAJ 117
FAR
LEFT:
Grapes
inTokaj
showingthedifferentrates
at whichnoblerotaffects
the bunches.
LEFT:
Thepickerisselecting
individualasz,igrapes,
whichcanbe seenin the
bucket.
Tokaji Eszencia (Essence, or Nectar) - These are
extremely rare wines that are seldom available outside
the region of production. Eszenciais made using just the
free-run juice of the aszu berries. The must is so sweet it
can take years to ferment, and even after that time the
wines remain very low in alcohol (usually less than S%
abv). The legal minimum level of residual sugar is 450 g/L.
This is balanced by very high acidity and the wines have
an enormously concentrated flavour. They are able to
mature and retain their freshness for a century or more.
Modern style sweet wines - These wines are usually
made from grapes that have spent extended time on the
vine and are often labelled as Late Harvest. Some may
use botrytis-infected fruit. Where noble rot is present,
these wines are produced by fermenting the botrytised
grapes (the method used for wines such as Sauternes or
TBA) rather than by the macerating process used for
Tokaji Aszu. They may also be matured for less time than
Aszu wines. These wines are typically labelled with the
term Late Harvest.
118 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

GreeceGreece's most interesting wines arguably come from the country's many indigenous
25 varieties. These grapes thrive in hot, arid conditions, and provide Greece with a unique
selling point on export markets. The three grape varieties that have received most recognition on export
markets are each linked to a particular wine region: Xinomavro from Naoussa, Agiorgitiko from Nemea
and Assyrtiko from Santorini.

CLIMATEAND GRAPEGROWING
Overall Greece has a hot Mediterranean climate. In the
summer, temperatures can reach well over 30°(, although
coastal areas tend to be moderated by the sea. Altitude
and wind, which in the islands to the south-east of the
mainland are strong enough to destroy unprotected
vineyards, can also have a cooling effect . Most of the best
vineyards are to be found in these cooler sites away from
the blistering heat commonly associated with Greece.
Rainfall levels can vary, but even in the wetter areas in the
west of the country the almost complete lack of rain in
the growing season can cause water stress. Drought is a
particular concern on the eastern side of Greece,which
lies in the rain shadow of the mountains where there is
little available water for irrigation.
REGIONSAND WINES
There are over 200 grape varieties native to Greece, very
few of which are grown elsewhere. These varieties are
well adapted to survive in the arid, hot conditions found
in Greece and many can produce high-quality wines.
There are some plantings of both black and white
international grape varieties but most PDO wines require
the use of native varieties . Of the many wines that are
made in Greece the following three have gained the
widest international reputation.
NaoussaPDO
Naoussa is in northern Greece in the region of
Macedonia. The vineyards are at altitudes up to 400
metres and are noticeably cooler than the surrounding
area. This PDO is for red wines that are made exclusively
from Xinomavro, a variety that is often compared with
Nebbiolo. It has high levels of tannin and acidity and
its wines have traditionally had a medium colour that
quickly fades to tawny and they tend to lack fresh fruit
aromas even in their youth. As with Nebbiolo these
wines are long-lived and can develop complex spice
and earthy aromas with age. Some winemakers are now

•1
choosing to make their wines in different styles. Some
are more deeply coloured and less tannic; and some are
GREECE
aged in new oak.

NemeaPDO
Nemea is in the north of the Peloponnese close to the
narrow strip of land that joins the peninsula to the rest
of mainland Greece. This is a PDQ for red wines that are
made exclusively from Agiorgitiko. The vineyards are
spread over a wide range of altitudes from 230 to 900
metres. The best fruit comes from the vineyards in the
middle of this range. Fruit from the hotter lower slopes
can be overly jammy and tends to be made into fruity
wines for early consumption. The fruit from the higher
slopes has a higher acidity and less fine tannins. It can
add freshness to a red blend but it is best suited to rose
production. The best wines have a deep ruby colour
with high levels of smooth tannins, low to moderate
KEY acidity and sweet spice and red fruit flavours . These
wines have a great affinity for new oak and age well.
2000- 4000 m

36 N
1000- 2000 m 3ffN Santorini PDO
500- 1000 m Mediterranean Santorini is a windswept volcanic island in the Aegean
Sea
CRETE Sea.The winds are so strong that a unique training
200- S00m
method has to be used here to protect the vines. The
0- 200 m
permanent wood is trained very low into a basket
 GREECE 119

GREEKWINE LAWS
The wine laws of Greece follow those of other EU countries, with wines classified as Protected Designation of
Origin (PDO) or Protected Geographical Indication (PGI).For export markets producers of dry PDO wines may
either use the term Protected Designation of Origin or, less frequently, Appellation d'origine de qua/ite
superieure (a subcategory within the PDO classification) on their wine labels. On the domestic market the Greek
equivalent of PDO is used (Prostatevomeni Onomasia Proe/efsis).

shape and the fruit grows on the inside . The PDO covers Aclose-up
ofanAssyrtiko
red and white wines made in dry and sweet styles, but vinein Santorini.
Thebasket-
it is the white wines made from the Assyrtiko grape liketraining
systemprotects
that have the highest reputation. Dry wines from this the vineandthegrapes
grape display perfumed aromas and concentrated againsttheverystrong
flavours of ripe citrus and stone fruit, balanced by the windsexperienced
here.
natural high acidity of the variety . The sweet wines are
known as Vinsanto. Late-harvested grapes are sun-dried
for up to 14 days. The wines are then aged in old oak
barrels for a minimum of two years, although many
producers age their wine for far longer. The luscious
sweetness is balanced by high acidity and the older
wines show a marked oxidative character of caramel
and nuts.
 120 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Introduction
to Italy Italy is home to a la~ge number of grape var'.etie~, many of which
26 are rarely seen outside of the country. The d1vers1tyof these
varieties and the styles of wine they produce mean that it is simpler to cover Italy over a number of short
chapters. In this brief introduction we cover the wine laws that apply throughout Italy and show how the
different wine regions relate to each other on the map.

•
ITALIAN WINE LAWS
ITALY The geographical indications below are common to
all Italian wine regions.

t---'-r~--½-~-e ,so-'-,2
,oo..
00mllu
t
N PDOWines
TheItalianforPDO isDenominazionedi OrigineProtetta(DOP)
~ -- ~ ./
. butthefollowingtraditional
termsaremorewidelyseenonlabels:

Denominazione di OrigineControllata - Thewinesinthis

{DOC)
category
aresubjectto geographical
boundaries
aswellaslimitations
ongrapevarieties
andproduction
methods.

Denominazione
di OrigineControllata
e Garantita{DOCG)
- In
additionto meetingallDOCrequirementsthesewinesmustbebottled
intheareaofproduction andaresubjectto a Ministry
ofAgriculture
tasting.

PGIWines
TheItalianforPGIislndicazione Protetta(IGP)butthe
Geografica
traditional
termlndicazione Tipica(IGT)iscommonly
Geografica
used.
40"N ' 40' N
TYRRHENIAN
SEA OtherLabellingTerms
ALABRI
J - Overtime,theboundaries
Classico ofa numberofappellations
have
J expanded to allownewplantingsoutsidetheoriginal
zone.Theterm
Palermo. • •,.· Classico
acknowledges winesthathavebeenmadesolelyfromthe
original
classifiedlandandincludes
manyofthebestwinesfromthe
SICILY area.
'----r ..___ ./ ~&\} Riserva - Thistermacknowledgeswineswithbothhigheralcohol
ALGERIA .}__, TUNISIA
, I levelsandlongerageingthanthe minimumsstipulated
bythe
appellationlaws.

KEY 1500 m+ 1000- 1500 m 500- 1000 m

200- 500 m 0- 200 m

 NORTHERN ITALY 121

Northern
Italy Northern Italy produces a wide range of wine styles from the full-bodied
tannic reds of Barolo to the delicate white wines of Soave. All this is possible
because of diverse geography and an incredible number of unique local grape varieties. This chapter will
27
cover the regions of Alto Adige, Trentino, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto and Piemonte.

CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING

The vineyard regions of Northern Italy are located in the
AUSTRIA NORTH-EAST
foothills of the Alps and on the extensive plain of the 47 N

River Po. Overall, the area has a moderate climate with

ITALY
dry, short summers . The Alps form a barrier that extends a 20 40 60 80 100km

the length of the north Italian border, and shelte r the

vineyards from rain. Local rivers, including the Po, and
glacial lakes, such as Lake Garcia, provide a moderating
influence to inland areas. Areas that lie close to the sea
SLOVENIA
can have higher levels of rainfall, meaning that fungal
diseases can be a problem. COLLIO
46' N 46"N -
The vineyards in the north of Italy were traditionally
planted with high yielding vines at low densities. A
complex trellising system called pergola was common.
In this system the vine canopy is t rained high with
the fruit hanging down below a horizontal canopy of
leaves. This protects the grapes from sunburn as well
as allowing air to circulate, minimising the risk of rot .
Pergolas are still used when high acidity and low sugar ADRIATIC
levels are required (such as for sparkling wine grapes) SEA
and also when wines are to be made from dried grapes,
which need to be free from damage and disease.
However, higher density plantings using VSPtrain ing
are now more common.
Trentino KEY
TRENTINO-ALTO ADIGE Trentino is located directly to the south of Alto Adige. lS00m+
AltoAdige The valley is wider here than further north and vines
1000-1500 m
Centred around the town of Bolzano in the foothills of are planted on the valley floor as well as the slopes on
the Alps, Alto Adige is Italy's most northerly wine region . both sides of the valley. Trentino has dry summers and S00-l000m

The vineyards are planted on terraces on the south-east-
and south-west-facing valley sides of the River Adige. The
region has a moderate climate , with short, dry summers
and low rainfall during the growing season. Most of the
vineyards experience a large diurnal range due to their
altitudes, making them ideal for the production of
aromatic whites and elegant, light-bodied reds.
The most notable white wine here is Pinot Grigio. It
tends to be made in a dry style, with a light to medium
body, high acidity and citrus and green fruit flavours
(for further details on how this variety is typically
produced see section Pinot Gris/Grigio in Chapter 8).
Gewurztraminer, Chardonnay and Pinot Blanc are the
next most important white grapes. Red wine production
is dominated by Italian variety Schiava, producing light
fruity wines with low to medium tann ins and flavours of
raspberries and plums. Almost all wines are labelled
under the regional name of Alto Adige DOC.
low rainfall during the growing season, similar to Alto 200- 500 m
Adige, but overall the vineyards experience a slightly
100- 200m
warmer climate. This is due to Trentino's more southerly
0- 100 m
latitude, the greater number of vineyards at lower
altitudes, and the mountains to the west side of the
valley that protect the region from the cooling
influences of Lake Garcia.
The main varieties are Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio.
The wines made from grapes grown on the valley floor
tend to be medium-bodied with medium acidity and
ripe stone fruit flavours . Those made from grapes grown
at higher altitudes are more similar to the whites from
Alto Adige. Merlot and the Italian varietyTeroldego are
the two most planted black grapes, grown mainly on the
mid -slopes and valley floor. The latter grape produces
wines with a deep colour , medium to high tannins, high
acidity and a medium to full body with aromas of black
fruit . The wines are normally matured in oak, and the
122 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
VineyardsinAltoAdigeset
againsta mountainous
backdrop.
best examples have the ability to age. Most wines are
labelled under the regional name ofTrentino DOC.
FRIULI-VENEZIA GIULIA
The wine region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia is located in
northern Italy's eastern corner. The most northerly
vineyards in the region are located in the foothills of the
Alps. The climate is moderate and continental, cooled by
cold air from the mountains. The vineyards in the south
of the region are based on the flat plain near the Adriatic
Seaand experience a warm maritime climate . A large
number of grape varieties are planted, producing rich,
ripe white and red wines, the most prevalent being
Pinot Grigio and Merlot. Friuli-Venezia Giulia produces
some of the richest Pinot Grigio in Italy, the medium- to
full -bodied wines displaying juicy peach and tropical
fruit flavours. Merlot is the most planted black variety,
making medium-bodied wines with medium acidity and
tannins and ripe red fruit flavours, often with a hint of
spice from oak. The native white Friulano is also widely
grown giving wines with medium to high acidity,
medium body and aromas of pear, red apples and herbs.
Wines from the plain are labelled Friuli Grave DOC.
They tend to be white, and made in a simple, fruity style.
The regions of Collio DOC and Colli Orientali DOC,
both located in the hills, are known for premium, more
concentrated white wines with Colli Orientali also noted
for its reds.
VENETO
Veneto is one of Italy's largest wine-producing regions
and home to some of its best known wines, Soave and
Valpolicella. The region extends from the southern end
of Lake Garda in the west to Venice in the east and
ranges from the foothills of the Alps in the north to the
flat plains of the Po in the south . The climate is warm
with moderate rainfall. Cooling influences come from
altitude, exposing the vineyards in the foothills to a large
diurnal temperature range, and breezes from Lake Garda
cool the vineyards in the west of the region . The flat
plain is affected by moist air and fog from the River Po,
increasing the number of sprays needed to combat
disease and rot.
The flat fertile plain is a source of fruit for inexpensive,
high volume brands growing international grape
varieties such as Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay and Merlot
and Italian grapes like Corvina, Garganega and Trebbiano.
High yields mean that these wines are usually simple and
fruity . They are labelled Veneto IGT.
Prosecco is a sparkling wine DOC, the greater part of
which is in Veneto, although some of the vineyards are
located in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (for more details see
Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World) .
Soave
Soave is east of Verona and has two distinct parts :
foothills to the north and a flat plain in the south , near
the River Po.The soils on the foothills are made up of
limestone and clay with some volcanic rocks. These soils
are naturally cool, and this together with the influence of
altitude, slows down ripening, leading to grapes with full
flavour ripeness yet high acidity . The wines are capable
of maturing for a number of years. The vines on the plain
are planted on sandy, alluvial soils that aid ripening so
 NORTHERN ITALY 123

the grapes are fruitier with medium acidity and the GrapedryinginValpolicella.
wines are meant to be drunk young. The main variety is Thegrapesarestored
the Italian white grape Garganega but small amounts of indoors
inveryshallow
other white grape varieties can be added to the blend. stackable
cratesto keep
The wines typically have medium to high acidity levels, themfreeofrotasthey
a medium body and display aromas of pears, red apple, shrivel.
stone fruit and sometimes white pepper. They do not
typically display any aromas or flavours of new oak. The
best examples can age, developing aromas of almonds
and honey .
Wines made using grapes from the entire region can
be labelled Soave DOC but wines made using grapes
from the foothills can be labelled Soave Classico DOC.

Valpolicella
Valpolicella is north-west of Verona, and has a similar
topography to Soave. The foothills in the north have
limestone, clay and volcanic soils, which slow down
ripening so the grapes have more acidity. The soils in the
flatter south of the region are gravel and sand, which is
warmer, so the grapes are fruitier with less acidity . The
main grape in Valpolicella is Corvina, an Italian grape
native to the region, which has a thin skin, moderate
colour, low to medium tannins and high acidity. In order
to increase the colour and tannins of the wine, local
grape varieties can be added to the blend. Wines made
using grapes from the entire region can be labelled as
Valpolicella DOC and wines made using grapes from
foothills can be labelled Valpolicella Classico DOC.
The wines are simple and fruity, with light tannins, and
display red cherry flavours; they are rarely caked and
are made to drink immediately.

The passito method - The passito method is widely

used in the Veneto to increase structure and flavour
concentration (and colour in the case of red wines) .
The grapes are picked early when they are still high in
acidity and dried indoors, concentrating the sugars and
flavours. The fermentation does not get underway until
the winter months. There are two types of passito wine in
Valpolicella. Wines labelled Amarone della Valpolicella
DOCG are dry or off-dry in style. They are full-bodied,
with high alcohol, medium to high tannins and intensely
concentrated red berry and spice flavours. These wines
are usually aged in large oak casks.Wines labelled
Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG are made from grapes
that are so sweet the fermentation stops naturally. These
sweet wines have intense red fruit flavours, high alcohol
levels, a full body, and medium to high tannins . The
Soave region makes a sweet white wine by the same
method, labelled Recioto di Soave DOCG.
The ripasso method - The ripassomethod uses grape
skins from a fermenting Amarone della Valpolicella.
Shortly before fermentation finishes the Amarone is
drained off the skins. The skins remain unpressed and
are added to a vat ofValpolicella that has finished its
fermentation. Yeast, which are also transferred in this
process, ferment the remaining sugar on the Amarone
grape skins, during which time the grape skins give more
colour, flavour and tannins to the wine they have been
added to. Wines made in this method can be labelled
Valpolicella Ripasso DOC and are medium to full-
bodied with medium to high tannins and flavours of
stewed red cherries and plums .
PIEMONTE
Piemonte is located in the north-west corner of Italy.
Mountains to the north provide a rain shadow
protecting the region from northern winds and
precipitation. The climate is moderate and continental
with long, cold winters and summers that can be subject
to thunderstorms, hail and fog . Some moderating
influences come from the Po River in the southern part
of the region and Lake Maggiore in the north. The area is
noted for its foothills, ranging from 1SOto 600 metres,
124 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

-1
and tannins and they have the ability to develop in the
bottle.
PIEMONTE
The wines are often made from grapes sourced from
different villages. A village name may appear on the
label if the grapes are sourced purely from that area, for
>--~-,........._
_ ____._,,O_m_ll~ ~ •Okm
example Barolo Serralunga d'Alba DOCG. The best wines
come from named vineyards or crus,which may appear
on the label, such as Barolo Cannubi DOCG.The region
does grow other grapes, mainly Dolcetto and Barbera,
which are labelled using the generic Alba DOC.
Barolo DOCGmust be aged for three years before
release, of which 18 months must be in oak. Traditionally,
Barolo was aged for several years in large oak barrels to
~ urin
soften harsh tannins. Today, improvements in vineyard
45 00'N 45 00 N management and gentler methods of extraction result in
\ ·--- wines with smoother, riper tannins, and mean that many
producers now choose to mature their wines for shorter
periods of time . Oak maturation may take place in small
barrels (often including some new oak) or larger casks
depending on the style that the producer wants to
achieve. All Barolo wines tend to benefit from further
bottle ageing. This continues to soften the tannins and
adds further complexity, giving the wine aromas of
truffles, tar and leather.

DOLCffiO • Barbaresco
44 30 ' N
D'ALBA l
The smaller region of Barbaresco is also renowned for
c·'
l )
Nebbiolo. It has south-facing slopes at lower altitudes
LIGURIA
({ than those of Barolo (200 to 400 metres). The lower
altitude and influence from a local river means that
Nebbiolo ripens earlier here compared with Barolo and
Gulf of
Genova is fruitier and less perfumed. It has similar acidity and
tannin levels, which gives the wines the ability to age in
bottle. By law, Barbaresco DOCG must be aged for two
years before release, with nine months in oak. As the
KEY which provide different aspects and altitudes for region is smaller than Barolo, there are fewer mentions
1500 m+
viticulture. The main grapes for Piemonte are the black of villages on the labels but higher quality wines will be
varieties of Nebbiolo, Barbera and Dolcetto and the from a single named vineyard or cru.
1000- 1500 m
white varieties of Cortese and Moscato (Muscat).
500- 1000 m There are many designated wine regions within Asti and Alba
200- 500 m Piemonte, but the more famous wine areas are located The wider area around Asti and Alba is home to a
south of the main city Turin, around the towns of Asti number of DOCs and DOCGs.The majority of these
100- 200 m
and Alba. Barolo DOCGand Barbaresco DOCGare the appellations are named after a grape variety followed by
0- l00m most prestigious appellations in the region, but a their nearest town. The black Barbera grape is the most
number of other DOC and DOCGwines are made in the widely planted variety and is used to produce Barbera
wider area around the two towns. There is no IGT or IGP d'Alba DOC and Barbera d'Asti DOCG, the latter often
for the region with all wines achieving either DOC or regarded as higher quality. It is a late ripening grape,
DOCG status. with medium to deep colour, low to medium tannins
and high acidity, displaying aromas of red cherries and
Barolo plums and sometimes black pepper. The wines are
The wine region of Barolo is a horseshoe-shaped valley typically made in two styles: youthful and fruity with
spanning several villages each having steep (300 to 500 no oak influence, or barrel-aged to give spicy flavours.
metre) south-facing slopes. Barolo DOCG must be made Dolcetto is also widely planted. It is earlier ripening
entirely from Nebbiolo, a black grape with high levels of than Nebbiolo and Barbera and therefore can be
acidity and tannins but little colour. The grapes ripen planted in the coolest sites. Dolcetto d'Alba DOC tends
slowly at these altitudes developing perfumed aromas to produce many of the finest wines. The wines have a
of sour cherries, herbs and sometimes dried flowers. In deep, often purple, colour with medium to high tannins
the best years the wines are full -bodied with high acidity and medium acidity. They display aromas of black plums,
 NORTHERNITALY 125

red cherries and dried herbs. Both Barbera and Dolcetto WinesmaturinginBarolo.
can be drunk young but the best examples can age for Notethatheretheproducer
several years. is usingbothlargeand
Nebbiolo is also widely planted throughout this area. smaller oakvessels.
Asti is also famous for its sparkling wines made from
Moscato (see Chapter 42 Sparkling Wines of the World).

Gavi
The white wine region of Gavi is located in south-eastern
Piemonte. The vines are grown in hills where the altitude
and sea breezes result in long, slow ripening of the white
grape Cortese, emphasising its natural high acidity and
floral character. The wines are labelled as Gavi DOCG or
Cortese di Gavi DOCG. If the grapes come from the town
of Gavi itself the wines may be labelled Gavi di Gavi
DOCG.The wines are pale and light-bodied, with high old oak vessels for fermentation and lees stirring to add
acidity and aromas, and flavours of citrus, green apples complexity to the wines . Most of the wine is ready to
and pears. Protective winemaking is the norm with cool drink on release from the winery but wines from the best
fermentation in stainless steel but some producers use producers can age well in bottle.
126 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

I ltaly This part of Italy is most widely associated with the grape variety Sangiovese and
Centra
28 the most famous wine made from it, Chianti. However, there is more to central
Italy than this. Refreshing whites and premium full-bodied reds from both local and international grape
varieties are made with great successthroughout the region. This chapter will cover the regions of
Tuscany, Umbria, Lazio, Marche and Abruzzo.

CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING
South of the Po Valley, the wine regions of central Italy
are dominated by the Apennine Mountains, which run
the length of the Italian Peninsula. Grapes are planted in
the hills and valleys of this mountain range with altitude
providing a moderating influence on the hot climate.
Coastal regions on both sides of the country benefit
from cooling sea breezes.
TUSCANY
Tuscany stretches down the western coast of central
Italy. The region can be divided roughly into three parts:
the mountainous Chianti region in the north, the hills
and valleys to the south and the flat coastal plain.
Sangiovese is the dominant and most prestigious grape
throughout these three areas making wines with high
levels of acidity and tannin. It is late to ripen, so needs a
warm climate, hence its home in this part of Italy. The
wines have aromas of red cherries, plums and dried
herbs and are usually aged for a period of time in oak
to soften the tannins and sometimes add spicy flavours.
Both small barrels and larger casks can be used. With
bottle age the wines develop meaty and gamey aromas.
Red wines predominate in this part of Italy although
some white wines are also made throughout the region .
Chianti
Chianti is based in the foothills of the Apennines between
the cities of Pisa,Florence and Siena. It covers a wide area,
which is divided into seven sub-zones. Sangiovese is the
dominant grape, but the wines are often blends with small
amounts of other black grapes (of both French and Italian
origin). Producers of large volumes of Chianti will source
their grapes from the greater region and use Chianti
DOCGon the label. Higher-quality Chianti DOCGw ines
may be made from the grapes from a particular sub-zone,
the name of which can appear on the wine label (note this
does not include Chianti Classico DOCG).The sub-zones of
Chianti Rufina DOCGand Chianti Colli Senesi DOCGare
particularly well known for the quality of their wines .
Chianti ClassicoDOCGhas its own DOCG and is not
a sub-zone of Chianti DOCG. Its vineyards are at higher

Aviewacrossthe vineyards
inChiantiClassico,
showing
the hillylandscapeand the
importanceofaltitudeand
aspect.
 CENTRALITALY 127

altitudes than those of Chianti DOCG,slowing the

ripening of Sangiovese, and resulting in wines with
greater acidity and more herbal aromas. Chianti Classico \
wines must be aged for 12 months before they are
released onto the market. Chianti Classico Riserva VERDICCHIODEi
CASTELLIDI JESI
DOCG must be aged for 24 months of which at least
three months must be spent bottle ageing. Gran X ADRIATIC
Selezioneis the highest designation for Chianti Classico
SEA
wines; the grapes must be sourced from a single estate
and the wines aged for six months longer than Riserva. MA
~
There are no stipulations concerning oak ageing, and it 43' N

is therefore the producer's decision as to whether the

wine is matured in oak and for how long. In practice,
however, the vast majority of wines are matured in oak -- ,.,-
1' ,_
for at least part of their time before release.

Southern Tuscany
The vineyards of southern Tuscany are at lower altitudes
than those in the north and have a warmer climate;
however, cool maritime breezes from the south-west can
moderate the temperatures. Brunello di Montalcino
DOCG and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG are
the best known appellations in the region. Due to the
climate, wines from this part ofTuscany are often more
intense and fuller-bodied than the wines from Chianti.
The regulations for Brunello di Montalcino stipulate that
the wines must be made entirely from Sangiovese and
undergo a minimum ageing of five years before they are
sold, two of which must be spent in oak. Vino Nobile di
Montepulciano can be a blend of Sangiovese with other
permitted varieties and must be aged for a minimum of
two years before it is sold. Producers from both Brunello
di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano can
declassify their wines to DOC as necessary (for example,
if there is a poor vintage or the vines are very young).
These wines are called either Rosso di Montalcino DOC
or Rosso di Montepulciano DOC respectively.
The Coast
The relatively flat coastal region ofTuscany is cooled by
sea breezes rather than altitude . Black Bordeaux varieties
and a number of other international grapes are widely
planted here.
The Tuscan coast witnessed the birth of the first
'Super-Tuscan'.The original wine was made from
Cabernet Sauvignon and sold for a premium price
despite not being eligible for PDQ status. Super-Tuscans
were a turning point for the international image of
Italian wines as they re-established Italy's reputation
for excellence .
Many Tuscan producers have followed this example
and make high -quality wines from international varieties,
sometimes with Italian varieties as part of the blend .
Many are bottled as Toscana IGT but the relatively
recently formed appellations of Bolgheri DOC and
Maremma Toscana DOC both permit wines to be made
entirely from non-Italian varieties including Cabernet
Sauvignon, Merlot and Syrah.
t---
: -:-N
_T
_R
_A_L"_I_T_A_L_Y_ __ , ~V<?
::: MOl'ITEPULCIANO
•..J?'l')l!~U~O
I .. -----
'\
UMBRIA KEY
Umbria has a climate similar to Tuscany's but it is more 1500m+
continental without any influence from the Mediterranean.
1000- 1500 m
The region is known for its white wine Orvieto DOC,
which is a blend of Grechetto, Trebbiano and, often, a 500 - 1000 m
few other local grapes. The wines are light in body with 200- 500m
med ium to high acidity and flavours of ripe grapefruit 100- 200 m
and peaches. The best examples tend to be those with
0- 100 m
the most Grechetto in the blend. Wines are made
protectively and undergo cool fermentation in stainless
steel.
Umbria's most prestigious red wine is Sagrantino di
Montefalco DOCG,made from the thick-skinned
Sagrantino grape.
LAZIO
To the south ofTuscany is the region of Lazio. The best
known wine is Frascati DOC. Situated in the hills to the
south of Rome the vineyards are cooled by both altitude
and a number of small nearby lakes offering perfect
conditions for white grapes. The wines are blends of
Malvasia and Trebbiano, usually made in a fresh,
unoaked style. They are medium in body with medium to
high acidity and flavours of citrus fruit, sometimes with
the Malvasia providing floral, orange blossom aromas.
MARCHE
Marche is located on the eastern side of the Apennines
and is best known for its white wines made from the
Verdicchio grape . The most famous of these is
Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC. Verdicchio is
naturally high in acidity with flavours of green apples,
lemons and sometimes displays notes of fennel and
128 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
almonds. Many of the wines are simple and fruity, but
the best have greater concentration and can develop
notes of honey and almonds with bottle age. The red
wines of the region are blends of Montepulciano and
Sangiovese, of which the best known is Conero DOCG.
ABRUZZO
Below Marche is the region of Abruzzo. The region is
famous for its black variety Montepulciano, which gives
its name to the main wine Montepulciano d'Abruzzo
DOC (no relation to the town of Montepulciano in
Tuscany). The Montepulciano grape has high levels of
colour and tannins, medium acidity and flavours of
black plums and cherries. Many wines are simple and
fruity, made without any oak ageing, but the most
concentrated examples are often matured for a short
time in oak.
 SOUTHERNITALY 129

ltaly T~e heat of Southern Italy ~e~ns that it is be.St~nown_to_r~ull-bodied red

Southern
wines made from grape varieties such as Aghamco, Pr1m1t1voand
Negroamaro. However, in common with the rest of Italy, there is a great deal of variety to be found here,
29
from perfumed whites made from Fiano to the restrained and elegant reds made from grapes grown at
altitude on the slopes of Mount Etna. This chapter will cover the regions of Campania, Basilicata, Puglia
and the island of Sicily.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING BASILICATA

The area of southern Italy extends south of Lazio, down
to the tip of the country, and includes the peninsula of
Puglia, together with the island of Sicily (Sicilia). The
climate is hot and dry inland, becoming humid near the
coast. Many of the vineyards are located on slopes within
the Apennines, the altitude providing some relief from
the heat. Sea breezes cool the vineyards located on the
flatter terrain of the Puglian peninsula.
Agriculture is the principal economic activity in the
south, with grape growing particularly important in the
regions of Puglia and Sicilia, where significant volumes
of wine are made. Traditionally, vines were bush-trained
low to the ground with leaf cover protecting the grapes
from sunburn. Old vines are evidence of this but cordon
training and trellising are the most common methods
used today. These newer techniques allow for
mechanisation on Puglia's flat plain.
CAMPANIA
Campania is home to more DOCGsthan any other region
in the south. A varied landscape with mountains, valleys
and coastal plains means that a range of black and white
grape varieties can be grown here. Fiano and Greco
arguably produce the best white wines in the region. Both
are popular southern white varieties, grown in many other
regions, but many of the best examples come from the
Campanian appellations of Fiano di Avellino DOCG and
Greco di Tufo DOCG.Fiano produces wines with medium
acidity, medium to full body and aromas of stone fruit,
melons and mango. It is often made to be drunk young
but better examples are matured in oak and can be aged
in bottle, developing aromas of wax and honey. Greco has
more acidity and is leaner in body, producing wines with
green apple, stone fruit and passion fruit flavours. Most
producers ferment their wines in stainless steel, but some
use old oak and techniques such as lees stirring to
enhance the texture of their wines. The best can age in
bottle to develop aromas of honey and mushrooms.
Just below Campania, Basilicata is an extremely
mountainous region where vineyards can reach 900
metres, especially on the vast, high plain that surrounds
the extinct volcano of Monte Vulture. Aglianico is the
principal grape and makes Aglianico del Vulture DOC,
which is considered to be the best wine of the region.
PUGLIA
This is a vast agricultural area, where large volumes of
grapes are grown. The hot climate means the region is
dominated by black grapes, most notably Negroamaro
and Primitivo (Zinfandel). When they are grown at high
yields these grape varieties produce simple, fruity wines
for early drinking which are sold as Puglia IGT.
When yields are controlled, Negroamaro produces
high-quality full-bodied wines, with medium tannins
and acidity, high alcohol and baked red and black fruit.
Many of the best come from Salice Salentino DOC.
Primitivo can also produce high-quality wines in a similar
style. The best are full-bodied, with medium tannins and
acidity, high alcohol and pronounced flavours of very
ripe berry fruit.
42~
TYRRHENIAN
SEA
~ lermo • ~ o'l.
ETNA
J
~ j J
_________ 38"N
__,
KEY
- 1500m+

1000- 1500 m
Aglianico is the most prestigious black grape of the SICILY ' SOUTHERN ,-..
south; it has deep colour with high acidity and tannin, ITALY VI 500- l000m

with flavours of black fruit. It is matured in oak and can

age in bottle, where it develops earthy, forest floor notes. ,so WOkm

lSOmiles
t
N
200- 500 m

100- 200m
It is found in a number of wines in Campania and other
regions but is at its best in Taurasi DOCG. 0- l00m
130 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Handharvesting
inSicily. medium levels of acidity and tannins, with aromas of
Pickinggrapesinthecoolof plums and black cherries. It is often made in a fruity,
thenightslowsdown early-drinking style but those from the best producers
oxidation,
whichcouldlead are more concentrated and complex. Local white grape
to off.flavours. varieties are either sold as varietal or blended wines, and
are usually made in an unoaked style, displaying citrus
and stone fruit flavours. International varieties, such as
Chardonnay and Syrah are also planted; Syrah has been
particularly successful.
There are a number of small appellations. Some of the
best wines on the island come from Etna DOC, produced
from old, low-yielding vines at high altitudes. The reds
are particularly noteworthy; these are made from Nerello
Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio, which are blended
together to create fragrant wines with both high acid
SICILY and tannins, and aromas of sour red cherries, cranberries
Like Puglia, Sicily also grows vast quantities of grapes, and raspberries, sometimes with dried herbs. With bottle
most of which find their way into either IGT Terre di age the high tannins soften and mushroom -like aromas
Sicilia/Terre Siciliane, or if yields are slightly lowered, can develop. High-quality white wines are also made.
Sicilia DOC. Nero d'Avola is the dominant black grape They tend to be medium-bodied with high acidity, and
in these wines and is grown widely throughout the display citrus fruit often with a stony/steely character
island. It produces medium- to full-bodied wines, with developing aromas of honey and wax with bottle age.
 SPAIN 131

SpaintoSpain has a long history of wine production but its wines have only relatively recently come
prominence on international markets. Styles vary from traditional barrel-aged reds to 30
modern, fruity whites; and although international varieties have been planted in many of Spain's wine
regions, it is the country's indigenous grape varieties that are increasingly celebrated.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING
Spain has three broad climatic zones:
The north and north-west coast of Spain has a
moderate maritime climate dominated by Atlantic
weather systems. Rainfall, with its associated risks, is
high.
The east coast from Catalunya in the north to the
Levante further south has a warm Mediterranean climate.
Many of the vineyards are moderated by the influence of
the sea or altitude, depending on their location. The
climate becomes increasingly hot further south.
The Meseta Central, a large plateau in the centre of
Spain, is mostly cut off from the influence of the sea by
encircling mountains and has a hot continental climate.
In winter, temperatures fall below freezing and in the
summer temperatures are very high and rainfall is very
limited. However, the summer temperatures can be
moderated by the cool nights of high altitude sites.
growing in Spain. Although this does mean that the
incidence of fungal disease is low, it places a heavy stress
on the vine. Low density, bush-trained vineyards remain
the best way of managing this situation by maximising
the amount of water available to each vine and shading
the fruit from excessive heat. Where it is practical and
affordable wire training is slowly being introduced to
facilitate machine harvesting.
GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINE STYLES
Key Black Varieties and Styles
Spain's red wines come in a wide range of styles.
Inexpensive wines may be made without oak and semi-
carbonic maceration is often used to enhance the fruity
nature of these wines. The best wines almost always see
oak maturation, usually with at least a proportion of new
oak. Traditionally, American oak was mostly used, but
now French oak is also common.

With the notable exception of north-west Spain, heat Tempranillo - Tempranillo is Spain's premier black grape
and the lack of water are the biggest challenges to grape variety. It is grown widely throughout the vineyards of

Vineyards
inRiojaAlta.
TheCantabrian
Mountains
protectthe regionfromthe
worstoftheAtlantic
weathersystems.
132 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

northern and central Spain, although it is often referred to
by one of its many synonyms. It is a thick-skinned grape,
with medium levels of acidity, and so while it needs
sufficient warmth to develop its flavours, hot climates
without a high diurnal temperature range could cause
the wine to lack the necessaryacidity for an ideal balance.
Consequently it is at its best in areas where summer
temperatures are moderated by the sea and/or altitude.
Fermented on its own, often using semi-carbonic
maceration, it can produce a fresh strawberry scented
Joven wine, an increasingly popular early drinking style.
It also plays a key role in more concentrated ageworthy
oaked blends either with the traditional varieties
Garnacha,Graciano and Cariiiena/ Mazuelo or
international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon.
Garnacha Tinta - Garnacha is the Spanish name for
Grenache. This grape is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 9 Redand RoseWinemaking. It gives a wine high
in alcohol, with a tendency to mature early but there are
notable exceptions. It is widely used for rosados. It is also
important in Priorat, where low-yielding old vines enable
the production of intense, complex, full-bodied reds.
Monastrell - Monastrell (Mourvedre) is a thick-skinned
grape variety that is drought tolerant, but needs hot,
sunny conditions to ripen. It is grown in south-eastern
DOs such as Yecla and Jumilla, where it can easily reach
full ripeness and produces very deeply coloured, full-
bodied wines with high levels of tannin and alcohol, low
to medium acidity and flavours of ripe blackberry fruit.
Other Black Spanish Grape Varieties
Graciano is a highly valued grape but challenging to grow.
It is cultivated mainly in Rioja,where it is used as part of
the blend in many of the finest wines. Small quantities are
used to add concentrated black fruit aromas, acidity and
tannins to the structure of a wine to help it age. Cariiiena
is the Spanish name for Carignan, although it is called
Mazuelo in Rioja. Cariiiena gives wines that are high in
acidity, tannin and colour. A small proportion of this makes
an ideal blend with Tempranillo. It is also grown in Priorat,
where it is blended with Garnachato enhance the tannic
structure of the wines. The other local variety that is
increasingly coming to prominence is Mencia. This suits
moderate climates, giving wines with fresh fruit, medium
to high acidity, and sometimes a hint of herbaceousness.
Key White Varieties and Styles
Most of Spain's white wines are fresh and fruity.
Harvesting at night or early morning and fermenting in
temperature controlled stainless steel vessels help retain

SPANISH WINE LAWS

The wine laws of Spain not only offer a hierarchy of PDQ and PGI wines but also define specific ageing criteria for
red and white wines. Wines that fall outside of these categories are simply labelled Vino.

PDOWines
TheSpanish
for PD0isDenominaciondeOrigenProtegida
(DOP) Vinosde Pago(VP)- Thiscategory applies
to a smallnumberof
buta number
oftraditional
termsarecommonly
used: singleestates
with highreputations.
Approvedestates
mayonlyuse
theirowngrapes,whichmustbevinifiedandmatured ontheirestate.
Denominacion deOrigen(DO)- Incommon withallwinesofthis
type,theseshouldbewinesofa certainminimum quality,satisfying PGIWines
specifications
covering
grapevarieties,
viticulture
andlocation. ThetraditionaltermVinodelaTierra(VdlT)iscommonly
used
.

Denominacion deOrigenCalificada (DOCa)- D0sof at leastten Ageing

yearsstandingmayapplyforthismoreprestigious
category.Atpresent TheSpanishlawdefines thefollowingagecategoriesfor itswines:
thereareonlytwoD0Ca: RiojaandPriorat.
Prioratwinesusethe Joven,Crianza, Reserva andGranReserva. Manyproducers exceed
Catalanterminology
of Denominacio d'OrigenQualificada (DOQ ). theminimum ageingrequirements outlinedbelow.GranReserva wines
areonlyproduced in exceptionalvintagesandwhiteandrosewinesare
rarelymadein thisstyle.

Designation RedWines WhiteandRoseWines

Minimum
totalageing Minimum
timespentin barrel Minimum
totalageing Minimum
timespentin barrel
(months) (months) (months) (months)

Joven 0
Crianza 24 18
Reservo 36 12 24
Gran
Reserva 60 18 48 6
Note:Someregions,
suchas Rioja,
requirethatthewinesmadethereareagedforlongerbothintotalandinbarrel.
 SPAIN 133

delicate fruit aromas. However, some producers use oak
fermentation and maturation, as well as techniques such
as lees stirring, to add texture and different flavours to
their wines.
Verdejo - Verdejo is a white grape variety that is highly
susceptible to oxidation and was used to make Sherry-
like wines. With protective winemaking it can be made
in a light -bodied, high-acid, melon and peach flavoured
style similar in style to Sauvignon Blanc, with which it
is often blended. It can also be made in a richer fuller-
variety. It is thick-skinned and thus able to resist fungal
disease, which is useful in the damp climate in which it
is grown. Albaririo is naturally high in acidity and can
produce refreshing wines with citrus and stone fruit
flavours. It too can be made in a richer, fuller-bodied
style.
Other White Spanish Grape Varieties
Airen is the most widely planted grape variety in Spain
KEY
and the vast majority of this is planted in La Mancha in
central Spain, as it is one of the few varieties that is able 2000 m+

bodied style when it has undergone skin contact and
barrel fermentation.
Albariiio - Albaririo is grown in the north-west of
Spain and has become a particularly fashionable grape
to cope with the extreme heat and drought conditions 1000-2000 m
of the Meseta Central. Although Airen can now be made
500- 1000 m
into acceptable dry white wine, much of the output
200- 500 m
continues to be used in the production of Brandy de
Jerez. Parellada, Xarel-lo and Macabeo are widely 0- 200m

44"N -
44' N Bay of Biscay
FRANCE
/ l,/y~
ACoruf\~ T - ~r~ ~ Santander ~_ ,
- ...-& '~~

¾:..
,,,f.M
f·'! .A
(to"

RfAS:, NAVARRA
BAIXAS,o. }, 42"N -
42' N

Zaragoza

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

40"N
PORTUGAL \ /
_,,,~- /C::.
~R.Ta~j ~1--~
...,
--

38' N -
38' N

,,..,
r--
,,,. /
~' ~

/
36 N
36' N

D
,I'- SPAIN
e
1111111
Vinasde laTierrade Castillay Le6n

CavaVillages
__ ,,,,-'\.f ,oo ISOkm

100 m iles
t
134 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
NAVARRA
42.30'N
42•3o'N-
/
/ most blends giving red fruit flavours and a medium level
I
e ~2-_,
I
oo:ri -
f----------L---c----'--------- ~ km
4tlm lle5
t
N
...._
________
X:,
KEY planted in Catalunya and are the main varieties used
in Cava production (for more details see Chapter 42
2000m+
Sparkling Winesof the World).Of these, Macabeo, which
1000-2000m is also known as Viura in Rioja, is also often used for still
500- l000m wine production. It can be made in an unoaked style
with subtle herb and spice aromas. Traditionally it was
200- 500 m
the mainstay of heavily oaked white Riojas.
100-200 m
0- l00m International Varieties
In some parts of Spain the traditional local varieties have
shown limited potential for quality wines, and better
wines can be made more easily from varieties such as
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc and
Chardonnay. These and other international varieties
are now established and widespread, especially in the
north-east. They sometimes appear as blends with local
varieties.
REGIONS AND WINES
The principal DO regions of Spain may be grouped
together into six geographical regions, based on climate
and grape varieties: the Upper Ebro, Catalunya, the
Duero Valley, the North West, the Levante and Castilla-La
Mancha. There are also a number of regions designated
for the production of Vino de JaTierra:Castilla y Leon,
towards the north of the Meseta Central, is the most
extensive.
THE UPPER EBRO
Rioja
Rioja is split into three distinct sub-regions, centred
around the region's principal city, Logrono. Rioja Alavesa
is situated to the west of Logrono, on the north bank of
the Ebro in the foothills of the Cantabrian Mountains.
The wines are perhaps the lightest of Rioja, and often
have the most finesse. The larger Rioja Alta area is also to
the west of Logrono, but lies mainly to the south of the
Ebro. The vineyards of both sub-regions are planted at
a range of altitudes from SOOto 800 metres and their
climates are moderated by the Atlantic Ocean, although
the Cantabrian Mountains shield Rioja from the worst of
the Atlantic weather. Rioja Baja is situated to the east of
Logrono, mainly on the south bank. Here the climate is
less maritime, with hotter summers and more severe
winters. Annual rainfall can be low, making drought an
issue for growers.
Plantings are dominated by black grapes. Tempranillo
is the most widely planted variety and does best in the
cooler western sub-regions. It is the main component of
of tannins. Tempranillo benefits from the body and
alcohol that comes from the addition of Garnacha, which
grows best in the Rioja Baja. Mazuelo and Graciano are
both less widely planted and provide a supporting role in
blends.
Rioja may be made in a range of different ways
depending on the style the winemaker wishes to
achieve. Red wines designed for early drinking may
undergo semi-carbonic maceration to produce wines
that have vibrant red fruit flavours and low levels of
smooth tannin. Wines designed for long-term
maturation are usually destemmed and crushed and
undergo a traditional fermentation. Some producers use
vigorous cap management techniques and extended
maceration to produce heavily extracted wines, deep in
colour and full of fruit flavours, but many are making
more subtle, elegant styles. Oak maturation has a
defining role in Rioja.Traditionally, the wines were aged
in American oak, and often had pronounced aromas of
vanilla. Many producers now use oak from France or
other European countries for at least some of their wine,
giving more subtle spicy aromas.
Eight white varieties are currently approved for use in
white Rioja. The most widely planted variety is Viura.
Traditionally, the white wines were aged for extended
periods in American oak and developed a deep golden
colour and nutty flavours. These deliberately oxidised
wines have fallen out of favour with modern consumers.
Modern white Riojas are often made with minimal
contact with oxygen in order to preserve the maximum
amount of fruit. Some bodegas are now also producing
barrel-fermented white wines, but in a less oxidative
style than traditional white Riojas.
Navarra
The vineyards of Navarra DO stretch from the northern
and eastern borders of Rioja into the foothills of the
Pyrenees.The climate is similar to that of Rioja, but it
becomes cooler and wetter nearer the mountains.
Tempranillo is the most widely planted variety and
production is focused on red wine. It is either blended
with the other Rioja varieties to make a wine in a similar
style or increasingly with Cabernet Sauvignon and
Merlot. Wine styles range from good value Joven wines
to top quality premium Gran Reservas.
Garnacha grapes used for rose production are
picked earlier when acid levels are higher and sugar
levels lower. They are then handled protectively to
 SPAIN 135

Awell-equipped
modern
winerywitha largenumber
of stainlesssteeltanks.

create refreshing, fruity wines with medium levels of
alcohol.
White wine production accounts for a very small
proportion of the total output of the region and the
wines tend to be made from Viura, Chardonnay and
Sauvignon Blanc.
Carinena and Calatayud
Cariiiena and Calatayud are neighbouring DOs, located
to the south of the Ebro. Overall both regions have warm
continental climates and low rainfall. Garnacha is the main
variety in both regions. Inexpensive wines are made in a
plain where the climate is Mediterranean; inland, in the
valleys, the climate is slightly cooler than that on the
plain, but still warm; and further into the hills, where
vines are grown up to 800 metres above sea level, the
climate is moderate. As a result, a wide variety of wine
styles can be made using a range of grape varieties. The
most planted white grapes are those used for Cava
production, but there are also significant plantings of
international varieties such as Chardonnay, Sauvignon
Blanc and Gewurztraminer. Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, KEY
Tempranillo (here called UII de Llebre) and Pinot Noir are
the most planted red varieties. 2000 m+

fruity, early drinking style. Higher-quality wines tend to be 1000-2000 m

made from old vine Garnacha and Cariiiena and display Priorat 500 - l000m
greater flavour intensity and structure. Note that the grape Priorat's vineyards lie within the hills inland from the city
200 - S00m
variety Cariiiena (Carignan, Mazuelo) is not the most ofTarragona. Summers are long, hot and dry, and annual
widely planted variety in the DO with the same name. rainfall is very low. This is ideal for the old Garnacha and 100- 200m

Cariiiena vines found in the region, both being late 0- 100 m

CATALUNYA
Catalunya occupies the north-east corner of Spain. The
vast majority of the vineyards are concentrated in an
area that lies to the south of Barcelona and comprises
MEDITERRANEAN
the coastal plain and the hills immediately to the west. SEA
Unlike any of the other Spanish administrative regions
Catalunya has a generic DO for still wines that covers
42N
the entire region. It came into existence largely to enable 42"N
the blending of wines from the various areas to provide
the opportunity to create significant volumes of branded
wine. Catalunya is also where nearly all Cava is made
(see Chapter 42 Sparkling Winesof the World).

CATALUNYA
Penedes 41"N
The vineyards of this large DO lie immediately to the
a 20 40 60 80 100km
south-west of Barcelona and stretch from the
Mediterranean coast up into the hills. There are three
distinct climatic zones. The hottest is on the coastal
136 UNDERSTANDINGWINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Alargebarrelhallin
Navarra.
Theuseofoak
barriques
isveryimportant
in Spanish
redwinemaking.
ripening grape varieties. The best soils, known locally as
1/icorella,consist of layers of red slate with small particles
of mica that sparkle in the sun. They help ripening by
reflecting and conserving heat and, because of their
depth, they are able to retain sufficient water throughout
the growing season. Cool night-time temperatures
provide some relief from the heat of the day.
Bush vines and steep slopes mean that mechanisation
is almost impossible, and thus the vineyards are
expensive and time consuming to manage. The low
nutrient soils and age of the vines produce very small
yields of grapes, which undoubtedly contribute to the
complexity and intensity of Priorat. All these factors
mean that Priorat's wines are never cheap.
Red Priorat is usually deeply coloured with high tannins,
medium to high alcohol and concentrated black fruit
often accompanied by toasty aromas from new French
oak. Although Garnacha and Carinena remain the core of
many blends some producers add some international
varieties, especially Cabernet Sauvignon. White and rose
Priorat can also be made, although they are rarely seen.
THE DU EROVALLEY
The River Duero starts in the mountains south of Rioja
and flows through Spain into Portugal where it is called
the Douro.
Ribera del Duero
Ribera del Duero is cut off from any maritime influence
by a ring of mountains . It has short, hot and dry
summers and very cold winters. The vineyards of the
Ribera del Duero are situated on the highest part of the
Meseta Central, with some vineyards planted at over 850
metres. This altitude ensures the region experiences cool
night-time temperatures throughout the year, which
helps to retain acidity and fresh fruit flavours in the
grapes .
Ribera del Duero is a DO for red and rose wine only,
although in reality the vast majority of production is red
wine. Tempranillo is the dominant grape and is the only
variety in most of the best red wines, which are typically
dark in colour with a high level of tannins. Cabernet
Sauvignon, Malbec and Merlot are also permitted but
rarely used. Some Garnacha is grown too and is mostly
made into dry rose.
Today, many winemakers are choosing to accentuate
the concentrated fruit flavours and tannins in their
grapes by undertaking long macerations and ageing the
wines for a relatively short period of time in new oak
barrels, which are increasingly made from French rather
than American oak.
Toro
Toro DO has a similar climate to its neighbour Ribera del
Duero. Predominately made from Tempranillo, the reds are
full-bodied with intense fruit flavours and high alcohol, a
result of the high daytime temperatures, sunny conditions
and often low-yielding bush vines. In the )oven wines
there is generally a proportion of Garnacha; Reservasand
Gran Reservascan be exceptionally deeply coloured and
tannic when young and have the ability to age well. Rose
and white wines are made in small quantities.
Rueda
Situated in-between Toro and Ribera del Duero, Rueda
differs from these other two DOs as it focuses on white
 SPAIN 137

wine production . The region's continental climate, with

cool summer nights, is ideal for the Rueda'straditional
grape variety, Verdejo . Sauvignon Blanc is the other
important variety in this region. Both Sauvignon Blanc
and Verdejo can be made and labelled as single varietal
wines. Blended whites must contain at least 50 per cent
Verdejo. Styles range from simple and fruity to richer,
barrel-fermented versions.

THENORTHWEST
Due to the Atlantic influence, the north -west of Spain is
cooler and wetter than the rest of Spain and as a result
this is the home of many of Spain's best white wines. The
most celebrated of them all are the Albariiio wines from
Rias Baixas DO.

Rias Baixas
Situated on the Atlantic coast, Rias Baixas has a moderate,
damp climate. The humid conditions mean that vine
diseases such as mildew and rot are a common problem.
For this reason, vines are trained on pergolas to
encourage air circulation. Some producers are using
other training and trellising systems that are easier to
maintain.
Most Albariiio is made in a refreshing unoaked style
taking advantage ofthe grape's naturally high acidity
and ripe stone fruit flavours. Some wines are made in a
richer style, occasionally with a touch of oak or lees
stirring. Red wine is permitted too although it remains
a minority concern.

Bierzo
This predominately red wine DO lies in the mountains
that mark the boundary between Galicia and the Meseta
Central. The climate is moderate and benefits from a
cooling maritime influence . The key grape variety here is
Mencia, which can produce elegant red wines with
naturally high acidity and red fruit aromas. Many of the
best wines come from old vines grown on the region's
steep stony slopes. Some producers make unoaked
wines to retain the perfumed red fruit of the grape
variety, but many use new oak to add toasty aromas.
THELEVANTE
The Levante is the region on the Mediterranean coast
south of Catalunya. Trade is centred round the port of
Valencia which is the distribution hub for wines from the
Levante and La Mancha .
Valencia
Valencia is a large spread-out DO that is a source of
value-for-money wines. A large number of different
local and international grape varieties are planted here.
Monastrell is the most planted red grape . White plantings
are dominated by local grape variety Merseguera
although there are also significant plantings of Muscat
of Alexandria to produce the local Moscatel de Valencia,
a sweet fortified wine.
Jumilla and Yecla of
Theruggedheartland
Located further inland, Ju mi Ila and Yecla have hot, arid Priorat.
climates, perfect for the dominant local grape variety,
Monastrell. The majority of wines are youthful and fruity
in style.
CASTILLA-LA
MANCHA
Almost half of Spain's total wine production comes from
this vast central area of the Meseta Central that lies to
the south of Madrid.
La Mancha
This is the largest DO in Spain. The most widely planted
grape variety is Airen, which is used to produce neutral,
fresh white wines. Plantings of this variety are, however,
in decline as the authorities have encouraged producers
to plantTempranillo, known locally as Cencibel, and
other international grape varieties such as Cabernet
Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and even Chardonnay and
Sauvignon Blanc. Significant investment in technology
and expertise has ensured that La Mancha is now an
excellent source of inexpensive well-made reds and
whites for the export market. La Mancha was also where
138 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
the trend for top -quality pagos wines began and it is still
the home of the majority of the estates that have been
awarded the appellation Vinasde Pago.
Valdepenas
This DO lies immediately to the south of La Mancha. It
experiences an identical climate to La Mancha but it has
built a reputation for quality that exceeds its larger
neighbour. As in La Mancha, Airen is the most widely
planted grape but here too Tempranillo (Cencibel) is the
main grape variety for red wines, either as a varietal wine
or blended with international grape varieties. The wines
range from fruity to more concentrated and oak
matured.
 PORTUGAL 139

Portugal has a wealth of local grape varieties, which produce wines in a range of
Portugalstyles. The reds can be supple and fruity or full-bodied and high in tannins, whereas 31
the whites are usually refreshing and best drunk young.

CLIMATE Portugal
isa majorsupplier
Despite the fact that it is only a small country, Portugal of corksforwinebottles.The
has a range of different climates. The single most corkybarkfromthesetrees
important influence is that of the Atlantic Ocean, and hasrecently
beenharvested.
much of the country has a maritime climate. However,
in many of the inland vineyards the climate is hot, dry
and continental. In some regions altitude can help to
mitigate the very high temperatures. The large
differences in annual average temperature partly
account for the diversity of wine styles found in Portugal.

REGIONS AND WINES

Portugal has a wealth of indigenous var ieties that
provide a point of difference from many other wine -
producing countries. This can also make the wines of
Portugal rather difficult to understand, particularly as
many of the same grape varieties have different names
in different regions. Consequently, here we focus on the
five main DOCs as well as the largest Vinho Regional
and the principal styles of wines made there.

VinhoVerde
Vinho Verde is in the north -west of Portugal ; its
nearness to the Atlantic Ocean means it has a moderate
maritime climate. The most significant feature of the
climate is the high annual rainfall. Without careful
canopy management in the vineyard, the high levels of
precipitation can lead to excessive canopy growth and
encourage disease. The modernisation of the vineyards
in the Vinho Verde region has meant a move away from
the traditional pergola trellising. Spur-pruned VSP,to
create airflow in the humid environment, is now used to
improve the health and quality of the grapes and to
allow for mechanisation.
The classic white Vinho Verde wines are pale lemon
coloured , high in acidity and low in alcohol (8% to 11.5%
abv). The wines with lower alcohol are usually off-dry in
style. If a grape variety, a sub-region or an authorised
quality labelling term is mentioned on the label, the wine
can have up to 14% abv. The white wines are made from
local grape varieties such as Loureiro and Arinto.
Traditionally, these wines have a slight sparkling
sensation that enhances their freshness. Vinho Verde
Alvarinho is made entirely from Alvarinho grapes
(Albaririo in Spain) grown in the small designated sub-
region of Morn;:ao e Melga<;o.It has slightly higher alcohol
(11.5% to 14% abv) and riper, more tropical aromas.

PORTUGUESEWINE LAWS
The Portuguese for PDQ is Denominac;iio de Origem Protegida (DOP) but the traditional term Denominac;iio
de Origem Controlada (DOC) is also widely used.

The Portuguese PGI is lndicac;iioGeografica Protegida (IGP) but the traditional term Vinho Regional is still
seen on wine labels.

Table wines without geographical indication are labelled as Vinho (Wine). Over the years, Portugal has had
considerable success with simple, fruity off-dry rose wines that fall into this category.
 140 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY

Dao
Dao is located in a mountainous area 80 kilometres
42 °N
.r~•-•l • ..._
__ .
r--•...:\...,
i
42 °N
south of the Douro region. The vines are planted on
the gentler hills and slopes. The vineyards lie between
,--. 200 and 400 metres above sea level. Cold, wet winters
and warm, dry summers combined with a significant
temperature variation between day and night, provide
excellent conditions for high-quality grapes .
The red wines from Dao often display delicate red
fruit aromas, soft tannins and high acidity. Vineyard
improvement schemes have seen new plantings of
high-quality varieties including Touriga Nacional,
SPAIN
ATLANTIC Tinta Roriz, Jaen (Mencia in Spain) and Alfrocheiro .
40 °N OCEAN Alfrocheiro makes wines that are deep in colour with
intense aromas of blackberry and strawberry. The best
Dao whites are made from the Encruzado variety and
range in style from light and fresh to richer, barrel-
fermented versions .

38 "N 38 °N
PORTUGAL
KEY Black varieties are also grown for the production of
red and rose wines: the reds are deeply coloured and
2000m+
tannic; the roses are fresh and fruity.
1000- 2000 m
500 - l000m Douro
200 - S00m
The Douro, the oldest demarcated wine region in the
world, is located some 80 kilometres east of Porto and
0- 200 m
stretches from the Marao Mountains to the frontier with
Spain. More information on climate and viticulture can
be found in Chapter 44 Port.
Wine production in the Douro is dominated by Port, but
unfortified wines have always been made. Both Port and
unfortified wines rely on the same five principal varieties:
Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca,nnta Roriz (Tempranillo),
Tinta Barreca and Tinta Cao.Of these, the Touriga Nacional
is considered the highest-quality variety and is the most well
known . It gives low yields of grapes and produces wines that
have intense colour and flavours and high levels of tannin .
The red wines of the Douro tend to be deeply coloured
and full-bodied with a high level of ripe tannins and rich
black fruit flavours. The best examples often display
subtle toasty aromas from maturation in new oak.
The white wines, particularly those from high-altitude
vineyards, can show fresh varietal fruit and medium to
high acidity.
Bairrada
Bairrada lies between Dao and the Atlantic Ocean and
has a maritime climate, with rainy winters and warm
summers. Rain around harvest time can sometimes
be a problem for late ripening varieties. Baga is the
dominant black variety . It is a late-ripening variety
with small, thick-skinned berries giving wines that are
deep in colour with high tannin levels. If underripe
the wines can have high acidity and astringent tannins
but later picking gives wines that are softer and
display rich , black fruit flavours . Gentler crushing and
maceration techniques, as well as blending with other
black varieties, have also given softer wines. Other
Portuguese black grapes such as Touriga Nacional and
Alfrocheiro are also important, as well as international
varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and
Syrah.
White wines are also made, predominantly from
indigenous varieties Bical and Maria Gomes.
Alentejo
Alentejo is spread over eight sub-regions in the south
east of Portugal. Overall, Alentejo has a warm growing
season, but small climatic differences among the sub-
regions allow a range of different styles to be produced;
those in the cooler, wetter north give more elegant
wines and those in the hotter, drier centre and south
provide richer examples .
The typical red blend is made with Aragones (another
name forTempranillo) and Trincadeira, a drought-
tolerant grape with spicy red berry flavours and high
levels of tannin . Alicante Bouschet, a grape variety high
in colour and tannins, is also used in blends. The use of
Touriga Nacional and Syrah has been increasing in the
last few years. The wines are typically deep in colour,
with high yet soft tannins, a full body and expressive
ripe fruit flavours .
Arinto, Antao Vaz and Roupeiro make fruity and floral
white wines with medium to high levels of acidity . Some
 PORTUGAL 141

Modern
trellised
vineyards
inAlentejo
allowfor
mechanisation.

wines are fermented or aged in oak to provide extra
depth and complexity.
Vinho Regional
The largest Vinho Regional region in terms of production
is Vinho Regional Alentejano. This region is based
around Alentejo DOC but covers a far more extensive
area. Winemaking regulations are more liberal for the
Vinho Regional wines and a wider range of grape varieties
can be used, particularly international varieties. Lisboa
(stretching north from Lisbon), Peninsula de Setubal
(directly to the south) and Tejo (north-east of Lisbon) are
also important areas for Vinho Regional wines.
 142 UNDERSTANDINGWINES: EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY

Introduction
to the USAWine is produced throughoutthe length and breadth of the
32 USA but in the following two chapters we will focus on the
most important wine producing states; California, Washington, Oregon and New York. In this brief
introduction we cover the wine laws that apply throughout the USA and show how the different wine
regions relate to each other on the map.

THE UNITED STATES'WINELAWS

TheUnitedStates'GIsystemisbasedontheAmerican Viticultural Therearefederallawsspecifying

theminimum percentagesof
Area(AVA).AVAsvarysignificantly
insize.Rutherford
isa verysmall grapesthatmustcomefroma singlegrapevariety,vintageorAVA to
KEY areainNapaCounty whereas Central
Coastcovers
anareafromSan allowthesetermsto appearonthelabel.However,manystatesalso
4000 rn+ Francisco
inthenorthto SantaBarbara inthesouth.AVAscaninclude havetheirownlawsthatmaydifferfromthefederallimits.
landinmorethanonestate,andcanalsooverlap,forexample, Sta.Rita NotallwinesqualifyforanAVA. Forthesewinesthenameofa state,
2000 - 4000 rn
HillsAVA
ispredominantlylocatedwithintheboundaries
ofthelarger suchasCalifornia,
orcounty,suchasNapaCounty,mayappearonthe
1000- 2000 rn SantaYnezValley
AVA. label.Thelawsforlabelling
witha vintageandgeographical
originare
500- 1000 rn oftenmorelenientforthesewinesthanthosewithAVA status.
200- 500 rn

0- 200 rn

60"N

Hudson Bay

SO"N

40"N
40"N

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

PACIFIC NORTHAMERICA
30"N OCEAN

SOO 1000km
MEXICO
500miles

"
 CALIFORNIA 143

CaIiforniaCalifornia is home not only to the vast majority of wine made in the USA but also to
many of the country's most celebrated wines. Combinations of warmth, bright sun
and cooling influences from ocean and altitude mean that California's winemakers are able to deliver a
33
diverse range of premium styles from rich powerful Cabernets to elegant Pinot Noirs.

CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING
The state of California extends for some 1100 kilometres
from north to south, and there are vineyards throughout
most of its length. Despite this, latitude plays a relatively
small role in determining a vineyard's climate in much
of California . The influence of the exceptionally cold
California Ocean Current is much more crucial. North of
Los Angeles (where most of the vineyards are located)
the coast line of California is mountainous. These
mountains shield much of the state from the cooling
effect of the ocean; however , in areas that are affected ,
the cooling effect can be marked.
Cold air, often accompanied by fogs, is drawn in
from the ocean in the evening, lowering night-time
temperatures. In addition, the time it takes for the sun
to burn off the fog in the morning means that the
cooling influence extends well into the day. The cooling
effect can be so dramatic in vineyards near the coast
that , in some years, grapes can struggle to fully ripen .
Where there are gaps in the mountains, the cooling
effect can reach well inland. Valleys that lie at right
angles to the ocean, such as those in Monterey and
Santa Barbara Counties, act as funnels for the cold air.
By comparison, where there is no exposure to the ocean,
such as in the Central Valley, the climate is hot.
The other factor that links all of California's wine
regions is a lack of rain during the ripening season.
Water shortages are a real concern and drip irrigation is
widely practised. The scarcity of autumn rain has always
allowed growers to leave the grapes on the vine long
into the season. This extra 'hang time' results in very ripe
grapes with very concentrated flavours and very high
sugar levels. More recently, there has been a greater
appreciation of freshness, and many growers are now
picking slightly earlier.
GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINEMAKING
Black Varieties
Cabernet Sauvignon is the most widely planted black
grape in California. Prime sites can produce extremely
expressive wines that rival the quality of the best
produced anywhere . Many of the wines are full-bodied,
with very concentrated ripe cassis flavours and
prominent spice aromas from new oak barrels. Some
producers choose to make their Cabernet Sauvignon
in a less rich style, with fresher blackcurrant flavours.

Thefogthatcomesinfrom
the Pacific
Ocean
playsa vital
roleingrapegrowing
in
manyoftheAVAs
in
California.
 144 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Zinfandel is regarded as California's 'own' grape

variety and it is made in a range of styles. It has a
tendency to ripen unevenly, with the consequence
that the harvested fruit can sometimes include both
raisined and underripe grapes. The raisining can result
40"N
NEVADA in concentrated, full-bodied red wines with high alcohol
levels, sometimes with small amounts of residual sugar.
Flavours include red and black fruits, dried berries, and
liquorice. Some can display a subtle herbaceous quality
from underripe grapes. Large volumes of rose Zinfandel
38"N are made from early-picked grapes. These wines,
commonly referred to as White Zinfandel, are typically
fruity, pale in colour, medium -sweet and low in alcohol.
Merlot is also widely planted, generally making
38 "N approachable wines with soft tannins and ripe black
fruit. San Joaquin in Central Valley has the largest
plantings, making simple, inexpensive wines. Better-
quality Merlots now come from cooler sites such as
Monterey and the North Coast regions, especially Napa
36"N and Sonoma. These deeply coloured wines have soft,
velvety tannins, a luscious body, high alcohol and classic
varietal flavours of blackberry and plum.
PACIFIC
OCEAN Premium Pinot Noir can come from moderate regions
36"N such as Russian River Valley, Los Carneros and Santa Maria
Valley. Styles range widely, according to the vineyard site
and winemaking practices. Some are light in colour, with
classic gamey and vegetal notes, although most show
CALIFORNIA
rich layers of ripe red fruit flavours (red cherry, strawberry)
and notes of sweet spice from oak maturation.
Syrah is planted across the state and is typically made
in a full -bodied, rich style. Some producers make leaner,
more peppery styles.

KEY White Varieties

- 4000m+ Chardonnay is the most planted grape variety of either
colour. Throughout the state, there is a wide variation
- 2000 - 4000 m
of production styles: the inexpensive, high-volume
1000- 2000m
wines from the Central Valley tend to be fruity with low
500- 1000 m to medium acidity and sometimes a toasty note from
200- 500 m
oak staves or chips. In the past, high-quality California
Chardonnay had a reputation for being very full-bodied,
100- 200 m
high in alcohol and low in acidity, with obvious flavours
0- l00m of oak, hazelnut and butter underpinning the peach
and banana fruit flavours. Today, there is a wide variety
of premium Chardonnay being produced in the state,
including restrained examples with less oak from cooler
regions such as Los Carneros and Russian River Valley.
The best Sauvignon Blanc comes from California's
coastal regions, giving wines with high acidity and ripe
citrus flavours. Affordable, fruity, everyday wines come
from warmer regions such as the Central Valley. The term
Fume Blanc is sometimes used to indicate an oaked style
of Sauvignon Blanc, but some producers use this term
for unoaked wines.
Anair-conditioned
barrel
hall.Storing
thebarrels
in REGIONS AND WINES
racksmakesit easierto The majority of California wine is produced primarily in
selectandmovethem. the Central Valley where the soil is very fertile and
 CALIFORNIA 145

irrigation is used to increase yield. In the premium wine

regions located primarily along California's coast, great
NAPAVALLEY
attention is paid to managing quality in the vineyard and
producing wines reflective of each area.
The principal vineyards of California are grouped into
five regions, three of which contain the majority of the
well-known County Appellations and AVAs.These three
regions, North Coast, Central Coast and Central Valley,
will be covered below.

NORTH COAST
California's North Coast comprises the vineyards to the
north of San Francisco Bay.The climate of the vineyards
here is strongly influenced by the ocean, bringing fog 38' 30'N
and cool breezes that flow through the gaps in the
coastal ranges and river valleys. This affects the average
temperatures and diurnal temperature ranges that
determine grape plantings.

NapaCounty
The Napa Valley AVA runs north to south for about
50 kilometres, but is only about 5 kilometres wide. It
has the most expensive vineyard land and some of the
·,_
most prestigious wineries of California. To the west, the ·,_-...._
__
Mayacamas Mountains form the boundary with Sonoma
"---.___,_.-......-~
County. On its eastern side, the Vaca Mountains separate
-(
the Napa Valley from the northern part of the Central
Valley. Vineyards are found on both the valley floor and
on each valley side and are divided into a number of
smaller AVAs. NAPAVALLEY
The county is subject to a number of cooling RELIEF
influences, providing a diverse range of climates and
leading to the production of a range of different wine
styles.
The most significant influences are the morning fogs
and cool afternoon breezes from San Pablo Bay (the
northern extension of the San Francisco Bay) that
moderate the temperatures of the vineyards to the
south of the valley. Los Carneros AVA is the most
southerly vineyard area on the valley floor and extends
into Sonoma County. It is cool enough to be a source 38'30'N
of high-quality Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, which are
used to make still wines as well as traditional method
sparkling wines. Moving north along the valley floor
the climate becomes warm enough to ripen Cabernet
SONOMA
Sauvignon and the AVAsof Stags Leap District,
Yountville, Oakville and Rutherford are all principally
renowned for making premium wines from this grape.
With the least influence from the San Pablo Bay,
Rutherford is the warmest during the day, and its red
·,
wines are often considered to have the most power ·-,_
·...._
__
and structure. Merlot is also widely planted throughout
"---.___,_ ........
-~
these AVAs,and Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc are -(
the main white varieties, showing ripe tropical fruit
flavours. In the north of the valley Saint Helena AVA
and Calistoga AVA often receive the warmest daytime
KEY 1000 m+ 500- 1000 m 200- S00m
temperatures and can produce some of the most
100- 200 m 0- 100 m
concentrated, full-bodied wines in the valley. Cool air
146 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Vineyards
inLosCarneros
overlooking
SanPabloBay.
through the Chalk Hill gap in the Mayacamas Mountains
can provide some relief from oppressive afternoon
temperatures and much cooler night-time temperatures
help to retain acidity in the grapes. Although Cabernet
Sauvignon is the focus here too, Zinfandel and Syrah are
also grown.
Many of the vineyards on the valley sides lie above the
fog layer, and are instead cooled by their altitude. Aspect
also has an important effect on vineyard climate. West
facing vineyards such as those of Howell Mountain AVA
and Atlas Peak AVA get full exposure to the hot
afternoon sun, and therefore tend to be warmer than
those facing east (Diamond Mountain District AVA,
Spring Mountain District AVA and Mount Veeder AVA),
giving fuller-bodied wines with higher alcohol levels.
Overall the red wines of the valley sides tend to have
greater levels of tannin, and less richness on the palate
than those of the valley floor. Cabernet Sauvignon is
the principal variety but Merlot, Cabernet Franc and
Zinfandel are also grown depending on the location.
Chardonnay is the main white variety and displays citrus
and stone fruit with higher levels of acidity than those
of the valley floor.
Sonoma and Mendocino Counties
Sonoma County is larger than Napa County, with a
greater variety of climates. Due to a break in the coastal
ranges (known as the Petaluma Gap) the Russian River
Valley AVA has very cool, foggy conditions and is
best known for high-quality, elegant Pinot Noirs and
Chardonnays, as well as sparkling wines from the same
grape varieties. The AVAsto the north of Russian River
Valley are perceptibly warmer. Dry Creek Valley AVA
is planted densely both on its hillsides and its floor.
The hillsides above the fog layer are home to high-
quality old vine Zinfandels, whereas the valley floor
vineyards are better suited to Sauvignon Blanc. Rhone
varieties and Cabernet Sauvignon are also popular.
Alexander Valley AVA is warmer still and its wines
tend to be more fleshy and full-bodied than those of
the other Sonoma AVAs. In particular, it has built a
reputation for soft-textured, full-bodied Cabernet
Sauvignons, but in addition a range of international
varieties perform well.
To the west of these AVAs is the extensive Sonoma
Coast AVA.The climate here is greatly influenced by the
cold Pacific Ocean and the vineyards are often planted
on south facing slopes to help maximise ripening.
Towards the south of Sonoma County, Sonoma Valley
AVA runs parallel to Napa Valley. Similar to Napa Valley,
it is cooled by the breezes and fogs from the San Pablo
Bay.The region produces high-quality Chardonnays, but
is also known for its old vine Zinfandels.
North of Sonoma County the large and very diverse
region of Mendocino County includes the very cool
Anderson Valley AVA,a source of grapes for aromatic
white wines such as Riesling and Gewurztraminer, as
well as sparkling wines. In comparison, the larger
Mendocino AVA experiences much warmer, drier
conditions, protected behind coastal hills that rise up
to 900 metres. The wines here are full bodied with soft
tannins and are often made from Cabernet Sauvignon,
Zinfandel and Syrah.
 CALIFORNIA 147

CENTRAL COAST Alargefan usedforfrost

Santa Cruz Mountains and Monterey protection
in Napa.
The Santa Cruz Mountains AVA is a diverse region in
the north of the Central Coast that includes hillside
locations with infertile soils. Some of California's most
elegant Cabernet Sauvignons are produced in this
moderate climate, as well as some high -quality
Chardonnays and Pinot Noirs.
Monterey AVA, which follows the path of the Salinas
Valley, is strongly influenced by the cold Pacific Ocean.
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have been heavily planted
closer to the coast where strong cool winds blow in on
a daily basis. Further along the valley the cool winds
become less evident and Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon
and Syrah are grown. There are a number of AVAs on the
slopes surrounding the Salinas Valley within Monterey
County. In particular the Santa Lucia Highlands AVA is
noted as a source of high-quality Chardonnay with citrus Sta. Rita Hills AVA in the far west of Santa Ynez is much
and tropical fruit flavours and balanced acidity. cooler and strongly influenced by the ocean. Like Santa
Maria Valley it specialises in Pinot Noir, backed up by
San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties Chardonnay and a number of aromatic varieties.
San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties are located
in the southern part of Central Coast. Here, the CENTRAL VALLEY
mountains lie east-west, rather than north-south, thus The vast Central Valley area encompasses the
encouraging the flow of cool ocean breezes onto the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, and produces the
mainland. vast majority of Californian wine, much of which is used
Paso Robles AVA in San Luis Obispo County has in high-volume, inexpensive brands. The climate is
notable plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and mostly hot and dry and irrigation is widely practised .
Syrah. It has two distinct zones. The east experiences New grape varieties such as Rubi red and Ruby Cabernet
hot, sunny weather and has deep fertile soils producing were bred in California to make the most of these
supple fruity wines for high -volume brands. The west is conditions. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Chardonnay
cooled by marine air, and has gained a reputation for are widely planted as well as Colombard, Chen in Blanc
high-quality Zinfandel and Rhone varieties. and Barbera.
Further south the exposed coastal Santa Maria Valley
AVA of Santa Barbara County is significantly cooler, Lodi
and well suited to growing premium Pinot Noir and The Lodi AVA straddles the Sacramento and San Joaquin
Chardonnay grapes. In low-lying areas fog can cover the Valleys, in the middle of the Central Valley. Although it is
vineyards during the day, encouraging a slow ripening geographically within the Central Valley, the AVA lies east
process, and yielding wines with concentrated fruit of the huge Sacramento Delta and thus benefits each day
flavours balanced by high acidity. Conditions are slightly from the cooling breezes from San Francisco Bay. Most
warmer in the Santa Ynez Valley AVA,which produces varieties are grown, but Lodi is also home to some of the
red wines from both Syrah and Bordeaux varieties. oldest and best Zinfandel vineyards in the state.
148 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Oregon Washington
andNewYorkAfter Califo~nia, the ne~t most important
34 1 states for wine production are Oregon,
Washington and New York. The first two lie directly to the north of California and occupy the north-west
corner of the country either side of the Cascade Mountains. New York is located on the Atlantic rather
than the Pacific seaboard and sits in the north east of the USA.

RIGHT:
Vineyards
plantedon OREGON
theundulating
hillsin Northern Oregon
Oregon. The Willamette Valley AVA lies to the west of the
Cascade Mountains and stretches south from Portland. It
has the largest concentration of wineries and vineyards
BELOW
RIGHT:
Vineyards
in in Oregon. The Willamette Valley has a moderate climate
theColumbia
Valley.
Thehills and experiences cooling breezes from the Pacific Ocean.
inthebackground
showhow The growing season is mostly dry with long sunny days
drythisareais. and cool nights. Pinot Noir is by far the most planted
grape variety producing wines with ripe red fruit
flavours, a hint of cinnamon spice and high levels of
acidity. Pinot Gris is also widely grown and tends to be
made in a fruity, dry style.

Southern Oregon
The Southern Oregon AVA lies directly to the south of
the Willamette Valley. It encompasses Umpqua Valley,
Rogue Valley and other AVAs.Although this region has
the warmest growing conditions in Oregon, there are
also cooler areas within its hillsides and valleys that
KEY
enable Southern Oregon to grow both cool and warm
- 4000m+ climate varieties such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon,
2000 - 4000 m Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris and Syrah successfully.
1000- 2000 m
WASHINGTON STATE
500- 1000 m
The majority of the vineyards are planted in the
200-500 m extensive Columbia Valley AVA that lies east of the
0-200 m Cascade Mountains in the valleys of the Columbia River
and its tributaries. Within this area are the smaller but
important Yakima Valley AVA and Walla Walla AVA.
The Columbia Valley AVA lies in the rain shadow of
the Cascade Mountains making irrigation with river
50"N water a necessity. Winemakers take advantage of long
daylight hours and consistent summer temperatures.
The fruit attains optimal ripeness due to the sunny
days; cool nights help the grapes to maintain natural
PACIFIC levels of acidity. A major problem of the region is
OCEAN winter freeze, which may reduce crop volumes by
-::>
I .,. half or more.
Plummy, full-bodied Merlot and elegant, age-worthy
45' N Cabernet Sauvignon are the most important red wines.
Full-bodied, intensely concentrated Syrah is also
produced. Chardonnay is the most planted white
variety making fruity wines often with some toasty
notes from oak. Riesling is also popular, typically made
in a dry style with ripe stone fruit flavours.
 OREGON,WASHINGTONANO NEWYORK 149

NEW YORK STATE

Compared with the wine regions on the USA'swestern
coast, the grape growing area of New York State is
dominated by American and hybrid vine species.
These grapes are used for the production of juices
and jellies but due to their winter hardiness are also
used for wine production. Wines are also made from
V.vinifera varieties, the most widely planted being
Riesling, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Cabernet
Sauvignon .
The Finger Lakes AVA is the most important area
ATLANTIC
for wine production. The deep glacial lakes in this OCEAN
region store heat well into November, raising the air
temperature of the surrounding vineyards and
extending the growing season. While it is most noted
for the quality of its perfumed Rieslings, the region
also produces Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc and lOOmll
es

Chardonnay, as well as a number of American varieties

and hybrids. Some of the individual lakes have their
own smaller AVAs. KEY 1000 m+ 500- l000m 200- 500 m 0-200 m
150 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY

CanadaCanada's most important vineyard regions are situated in the provinces of Ontario and
35 British Columbia. Its wine regions experience a harsh continental climate but with
moderating influences from large bodies of water. Canada produces some world-renowned lcewines,
along with steadily growing volumes of dry wines, both white and red.

WINE REGIONS
The climate is continental throughout Canada's wine
regions, so although average annual temperatures are
low, average daytime temperatures in July and August
are often very high. Large lakes go some way to
moderate temperature extremes, but the winters are
cold and temperatures may drop far below zero for long
periods, creating suitable conditions for lcewine
production.
Ontario
Ontario has three DVAs of which the most important is
the Niagara Peninsula on the south-western corner of
Lake Ontario. The lake cools down and heats up more
slowly than the surrounding land. This extends the
growing season in the autumn allowing grapes to ripen
fully and delays bud burst in the spring, helping to
minimise frost damage. Air flow helps to reduce fungal
disease.
Riesling does well here, making fresh, fruity dry and
off-dry whites, and the finest lcewines. Another grape
variety commonly used for lcewine is Vidal. This hybrid
is hardy, and while it has little character when made into
a dry white, it can make high-quality lcewines, although
without the acid structure and aromatic complexity of
those made from Riesling. Good quality dry Chardonnays
are also made, generally with pure fruit and restrained
oak. Among black grape varieties, some producers are

CANADIAN WINE LAWS

Canada's appellation system is the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA).Two provinces currently use the VOA
scheme: Ontario and British Columbia. Each province is broken down into smaller Designated Viticultural Areas
(DVAs),which are divided into regional appellations and then sub-appellations. Every VOA wine must use 100
per cent grapes that are grown in that province. They must be made 100 per cent from \I. vinifera varieties or
selected hybrids.

KEY
4000 m+

2000- 4000 m

1000--2000 m

500- 1000 m

200- SOOm

0- 200 m
 CANADA 151

making very high-quality wines from Pinot Noir, but Grapesleftonthevineover

plantings of Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon and winterfortheproduction
of
Merlot are increasing . lcewine.

British Columbia
British Columbia has five DVAs,the most important of
which is the Okanagan Valley. This huge DVA lies in a
rain shadow between two mountain ranges, which
results in very low annual average rainfall and a semi-
desert environment . Day lengths throughout the
growing season are extremely long due to the
northern latitude, and this prolongs the time in which
photosynthesis can take place, aiding grape ripening.
Large glacial lakes help to moderate temperatures and
extend the growing season, enabling successful ripening
of white grapes in the north and black grapes in the
south.
The most widely planted varieties are Merlot, Pinot
Gris, Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. lcewine is also
produced here, usually from Riesling or Vidal.
152 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
ChiIe Located between the Andes to the east and the Pacific to the west, Chile has an unusual
36 geography. However, it is this geography, which combines cooling influences from the Pacific
and Andes along with plentiful sunshine, that explains why Chile has found success making a wide
range of wine styles.
CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING
Chile's vineyards range over an area that covers more
than 900 kilometres from north to south but rarely more
than 100 kilometres from east to west. The area is
broadly defined by four key geographical features. To
the west is the Pacific Ocean and just inland are the
coastal mountain ranges.To the east are the Andes,
which also mark Chile's border with Argentina. North of
Santiago the two ranges tend to merge, but south of
the capital there is a large depression between the two
mountain ranges that is commonly referred to as the
Central Valley. In many places there are gaps in the
Coastal Range caused by river valleys that drain the
water from the Andes.
Generally speaking the vineyards of Chile have a
warm Mediterranean climate. The dry, sunny growing
season ensures that the grapes reliably ripen and fungal
diseases are kept to a minimum. In most places the
shortfall in rainwater can be made up for with irrigation.
However, water for irrigation is in increasingly short
supply. Conditions become cooler and wetter in the
Southern Regions. El Nino and La Nina are weather
patterns that can affect Chile's wine regions in some
years. Rainfall levels can dramatically increase during
El Nino years, whereas drought may occur in La Nina
years.This cyclical weather phenomenon is experienced
throughout the Pacific.
Along the north-south axis there are common features
that moderate temperatures on the western and eastern
edges of vineyard areas.The cold Humboldt Current flows
CHILEANWINELAWS
WithinChile's GIschemethevineyard areasaredividedintoseveral
Denominaciones deOrigen (DOs).Therearefourprincipalregions
: (forcoasta
Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Central ValleyandSouthern Regionandthese
aredividedinto13better-known sub-regions thatgenerally
followthe
valleysrunningwestfromtheAndes tothePacific.Thesystem was
based onChile 'sadministrat
iveregions andassuchtheregionsarevery
broadbased andmostofthesub-regions coverextensivetractsofland.
Consequently manyofthesub-regions containmultiplezones,each
witha moreuniformclimate . defined, thesetermscarryverylittleoverallmeaning
In2012afurtherdegree ofclassification
wasannounced, further
dividingChile'swineregions . Thenewclassificationcategorises
vineyardsitesaccordingto theirdistancefromthecoastratherthan
up from Antarctica along the Chilean coast and the
prevailing winds blow cool air inland along the river
valleys. In areasvery close to the coast this can also include
fog. The cooling effect of these winds is strongest in the
areas where the coastal mountains are at their lowest, and
in the parts of the valleys that lie closest to the Pacific. In
the vineyards in the foothills of the Andes there is another
cooling effect caused by cold air that descends from the
mountains overnight and can cause a large diurnal
temperature range. Between the two mountain ranges,
the climate is more sheltered and the large expanses of flat
land are easier to cultivate. These two cooling influences
are the reason for the new labelling terms introduced in
2012 (seesection Chilean WineLaws below).
Sustainable and organic grape growing and
winemaking are widely practised by both large and
small wine estates. A number of well-respected
winemakers as well as the authorities have done much
to promote this .
GRAPEVARIETIESAND WINEMAKING
Black Grape Varieties
Black varieties have always accounted for the majority of
the plantings in Chile. Cabernet Sauvignon is the most
planted grape variety of either colour. The extent of the
plantings means that it is made in a variety of styles from
simple and fruity to full-bodied premium examples. These
wines usually have very ripe black fruit aromas and
flavours, often with a herbaceous character. It is frequently
blended with Merlot, Carmenere or Syrah. Inexpensive
theirlatitude.Thefollowingtermsmayappear onwinelabels : Costa
EntreCordilleras
l areas), (theareasbetween themountain
ranges) andAndes (mountain areas).It isimportantto notethatCosta,
EntreCordilleras andAndes arecomplementary termsthattheproducer
canchoose to useinadditionto theDO. Thisisa newdevelopment and
it remainsto beseenwhetherthesetermsbecome widespread .
Chilean lawalsorecognises certainotherlabellingterms:Reserva,
Reserva Especial,ReservaPrivado andGran Reserva
. Althoughloosely
buttheycanbea
usefulwayof comm unicatingthequalitylevelswithina producer's
portfolioofwines.
 CHILE 153

medium-bodied and fruity Merlot has been very

successful on export markets, but fuller -bodied, more
complex versions can also be found. Carmenere is a late
ripening variety that is most successful in the warmest
and sunniest sites.The wines are usually full -bodied,
often with high levels of tannin . Carmenere can have
overtly herbaceous aromas when not fully ripe but good
examples achieve a balance between black fruit character
and herbal aromas. It is often thought of as Chile's
signature grape variety. Syrah is planted in a wide variety
of sites and comes in a variety of styles. Wines from the
cooler coastal or northerly regions such as Elqui Valley
are lighter in body with peppery notes, whereas wines
from hotter climates, such as Colchagua Valley, display a
greater intensity of black fruit flavours and fuller body. Blanc and Syrah and LimarfValley is producing some of Morning
miststhatcomein
Pinot Noir is showing considerable promise in cooler Chile's best Chardonnay. offthePacific
Ocean
havean
locations such as the San Antonio and CasablancaValleys. important
coolingeffectin
Aconcagua Region Casablanca
Valley.
White Grape Varieties Although well known, this is the second smallest wine
Plantings of white varieties in Chile are dominated by region in Chile. It is divided into three sub-regions.
two international varieties: Sauvignon Blanc and The Aconcagua Valley sub-region is a steep sided
Chardonnay. Sauvignon Blanc performs particularly
well in cooler vineyard sites such as those of the
Casablanca and San Antonio Valleys, which yield
CHILE
excellent wines with high acidity and intense fruity
flavours. The wines tend to focus on ripe apple, citrus
and tropical flavours, and sometimes display herbaceous 100 150km

notes. Some examples have added richness and texture

from lees stirring and oak. To date most Chardonnays
have been made in a modern international style with REGIONS
,.
ripe fruit and oak flavours. However, the quality and
c:::J coou1MBO .)·
range of styles produced is constantly growing. The D ACONCAGUA
!
I
LimarfValley in particular produces wines with structure, D CENTRALVALLEY CHILE \ 7

elegance and restraint, with Aconcagua Valley, .J

Casablanca Valley and many other regions also
D SOUTHERN
~
....,p.,
32'S

producing fine wines . Muscat of Alexandria is the third \ ...

most planted white variety . It is mostly used for the i .,.
production of the grape brandy Pisco. There are small )
plantings of aromatic varieties such as Viognier, Riesling
antlago:..,\
and Gewurztraminer making fresh, fruity wines from MAIPO,
VALLEY
cool regions such as the Bfo Bfo and ltata Valleys.
34°S
34\,
REGIONS AND WINES (
,,..
Coquimbo Region CACHAPbAL
VALf"EY
Coquimbo borders onto the Atacama Desert and is c·
PACIFIC
currently the most northerly of Chile's principal wine
OCEAN (
regions. There are three winemaking sub-regions here, CURIC0- 0

VALLE
Elqui Valley, Limarf Valley and Choapa Valley. Vineyard
~ KEY
plantings are relatively small compared with the more \
36'S
southerly regions but quality tends to be high. All three ( 36' S - 6000m+
valleys have slightly different features but they all benefit l'! 4000 - 6000 m
from brilliant sunshine and marked cooling influences ,.;·~
2000- 4000 m
either from sea breezes or mountain air. Some vineyards ;- ARGENTINA
are now being planted at very high altitudes. The biggest 1000- 2000 m
;.
challenge here is the lack of water. Irrigation is essential I' S00- 1000m
but expensive because water is less plentiful here !
\
200- 500 m
compared with some other regions. Nevertheless, Elqui
0- 200m
Valley has already developed a reputation for Sauvignon
154 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
AviewacrossColchagua
Valleyshowingthe extensive
plantingsonthe valleyfloor.
narrow valley that enjoys some cooling influences from
the ocean and the Andes Mountains. Nonetheless, the
vineyards on the fertile valley floor between the coastal
mountain range and the Andes offer some of the
warmest growing conditions in Chile. It is a classic red
wine area where Cabernet Sauvignon has long been the
dominant grape variety although in recent years Syrah,
which was pioneered in Chile in this valley, has become
increasingly important, together with Carmenere. Reds
have traditionally had rich, ripe fruit flavours with high
alcohol and tannins. In recent years producers have been
looking to reduce alcohol levels and find more freshness
and complex fruit flavours. As a result, plantings are less
focused on the fertile valley floor and have spread either
onto the slopes or towards the coast.
The Casablanca Valley and San Antonio Valley
sub-regions are two neighbouring sub-regions that
Ahillsidevineyard
in
Aconcagua Valley,
withthe
Andesinthebackground.
Notethefruithasbeen
exposedto helpwith
ripening.
share similar characteristics. They are very varied areas
offering a host of different soils and aspects and, most
importantly, they both lie between the coastal
mountains and the Pacific.They offer growers noticeably
cooler sites thanks to morning fogs and afternoon winds
that blow in off the ocean. As a result, plantings of white
varieties dominate. Sauvignon Blanc has gained the
greatest reputation particularly in San Antonio Valley
and its particularly cool Leyda Valley zone, but
Chardonnay is also widely planted and is capable of
making fine w ines here. Pinot Noir is the most planted
black variety and can produce wines with red berry fruit
and herbal notes in the coolest sites. Syrah is also
successful, particularly in Casablanca Valley, where it is
planted in the warmer vineyard sites in the east, giving
well -structured wines with a peppery edge.
Central Valley Region
The Central Valley runs south from the capital Santiago
to the sub-region of ltata Valley. This vast warm flat
region is where the majority of Chilean vineyards have
always been found. Grapes ripen easily and a lot of
production is focused on inexpensive fru ity wines often
made from Merlot and Chardonnay. The Central Valley is
divided into four sub-regions: Mai po Valley, Rapel Valley,
Curic6 Valley and Maule Valley. Rape! is itself subdivided
into two zones: Cachapoal Valley and Colchagua Valley.
The Maipo Valley sub-region is the classic heartland
of the Chilean wine industry due to its proximity to the
capital city Santiago. It is almost completely surrounded
by mountains and very little coastal influence reaches
the main grape growing area to the south of the capital.

Many of the more premium sites are located in the
Andean foothills, which are cooled by the descending
air, lending elegance and structure to the red wines.
Mai po Valley has a reputation for Cabernet Sauvignon
that can often have a particular minty character to it.
The Rapel sub-region is a large and varied area. The
more northerly Cachapoal Valley zone is a warm area
cut off from the ocean breezes. Carmenere ripens well
on the valley floors and Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah
perform well in the cooler eastern end of the valley. The
Colchagua Valley zone is a larger and more varied area
than Cachapoal Valley. The central part of this valley is
warm and open to some ocean influence. It is well
known for full-bodied reds, particularly Cabernet
Sauvignon, but also Syrah and Carmenere. As the area
has expanded, vineyards have increasingly been planted
on the valley slopes and some areas, notably Apalta,
have gained a premium reputation. Further to the west
the cooling Pacific influence becomes greater and some
high-quality white wines can be produced.
The Curic6 Valley and Maule Valley sub-regions form
the southern end of the Central Valley. The warmth and
fertile soils make these the most important sources of
fruit for inexpensive blended red and white wines. The
vineyards in Maule Valley are cooler than those of Curic6
Valley and the wines retain a higher acidity, which can be
CHILE 155
a useful ingredient when blending. There are increasing
efforts to exploit the wealth of dry-farmed, old vines
that exist w ithin the western hills of this region. Carignan
has become the star variety here, producing full-bodied ,
intensely concentrated wines from these ancient low-
yielding bush vines.
Southern Region
This region has three sub-regions : ltata Valley, Bio Bfo
Valley and Malleco Valley. The climate in the vineyards of
the Southern sub-regions becomes noticeably cooler
and wetter the further south they are located.
Plantings in the two larger sub-regions of ltata Valley
and Bio Bfo Valley are dominated by Paisand Muscat of
Alexandria and the resulting output is mainly consumed
locally, but Bio Bio Valley has started to show great
promise for Pinot Noir, Chardonnay and aromatic
varieties. There is increasing interest among producers
for fruit from high-quality white and black varieties for
their acidity and aromatic qualities . The full potential of
these regions has yet to be explored .
Malleco is the smallest and currently the most
southerly sub-region . There are only a small number of
producers making Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, but it is
increasingly attracting interest from premium producers .
156 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY

ArgentinaCut off from the influences of the Pacific Ocean by the Andes, Argentina's wine
37 regions are defined by their altitude, with many of the best vineyard areas lying over
1000 metres above sea level. Within these regions two grape varieties have come to be recognised as
producing Argentina's signature wines: the black variety Malbec and the white variety Torrontes.

CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING Torrontes grape, many vineyards growing black grape
Most of Argentina's vineyards lie close to the Andes, in a varieties are now planted with vertical trellises. The
series of irrigated oases in what is otherwise desert. They canopies still need to be arranged so that grapes are
are spread over more than 1500 kilometres from the shaded from the intense sunshine .
province of Salta in the north to Rfo Negro and Neuquen In the rain shadow of the Andes, rainfall is extremely
in Patagonia . low, but water can be drawn from rivers flowing down
With the exception of those in Rfo Negro and Neuquen, from the mountains or from subterranean aquifers .
most of the vineyards lie 600 metres or more above sea Flood irrigation was widespread but drip irrigation
level, and in Salta, close to the town of Cafayate, they (which uses scarce water more efficiently) is more
regularly extend to 2000 metres or more, allowing common in newer vineyards.
suitably cool sites to be found close to the Equator. Spring frosts are an occasional problem, but summer
Historically, because of the heat, most vineyards were hail is a regular hazard, particularly in Mendoza. Despite
planted in the pergola system, known locally as parral. the expense, many producers use netting to protect
This lifted the grapes away from the searing heat close to their vines. The traditional method of risk management -
the ground, and, with grapes hanging down below the to own vineyards in several different areas - will always
leaf canopy, also provided some shade from the intense be widespread as th is also brings conside rable
sunshine. Although parral is still commonly used for the advantages at the blending stage. The dry climate means
that there are few problems with rot or mildew, and
Argentina is an important producer of wines made from
organically grown grapes.
25•s
I,
CHILE ,) GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING
PACIFIC Black Varieties
OCEAN
Malbec is Argentina's flagship variety, and the country
has the largest plantings of this grape worldwide. It
tends to produce deeply coloured, full-bodied wines
30 S with notes of black fruit and often high levels of smooth
3o•s ")'I
tannins. However, a number of winemakers are now
j
F extracting more gently in the winery to create more
·~ elegant styles. Most high-quality Malbecs are matured
LUJAN ' - -
DEdJYO • in new oak, lending subtle spicy flavours . Argentine
\ o )I producers have grown Malbec extensively in every wine
Sant iago
region of the country, and regional differences can be
( 35 S noticed in the wines produced . Generally, the wines made
35•s
C:
} MEND5l~ __ _j from fruit ripened at lower altitudes are fuller-bodied,
~ . with richer black fruit . Those from higher altitude
f -, I
} '\__ : vineyards tend to be more elegant, displaying fresher,

KEY
\tUQ~[i : ·,-. more floral aromas. Malbec is mostly produced as a
(' - ---- .......t varietal, although it also plays a leading role in some
- 6000m + I , premium blends, generally with Cabernet Sauvignon,
40 °S ~ , NIA R[O NEGRO to S Merlot, Cabernet Franc and/or Petit Verdot.

-1 ---
4000 - 6000 m
Bonarda is the second most planted variety in
2000 -4 000 m
ARGENTINA Argentina. It is a late ripening variety that produces
1000- 2000m deeply coloured grapes with high acidity and tannin
500-1000 m levels. When grown at high yields Bonarda produces
600km
easy-drinking wines with medium to deep colour and
200- S00m
45 °S fruity raspberry and blackberry aromas. When yields are
0-200 m
controlled and the fruit is allowed to ripen fully, it can

produce wines of greater concentration and structure.
It is mainly grown in Mendoza and San Juan.
International varieties Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah
and Merlot are also widely planted, as well as smaller
volumes ofTempranillo and Pinot Noir. Premium wines
tend to show concentrated ripe fruit flavours, usually
with toasty notes from oak.
White Varieties
Torrontes is often seen as Argentina's white signature
variety. It is widely planted in Salta, La Rioja, San Juan
and Mendoza . Many of the best examples come from
high-altitude vineyards in the Cafayate region of Salta
Province. They have an intense fruity, floral perfume,
ARGENTINA 157
1.Acomplex
seriesofchannelsandsluicegates
areusedto managethe waterusedforflood
irrigation.
2. Deepfurrowsare ploughedbetweenthe
rowsofvinesto channelthe floodwaters.
3. Dripirrigation
useswatermoreefficiently
thanfloodirrigation.
Waterisdripped
onto
thesoildirectly
abovethevines'roots.
with medium body and acidity and flavours of stone
fruits and melon. The aromatic nature of this grape
variety means that the wines are usually fermented in
inert, temperature-controlled vessels and released from
the winery in the year of harvest.
Chardonnay is also widely planted and made in a
range of styles. Premium wines tend to be matured in oak
barrels, a proportion of which is often new. Chen in Blanc,
Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon and Viognier are also grown.
The traditional low -quality variety Pedro Gimenez (not
the same variety as Pedro Ximenez found in southern
Spain) is used in cheap wines for the domestic market
and although in decline, it remains the white variety
with the greatest plantings.
158 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Flatvineyardsin the Uco
Valley.Herealtitudenot
aspectisthe keyto quality.
REGIONSAND WINES
Argentina has a GI system, in common with most New
World countries . The vineyard area is split into three
broad regions, of which only Patagonia is widely seen
on wine labels. Each region is split into a number of
provinces, which, in turn, contain a number of more
specific departments.
Salta Province
Salta is close to the border of Bolivia and so is the most
northerly of the vineyard areas in Argentina . This province
is home to some of the highest vineyards in the world,
with some located at over 3000 metres above sea level.
The extreme climate experienced here produces wines of
great purity and concentration. Torrontes is the dominant
grape, producing highly aromatic wines, especially in the
Cafayate region . Many of the large wineries based in
Mendoza and some major European wine companies
have invested in this region for its superior quality of
Torrontes. Malbec and Cabernet Sauvignon are the
dominant black varieties planted in Cafayate.
La Rioja Province
La Rioja Province has the third largest area of production
in Argentina. The main vineyard area is the Famatina
Valley, where large volumes of grapes can be grown
on the irrigated valley floors. Torrontes is a speciality
of this province, with Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and
Bonarda being the most planted black varieties. To
avoid confusion with the Rioja region in Spain, these
exported wines are generally labelled as Famatina.
San Juan Province
San Juan is Argentina's second most important wine
area. The vineyards are located at approximately 450 to
1400 metres above sea level, a similar altitude range to
those of Mendoza to the south (where the conditions are
hotter and more arid). The province is particularly noted
for the quality of its Syrah. Other grapes that flourish are
Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon and Bonarda. Chardonnay
and Viognier are the most planted white varieties.
Mendoza Province
The province of Mendoza dominates winemaking in
Argentina and accounts for the vast majority of wine
produced. The vineyards are planted in desert
conditions, protected from rain in the west by the huge
Andes Mountains and from the east by the vastness of
the Argentine Pampas.
Mendoza can be split broadly into five divisions:
Northern, Eastern, Central, Uco Valley and Southern.
The grapes or wines from these different divisions are
often blended to take advantage of fruit from different
climates.
Both Northern and Eastern Mendoza are generally
areas where the focus is on high -volume, inexpensive
wine. The Mendoza river that flows through these areas
provides irrigation water, making growing large
quantities of grapes possible.
Central Mendoza has the longest history of producing
high -quality wines and many of the most famous
producers are based here. The Lujan de Cuyo
department in particular has a reputation for producing

very fine Malbec. This sub -region lies at around 900 to
1100 metres in altitude, in the foothills of the Andes,
south-west of Mendoza city. It is notable for its old
Malbec vines, which provide much of the soft, round
and sweet spice in Malbec blends.
The Maipu department lies to the east of Lujan de
Cuyo, with vineyards at lower altitudes. Syrah and
Cabernet Sauvignon perform particularly well here. The
eastern, lower part of Maipu provides much of the high
volume, inexpensive wine for both domestic and export
markets but is also a valuable source of old vine Bonarda
and Tempranillo .
The Uco Valley lies to the south-west of Mendoza,
and is a source of high-quality fruit. The vineyards lie at
900 to 1500 metres, making them the highest vineyards
in Mendoza . Cool nights help to retain acidity and fresh
fruit flavours in the grapes, and the wines sometimes
display floral notes. Chardonnay, Torrontes, Sauvignon
Blanc, Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and
Tempranillo all flourish here. Some sites are cool enough
to grow Pinot Nair. This area includes the department of
ARGENTINA 159
Tupungato to the west, a high altitude area increasingly
recognised for the quality of its wines.
Southern Mendoza is home to the San Rafael
department. Compared with much of Mendoza it has a
low altitude but its southerly location makes it one of
the coolest areas in the province. It has the country's
most significant plantings of Chenin Blanc.
Patagonia Region
Patagonia is home to the Rio Negro Province, and the
relatively new Neuquen Province. With vineyards situated
at around 200 to 250 metres, the cooling influence here
is not the altitude, but the latitude. Strong desert winds
provide a challenge for the grape growers here, but the
low rainfall and wide diurnal range means the vines
benefit from a low incidence of disease. Long daylight
hours and cool nights provide wines with concentrated
but fresh fruit flavours, and medium to high acidity.
Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Nair, Malbec and Merlot are all
capable of making premium wines in Rfo Negro; the full
potential of Neuquen is still being explored.
160 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
SouthAf riea Most of South Africa's wine regions are found on and around the coastline of the
38 Cape where they can take advantage of the cooling influence of the Southern
Ocean. This, combined with the dramatic mountainous backdrop, provides a landscape that allows
South African winemakers to produce a broad range of wine styles.
CLIMATE AND GRAPE GROWING
With its vine growing regions located at between 27°
and 34° south of the Equator, South Africa should have a
hot climate. However, although in certain inland areas
the summer temperatures can become very hot
(regularly rising in excess of 30°C), many vineyard areas
are subject to cooling influences. The most important of
these come from the Southern Ocean.The cold Benguela
Current flows up from the Antarctic running past the tip
and up the west coast of Africa, cooling coastal areas.
This is magnified by the regular strong south-easterly
summer winds, known locally as the Cape Doctor. These
bring air cooled by the ocean further inland and can
reduce temperatures by a further couple of degrees in
some areas.
The other defining feature of the South African wine
lands is the prominent mountain ranges running
throughout the wine regions. They offer producers a
dramatic range of different altitudes and aspects, as well
as a multitude of different soils, which result in a range
of different site climates. Altitude has a marked influence
on vineyard climate, with those on valley floors generally
much warmer than those in the mountains . In common
with many other wine producing regions in the Southern
Hemisphere, vines may be planted on the southern
slopes of mountains to benefit from cooler temperatures.
This mountainous terrain can also cast shadows over
SOUTH AFRICAN WINE LAWS
South Africa's GI system is the Wine of Origin Scheme (W.O.).Wines stating Wine of Origin (W.O.) on the label
will carry a Certification Seal on every bottle.
Thelawrecognises fourdifferentsizesof production area.Thelargestis
thegeographical unit,acatch-all appellationthatallowsformultiple
regional anddistrictblends.Currently,theonlyoneofanyimportance is
Western Cape.
Thisiswidelyusedbyproducers evenfor premium wines
asit allowsproducers to blendthebestparcels offruitfromdifferent
areas. TheWestern Cape isdividedintoregions - largeareasthattend
to followdominant geologicalfeatures. Themostimportantregions for
winegrapegrowingaretheCoastal Region, Breede RiverValleyand
Cape SouthCoast.These regionsarefurthersplitintodistrictsand
thenwards.
nearby vineyards, again, giving slightly cooler
temperatures during different parts of the day. Nearer
the coast the mountains can also help channel the winds
through the vineyards.
GRAPE VARIETIES AND WINEMAKING
Black Varieties
Cabernet Sauvignon, which is the most widely planted
black variety, is used for varietal wines and also blended
with Merlot and Cabernet Franc for Bordeaux-style
blends. On its own, Merlot is capable of producing full-
bodied, plummy wines. Syrah is very widely planted
too. In hot climates it gives rich, full-bodied reds that are
often high in alcohol and display ripe black fruit flavours,
sometimes with an earthy or meaty character. It is also
grown in some cooler areas giving less full-bodied,
peppery examples. Pinot Noir is less tolerant of the hot
South African climate and is planted in small amounts in
the coolest coastal areas.The vast majority of premium
red wines are matured in oak, with at least a proportion
of new barrels used, to give toasty aromas.
Pinotage (Pinot Noir x Cinsault) is the only other
black variety with significant plantings. This crossing
was developed in South Africa and, as it is hardly grown
anywhere else in the world, is often deemed a point of
difference . Pinotage is made in a range of styles. It is
sometimes blended with international varieties, to make
EstateWines- These winesmustcomefroma singleestateandall
thegrapes mustcomefromestatevineyards thatcoverasingle
geographical area.Theestatemustalsohavefacilitiesontheirland,
allowingthemto process thegrapesandthewineupto andincluding
bottling.Thislawallowstopproducersto releaseEstateWinesbutat
thesametimerelease otherW.0.winesundertheirbrandname.
OTHER LABELLING TERMS
Likemanyotherwineproducing countries
andregions, SouthAfricahas
avoluntary
sustainable
agricultural
scheme. Here,it iscalledIntegrated
Production
ofWine(IPW)andcertifiedproducers
candisplay their
credentials
aspartoftheirW.0.seals.
 SOUTH AFRICA 161

a 'Cape blend'. On its own, Pinotage can be made in a

light, fruity style with red berry flavours, whereas wines D
from old bush vine wines may be very full-bodied, with
rich, spiced, berry fruit. When fermented and/or stored
r-7
L__J
COASTALREGION
CAPESOUTH
COAST
SOUTH AFRICA
G
with heavily toasted oak staves, Pinotage can take on
intense coffee or chocolate aromas. These wines, often
marketed to highlight their unique style, are very
)
,--.-
~·
)'('. r-7
-.,__ L.__J
l e Wards
? 1 Durbanville
', 2He mel-en-Aarde
l 3Constantla
BREEDERIVER
VALLEY
t
,,4Elim
popular with some consumers.
'-
/ ',
~ ,r-.....
, .-----,,.
White Varieties 32 ·s
·--L !.,; ·~ .. -. / "3~
Chenin Blanc is the most widely planted variety of .,"~ .r- •·,;, ./ ~ - ,-'..~
\ _: ,-\ ), -, . p ~·--' .
either colour . While the importance of this variety has
declined, growers are now making better use of its
..: r.- \
\, ',
I.., ~
.,,·'
__
WliSTERN
·,
~--)
versatility and producing great wines in both sweet and ·~•._,.' ('
dry styles. At a basic level, Chenin Blanc produces easy- /
drinking wines with simple stone fruit flavours. However, : ~....;.........,·-.
__.,;·~
an increasing number of producers are making wines
from old bush vines, which can offer more concentrated
and complex flavours and a fuller texture. Barrel
34 °S ---
fermentation and barrel ageing can contribute extra
/ND/AN
body and toasty oak flavours to some of these wines. OCEAN
WALKERBAY Agulhus
Colombard remains the second most widely planted
white variety . A significant proportion of this is used in
brandy production.
Sauvignon Blanc is also widely grown . The wines GI in which they are located. Their wines may be labelled KEY
show a range of possible styles but often have a with a region , for example Coastal Region, or with a 2000m+
herbaceous character. The best examples come from the geographical unit, for example Western Cape. A number
1000-2000 m
coolest regions and can display very pure flavours of of premium wines are made this way .
citrus and green fruit. In warmer regions the grapes 500-1000 m

need to be picked early to retain such flavours, as well
as high levels of acidity . Chardonnay can make wines
of exceptional quality, particularly in the cooler sites.
Burgundian techniques such as barrel fermentation and
lees-stirring contribute to the character of many
premium examples.
Muscat of Alexandria (here called Hanepoot) is not
as widely planted as the other varieties but is used to
produce late-harvest dessert wines when the grapes
are left to shrivel on the vine. Noble rot can also be an
influence in these wines. Plantings ofViognier have
increased dramatically over the last couple of decades;
it usually makes rich, perfumed wines that have a hint
of toasty oak. High-qual ity white blends have also
emerged, particularly from Swartland . These wines are
often made from Chen in Blanc blended with Rhone
varieties such as Marsanne, Roussanne, Grenache Blanc
and Viognier.
REGIONS AND WINES
Well over 90 per cent of the wine made in South Africa
comes from the Western Cape. The most important
regions of the Western Cape are covered below . The
majority of the remainder of the wine comes from the
very hot and irrigated Orange River in the Northern Cape,
which is known mostly for inexpensive whites that are
rarely seen on export markets.
Note that some wineries located in certain districts or
wards may source their fruit from a wider area than the
Coastal Region 200-500 m
The Stellenbosch district stretches from just inland of
0-200 m
the coast at Somerset West right up into the mountains
that surround the town of Stellenbosch itself, and has
long been the hub of fine wine production in South
Africa. The climate here is moderate to warm depending
on location. There is sufficient rainfall in the winter and
summers are rarely too hot, thanks to the cool winds
from False Bay that are funnelled by the mountains
into the valleys. However, above all, the success of
Stellenbosch lies in the variety of altitude, aspect and
soil that is available in such a relatively small area. The
district is divided into a number of distinct wards, which
highlight this diversity. In recent years, Stellenbosch has
built up a reputation for top class red wines, in particular
Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot (which are often made
in Bordeaux-style blends), Syrah and Cape red blends.
The cooler sites can produce high-quality Sauvignon
Blanc and Chardonnay as well.
The Paarl district is a large district that lies to the north
of Stellenbosch. It is less exposed to the cooling influences
of the sea, being further inland, and temperatures tend
to be hotter in the summer although this can be
moderated by cooler night-time temperatures . Like
Stellenbosch, the mountainous terrain offers a variety
of altitudes, aspects and soils. A range of grape varieties
is grown; Cabernet Sauvignon , Syrah and Pinotage are
the most important reds, whereas Chen in Blanc and
Chardonnay are the most planted whites.
162 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Vineyards
lookingacrossto
the townofStellenbosch.
Themountainsherehelpto
channelthe coolocean
breezesthroughthe
vineyards.
OldvinesinSwartland.
Vineslikethesearea source
ofgrapesforsomeofSouth
Africa's
bestandmost
interesting
wines.
Constantia ward in the Cape Peninsula district has
some of the oldest vineyards in the Cape, which lie on
the eastern flanks ofTable Mountain. These vineyards are
constantly cooled by the Cape Doctor and the producers
here have a particular reputation for Sauvignon Blanc.
One of the estates continues to produce the sweet wine
Vinde Constancefrom late-harvested Muscat. There are
some vineyards planted south ofTable Mountain closer
to Cape Point itself. These vineyards are well exposed to
the cooling influence of the ocean and have made a
speciality of Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon. Some Shiraz
and Cabernet Sauvignon is planted in the warmer sites.
To the north of Cape Town, the large Swartland
district, which used to be considered as a source of
inexpensive grapes and wine, has undergone a
considerable transformation in recent years and is now
a centre of innovation and premium wine production.
It is recognised particularly as a source of old vine Chenin
Blanc, and high-quality Syrah, both of which are often
dry-farmed (grown without irrigation), lowering yields
but enhancing fruit concentration. A number of premium
Cape blends (both red and white) also come from this
district. The Darling district sits to the south-west of
Swartland, its position near the coast meaning it receives
cooling sea breezes. This area built its reputation on
Sauvignon Blanc but now produces a range of other
varieties, and like Swartland is a source of old vines.
Durbanville ward in the Tygerberg district offers
hillside sites north of Cape Town, cooled by the sea
breezes that also blow through Cape Point. It has built
a reputation for Sauvignon Blanc.
Breede River Valley
The Worcester district lies at the western end of the
Breede River Valley. The climate is hot and dry and
irrigation, largely drawn from the river, is essential. With
fertile soils, this district can produce a significant
proportion of South Africa's annual production, the
majority of which is white wine made from Chen in Blanc
and Colombard. Much of this wine is used for distillation
but nevertheless Worcester is a reliable source of well -
made red and white wines for high volume branded
wines.
The Robertson district is situated to the east of
Worcester. Robertson has a similar but slightly cooler
climate to Worcester thanks to the south easterly winds
that are drawn into the valley. This region is also a reliable

source of well-made wines for high volume brands.
However, thanks to the cooling influences and notable
outcrops of less fertile soils, this region can also produce
some excellent Syrahs and full -bodied Chardonnays.
Cape South Coast
This area, which is well exposed to the ocean, is a regular
source of some of the best fruit and wines. The most
well-established vineyard area is the Walker Bay district,
which contains the various wards of Hemel-en-Aarde.
This has long been home to some of South Africa's best
SOUTH AFRICA 163
Chardonnays and Pinot Noirs. Other varieties such as
Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot and Syrah are grown with equal
success.
To the north -west of Walker Bay is the Elgin district,
where altitude is another important cooling influence.
The area has a particular reputation for intense, fresh
Sauvignon Blancs, and is showing promise for Pinot Noir,
Chardonnay and Syrah. To the south-east of Walker Bay,
in the Cape Agulhas district, is the Elim ward. Elim also
has a particular reputation for pungent, herbaceous
Sauvignon Blanc, but Syrah is also showing promise.
164 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY
Austra
Iia Australia has been incredibly successful at taking international
39 crafting them into unique and new styles. Among the most famous are full-bodied
Shirazs, lime flavoured Rieslings, elegant Cabernets and subtle Semillons that evolve for decades. This
diversity is set to grow as new regions, grape varieties and wine styles continue to be explored.
CLIMATE AND GRAPEGROWING
Australia's land mass is similar in size to that of the United
States and larger than that of Europe; it is therefore no
surprise that a diverse range of climates can be found here.
However, due to Australia's latitude, the main growing
regions have warm or hot climates. Many of these regions
are tempered by their proximity to either the Southern or
Indian Ocean or the Murray River system. Others, such as
Adelaide Hills and EdenValley, are cooled by altitude. In
many regions rainfall is low and irrigation in the growing
season is essential. Drought can be a significant problem
and in extreme years even the Murray River,which
provides a vital source of water for the inland vineyard
areas of Riverland and Murray-Darling, can run low.
The dry conditions combined with high summer
temperatures mean bush fires are a very real risk in
certain areas. Even if the vineyard is not damaged or
destroyed, the smoke from such fires can come into
contact with the grapes causing a pungent taint in the
wines. Many producers are seeking sites with cool or
moderate climates and plantings have increased in
high-altitude locations on the mainland and in Tasmania,
which has a more southerly latitude.
GRAPEVARIETIES AND WINEMAKING
Black Varieties
Australia's principal grape variety of either colour is
Shiraz, and it is grown widely in most regions. Hot
regions such as Hunter Valley and warm regions such as
BarossaValley can produce full -bodied, intensely fruity
Shiraz.These wines also often display earthy or spicy
notes and develop leather aromas as they age. In these
areas,a number of winemakers are now making more
AUSTRALIANWINE LAWS
In Australia, there is a hierarchy of Gls incorporating zones, regions and sub-regions.
Zonesarelargeareaswithoutanyparticular
qualifying
attributes
. They
caneitherbestates(suchasSouthAustralia)orcoverseveral
states
(suchasSouthEastern Australia).
Zones canalsomakeuppartofa
state,butwiththepossibleexceptionof Barossa
thesezones
arerarely
seenonlabels.
Regions (suchasCoonawarra,ClareValleyandMargaretRiver)
can
varyinsizeandaresmaller thanzones.Theymusthaveconsistent
and
distinctqualities
fromneighbouringregions.
grape varieties and
restrained styles by controlling the level of extraction in
the winemaking process. A leaner, more peppery style is
generally made in cooler regions such as Geelong and
Heathcote. These qualities may be combined in a multi-
regional blended wine. Shiraz is also used to give
softness and body to blends with Cabernet Sauvignon,
performing a similar role to Merlot in Bordeaux.
Australian Cabernet Sauvignon is generally darker,
with firmer tannins and higher acidity than Shiraz,
displaying ripe black fruit characters (blackcurrant, black
cherry), often underpinned by toasty oak notes. Classic
regions include Coonawarra and Margaret River. In
Australia, Merlot tends to be found in blended wines
typically alongside Cabernet Sauvignon, to provide
body and fleshy, plummy fruit.
Pinot Noir is grown in a number of Australian
regions and the best examples tend to come from cool
or moderate sites in regions such as YarraValley,
Mornington Peninsula and Tasmania. In general, the
style of Pinot Nair from these regions tends to be
medium-bodied with medium alcohol, medium to high
acidity and typical flavours of cherry and strawberry.
Australia's hot regions are perfect for late ripening
varieties such as Grenache, Petit Verdot and Mataro
(Mourvedre). Varieties from Italy and Spain such as
Sangiovese and Tempranillo have also gained in
popularity in recent years because they are well adapted
to high summer temperatures and a limited water supply.
White Varieties
Chardonnay is the most planted white wine grape in
Australia. It is planted widely throughout the vineyard
regions, and is made in a wide range of styles. Basic
Manyregionsaresplitintosub-regions,if therearenotable
areas
thathavedistinctanduniquequalities.
Although asub-regionmustfall
withinoneregion,someregions arecoveredbyseveral zones.
For
example, EdenValley
isa regionwithintheBarossa zone,whichis
withinthezoneofSouthAustralia,which,inturn,iswithinSouth
EasternAustralia
zone. Thisgivesproducers
avarietyof optionswhenit
comes to makinguptheirblends.
 AUSTRALIA 165

Australian Chardonnay is often a blend of fruit from

different regions, produced unoaked to give peachy .••,~-
flavours, or with the aid of oak chips or staves to add
/ND/AN
hints of toast and vanilla. At the other end of the OCEAN
spectrum, high-quality Chardonnays from cool to Coral
Sea
moderate regions such as Adelaide Hills, Mornington
Peninsula and Yarra Valley and even warm regions such 20' 8
I NORTHERN
as Margaret River are often beautifully balanced with I TERRITORY
fresh, vibrant fruit complemented by subtle flavours
i I
from careful use of lees, MLF and/or oak maturation. WESTERN .L------
' ''
.. -- . ..1.___ ,
The popularity of Sauvignon Blanc in both the AUSTRALIA
I
domestic and export markets means it is now widely SOUTH
AUSTRALIA
planted. The moderate climate area of Adelaide Hills has 30 "8 30' 8
developed a reputation as the benchmark for the variety.
The wines tend to show concentrated passion fruit
flavours alongside refreshing high acidity.
Semillon is used to make distinctive wines in a style
that is unique to Australia. It is planted widely, but the
classic region is Hunter Valley. Here, it is harvested early,
AUSTRALIA
with low sugar levels and a high acidity. In the winery, 40 '8
ZONES Tasman
contact with oxygen is kept to a minimum and inert Sea
vessels are used for fermentation and storage. The o 250 500 750 1000 km

resultant wines are light in alcohol and almost neutral

in flavour when first bottled, yet they develop
extraordinary flavours of honey and toast with bottle
age. The best of these wines can age for 20 years or
more. In Western Australia a much more herbaceous
style is made, which could be mistaken for Sauvignon
Blanc. BarossaValley traditionally made Semillon in a
fuller-bodied, softer style; however, early-picked,
may enhance these wines. The choice of components in KEY
the blend will depend on the grape variety, the style 2000 m+
sought and the price point that is to be met.
1000- 2000 m
Riverina also specialises in the production of
botrytised wines made from Semillon . Autumn morning 500- l000m

unoaked versions are now increasingly being produced . mists and fogs in this region favour the development of 200- S00m
Riesling is also made in a style that is unique to noble rot.
0- 200 m
Australia . The wines typically have pronounced citrus
fruit aromas and flavours (lime, lemon, grapefruit) in SOUTH AUSTRALIA
youth that develop rapidly into toast, honey and petrol The majority of Australia's wine is produced in South Bigcompanies
inAustralia
notes as the wines age. The wines are unoaked with high Australia . The vineyards are concentrated in the south takeadvantageof
levels of acidity, and are usually dry or slightly off-dry, east of the state. With such a range of premium economies
of scaleand
although some sweet wines are also made. Classic vineyard locations offering diffe rent characteristics, oftentankerjuiceorgrapes
regions include the Eden and Clare Valleys in South some of Australia's most prestigious, and most to largecentralwineries.
Australia . Tasmania, and the Frankland River sub-region expensive, wines take advantage of the blending Thisis a commonpractice
of Western Australia, are also developing reputations for opportunities provided by this GI and are simply forlargeproducers
high-quality Rieslings. Here the wines are less citrusy labelled South Australia. throughout
theworld.
and more floral.

WINE REGIONS:
SOUTH EASTERNAUSTRALIAZONE
This 'super-zone' covers all the Gls within South Australia,
Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, allowing
blending of grapes or wines from across most of
Australia's wine regions. The majority of wines that are
labelled with this indication are high volume brands and
take advantage of being able to source fruit from the
fertile, irrigated vineyards of Riverland in South Australia,
Murray-Darling in Victoria and Riverina in New South
Wales. These regions can produce high yields of healthy
grapes, but they lack the flavour concentration of those
from high-quality areas. Blending in components from
regions such as Barossa,Adelaide Hills or Mclaren Vale
 166 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Barossa Valley which lies to the north-west of the BarossaValley. Here,

To the north of Adelaide, the BarossaValley region is the
heartland of fine wine production . In the warm, dry
climate, old bush vines produce outstanding Shiraz,
Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache. Classic BarossaValley
Shiraz is full-bodied, with soft tannins and ripe black fruit
complemented by sweet American oak. It softens and
develops aromas of leather and spice as it ages. The most
notable white variety is Semillon, which is increasingly
made in a fresh, unoaked style. Wines labelled Barossa
come from the Barossa zone and can be made from fruit
sourced from BarossaValley and Eden Valley.
the warm climate is tempered by cool afternoon breezes
and nights are cold . Many vineyards are planted at
altitude (300 to 400 metres), some even as high as 570
metres . Clare Valley Rieslings are dry in style with intense
citrus and lime aromas and a high acidity . With bottle
age they can develop honey and toast characters. Clare
Valley Shiraz is fragrant, powerful and structured .
Excellent quality Cabernet Sauvignon is also produced
with varying styles depending on the vineyard location,
soil and elevation . The best red wines have a long
cellaring potential.

Eden Valley Adelaide Hills

Located in the hills to the east of the BarossaValley, the
Eden Valley region has a cool to moderate climate that
KEY varies with altitude. Outstanding quality Rieslings are
made in the cooler vineyards, having intense lime and
2000m+
grapefruit aromas and a steely character. The best have
1000- 2000 m longevity displaying marmalade and toasty characters
soo - 1000 m after ten years. Shiraz, Chardonnay and Cabernet
Sauvignon are also grown with success.
200-S00m
100-200 m
Clare Valley
0-l00m Riesling is also the speciality of the Clare Valley region,
Twenty-five kilometres east of Adelaide, the Adelaide
Hills region has a moderate climate where all vineyards
are planted above 400 metres in altitude. Rainfall
occurs mainly in the winter, and soils have limited
water-holding capacity meaning that irrigation is often
necessary during the growing season. The region
specialises in making refreshing Sauvignon Blancs as
well as elegant Chardonnays that have high natural
acidities and pronounced citrus and peach aromas .
Pinot Noir is also grown for still red wines and blending
with Chardonnay for sparkling wine .

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OCEAN

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 AUSTRALIA 167

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whichis home
to exceptionally
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vines.

McLaren Vale Atractormounted

The McLaren Vale region is located on the coast to the mechanical
pruner.
The
south of Adelaide. Here, afternoon breezes from the cutterremovesthetrellised
nearby ocean temper the warm climate. The region shootsabovethe horizontal
largely produces red wine from Shiraz, Cabernet cordon.
Sauvignon, Merlot and Grenache. The wines are
intensely flavoured with dark fruit aromas and have soft,
ripe tannins. Some old vine Shiraz and Grenache are
used to create wines with depth and complexity.

Coonawarra
The Coonawarra region is a narrow strip of land 1.5
kilometres wide by 1S kilometres long, with a distinctive
red, terrarossasoil over a limestone subsoil. It lies 400
kilometres south-east of Adelaide, towards the Victorian
border. Under the influence of cold currents from the
Antarctic, the maritime climate is moderate. Cloud cover
moderates summer temperatures.
Cabernet Sauvignon, which predominates, is made
into concentrated, structured wines with characteristic
cassis and eucalyptus or menthol aromas. The best
examples age very well. Shiraz, Merlot and Chardonnay
are also widely planted.
VICTORIA
Victoria offers some of the coolest vineyard locations
on the Australian mainland. The wine regions around
Melbourne and Port Phillip Bay benefit from ocean
breezes, giving conditions cool enough to grow high -
quality Pinot Noir, Chardonnay and grapes for sparkling
wine. Further inland, the Great Dividing Range provides
a range of altitudes and aspects. High altitude sites such
as those in the regions of Macedon Ranges and Upper
Gou Iburn make elegant Pinot Noir and Chardonnay as
well as aromatic Riesling and Sauvignon Blanc. Regions
on lower slopes grow later-ripening black varieties such
as Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon; these wines are often
fresher and lighter in style than those from Australia's
hotter regions.
Yarra Valley
The Yarra Valley region is located to the north-east of
Melbourne. Broadly speaking the climate is cool to
moderate and maritime, but this is a very varied region
with a wide range of altitude and aspects. Pinot Noir is
the speciality. As well as producing high-quality table
168 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Heathcote

- 32 ·s Perth
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WESTERN
AUSTRALIA
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IOOmllt~
•1 Heathcote is located in the centre of Victoria, much
further inland than the YarraValley, Mornington
Peninsula and Geelong. Cooling influences here come
from altitude rather than the ocean giving a moderate
climate, and helping to produce Shiraz wines that have a
firmer structure and fresher fruit flavours than those of
/ND/AN
OCEAN warmer regions. Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon
0
WESTERN are also widely planted and Mediterranean grapes such
AUSTRALIA
as Sangiovese and Tempranillo have shown promise.

,, Goulburn Valley
MARGARET To the east of Heathcote is the warm Gou Iburn Valley
FRANKLAND MOUNT
RIVER RIVER BARKER _,- 34°S region. Heat is mitigated slightly by the lakes and creeks

J associated with the Goulburn River. Shiraz is the most

planted variety but Marsanne is the speciality of the
area, producing wines with citrus fruit in youth and
developing honeyed aromas with bottle age.

SOUTHERN OCEAN NEW SOUTH WALES

KEY wines, the region is renowned for its excellent quality
S00m+ sparkling wines. Yarra Valley Pinet Noir is generally
rich in fruit, with strawberries, plums and dark cherries.
200 - 500 m
The tannins are ripe and soft and careful oak handling
100- 200m adds complexity. The top producers make age-worthy
0- l00m wines. The geographical diversity here means that
Chardonnay, Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon are also
successfully made in a range of styles although never
with quite the weight of similar wines from warmer
regions.
Mornington Peninsula
Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are also specialities of the
Mornington Peninsula region, located to the south of
Melbourne. This coastal wine region has a cool to
moderate, maritime climate and is home to small
boutique estates. Vintages can vary here due to the
chance of cool, wet and windy weather at flowering
and often at harvest. The best years have a long
growing season producing fragrant, elegant wines with
finesse. Mornington Peninsula Pinet Noir ranges from
light and delicate, to more structured, but all tend to
display very pure fruit characteristics. Chardonnays
reflect the cool growing conditions having citrus, pear
and apple aromas and high acidities that are usually
softened by MLF.
Geelong
The Geelong region lies west of Melbourne and has
similar climatic conditions to the Mornington Peninsula.
Geelong Chardonnay is renowned for its quality and
tends to be complex, concentrated and full bodied. Pinet
Noir and Shiraz are the major red grapes planted. Pinet
Noir can take on earthy aromas, and Shiraz is generally
fresh and peppery. Both Chardonnay and Pinet Noir are
also used for sparkling wines.
New South Wales has the longest history of wine
production in Australia. The main region here is the
hot Hunter Valley; however, the regions of Mudgee,
Orange and Cowra offer wine producers slightly cooler
conditions. Located inland from Sydney, on the western
slopes of the Great Dividing Range, the vineyards are
planted at altitude and are capable of producing some
very concentrated Chardonnays and structured
Cabernet Sauvignons.
Hunter Valley
The Hunter Valley region has a hot, humid climate.
Fortunately, high cloud cover and ocean breezes
reduce the effect of the heat in the peak of summer.
Unfortunately, the region often suffers from unsettled
rainy weather at harvest. Good canopy management
techniques are essential to minimise rot. The most
planted grape variety is Semillon. The wines it makes tend
to be light bodied, with low alcohol, high acidity and
flavours that are initially rather neutral but evolve into a
complex spectrum of toast, nut and honey flavours with
bottle age. Chardonnay is also widely planted and made
in both oaked and unoaked styles. Shiraz is the black
variety with the largest production. Here, it usually makes
wines with black fruit flavours (blackberry and cherry),
soft tannins, a medium body and an earthy undertone.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
The wine regions of Western Australia are located in the
south-west tip of this large state. The fruit or wine from
these regions can be blended together and labelled as
Western Australia. These are the only wines not part of
the South Eastern Australia super-zone.
Margaret River
The renowned Margaret River region is located
approximately 200 kilometres south of Perth. This coastal
region has a warm maritime climate. The rainfall is high

compared with other Australian regions, but falls mainly
in the winter. Cabernet Sauvignon is widely planted, and
often blended with Merlot in a Bordeaux-style blend. A
number of different styles are produced ranging from
elegant and restrained to fruity and powerful.
Chardonnays display concentrated stone-fruit aromas
and retain high levels of natural acidity; a range of styles
are produced using barrel ageing and MLF to add
complexity. Sauvignon Blanc is also widely planted. Here,
it is often blended with Semillon and the resultant
wines often have attractive gooseberry and tropical fruit
aromas with high acidity.
Over time the area to the south has also been opened
up for wine production. The Great Southern region
AUSTRALIA 169
includes the sub-regions of Mount Barker and Frankland
River, known for deeply coloured Cabernet Sauvignon,
elegant, peppery Shiraz and floral Riesling.
TASMANIA
Tasmania has a cool maritime climate, cooled by
prevailing westerly winds off the Southern Ocean,
providing conditions that are generally free from
extremes. Although Tasmania started as a prime source
of base wine for Australian sparkling wine, the region has
since proved it can also make excellent still wines. The
principal varieties are Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon
Blanc and Pinot Gris, but even Cabernet Sauvignon can
ripen in the warmest, driest areas.
 170 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY

NewZealandNew Zealand is a wine -producing country that is best known for its fresh,
40 vibrant Sauvignon Blanc, a style that has inspired winemakers in many other
wine regions. However, its reputation for making premium-quality Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Syrah and
Bordeaux-style blends means that there is far more to New Zealand than one grape variety.

CLIMATE
AND GRAPEGROWING can be overly fertile, leading to excessive shoot and leaf
New Zealand's isolated location in the Pacific Ocean growth. Due to their problems with vine vigour New
(1900 kilometres from Australia, the nearest land mass) Zealand viticulturists have become experts in trellising
means that it experiences a maritime climate overall. and other canopy management techniques.
The South Island's climate is cool, whereas that of the The New Zealand wine industry is strongly committed
North Island is a little warmer . The combination of long to reducing the environmental impact of their vineyard
sunshine hours, nights cooled by sea breezes and a long management and winery practices. Sustainable
ripening period allows grapes to reach high levels of Winegrowing New Zealand is an initiative that sets
sugar and flavour ripeness while retaining acidity. The winery standards to help growers achieve these aims.
KEY
vineyards of the South Island tend to be located on the
2000m+ east side, protected from rain-bearing westerly winds GRAPEVARIETIES
AND WINEMAKING
1000- 2000 m by mountains in the centre of the island; however, many White Varieties
of the vineyard areas still experience plentiful rainfall, Since the early 1990s, Sauvignon Blanc has been firmly
500-lO00m
which can be problematic during ripening. Fortunately established as New Zealand's flagship grape and it
200-S00m
the soils tend to be free draining, and so do not accounts for the majority of wine production. Its pungent
0-200m experience waterlogging; however, those on flat land aromas, intense flavours of elderflower and passion fruit,
and high acidity have set a benchmark for Sauvignon
Blanc producers around the world. There are subtle
differences between the styles of the North and South
35•s 35°S Islands; the warmer North produces Sauvignon Blanc
with more tropical flavours and the South creates wines
with higher acidity and flavours of green bell pepper and
gooseberry. It is most frequently fermented in inert
vessels at cool temperatures to retain fruity flavours and
Tasman aromas, but some producers also make oak-matured
Sea
styles as a point of difference.
Chardonnay is also widely planted. Similar to many
other countries producing wines from this variety, a
number of different winemaking techniques may be
40°S 40°S explored and thus there can be great diversity between
wines. However, the general style tends to be led by
concentrated citrus and tropical fruits with subtle hints
of toast and sweet spice from new French oak.
SOUTH
Over recent years New Zealand's producers have been
ISLAND exploring the country's enormous potential for the
aromatic varieties Riesling and Gewurztraminer, and the
semi-aromatic Pinot Gris. Dry autumns and cool night
temperatures ensure aromatic compounds have plenty
PACIFIC of time to develop before the grapes are harvested. The
OCEAN
45•s 45' $ wines range from dry to sweet, however off-dry tends to
be the most prevalent style.

NEWZEALAND Black Varieties

Pinot Noir is the second most planted grape variety in
New Zealand after Sauvignon Blanc. It is widely grown
throughout the South Island and within a few selected
200 300mll~
sites in the North Island. While the overall profile of New
Zealand Pinot Noir is one of vibrant fruit, fine ripe

tannins, soft texture and often quite high levels of
alcohol, distinct regional styles have also emerged.
Although its plantings are very limited compared with
those of Pinot Noir, Merlot is the red variety with the
second greatest volume. Cabernet Sauvignon is often
blended to add tannin and notes of cassis,making up
a Bordeaux-style blend. Like all the wines from New
Zealand these blends are noted for the purity of their
fruit flavours. Production of these varieties is strongly
concentrated in the North Island, where the warmer
temperatures help to ripen black grapes. Syrah is another
grape variety that performs best in warmer sites and
produces elegant wines that are closer in style to those of
the Rhone rather than those made in the hotter climates
of Australia. Its plantings are small but increasing.
REGIONS AND WINES: NORTH ISLAND
Auckland
The wine industry in New Zealand started off in the north
of North Island around Auckland and there are many
large wineries still based there processing grapes from
all over the country. Auckland is warm and the wettest
part of New Zealand and fungal diseases are an issue.
Chardonnay, Merlot and Syrah are the most planted
varieties. Waiheke Island immediately to the east has a
growing reputation for top quality wines, particularly reds.
Gisborne
The vineyards are located on the east coast in the broad
estuary plain close to the town of Gisborne itself. Rainfall
is high but so too are the temperatures and sunshine
hours in the growing season. Over half of the vines
planted here are Chardonnay, which displays distinct
ripe tropical fruit flavours. A small amount of high-
quality Gewurztraminer is also made here, as well as
some full-bodied Pinot Gris.
Hawke'sBay
This vineyard area, located close to the twin towns of
Hastings and Napier, is also situated on the east coast of
North Island in an estuary plain. It is the warmest of the
main grape growing areas and has the longest sunshine
hours. This area, which is second only to Marlborough
in the extent of its plantings, is particularly diverse with
regard to its soils and the aspect and altitude of the
plantings. Consequently wine styles can vary. One area
in particular, Gimblett Gravels, which is a parcel of well -
drained heat-absorbing gravel soil on the valley floor,
has developed a particularly high reputation for black
varieties. Although the region built its fame on Merlot
and Cabernet Sauvignon in Bordeaux-style blends,
premium Syrah is also produced.
Wairarapa
Wairarapa is made up of a number of small vineyard
areas spread over a wide area at the southern tip of the
North Island. The most important area is around the
small town of Martinborough, which has built a global
NEW ZEALAND 171
reputation for Pinot Noir. Summer temperatures can be Summer
pruning
taking
high but a wide diurnal range makes it suitable for this placeinGimblett
Gravels.
grape variety. The wines are medium- to full-bodied and Thestonysoilandwell-
ripe with hints of dark plum and spice. exposedfruitaredear
to see.
REGIONS AND WINES: SOUTH ISLAND
Marlborough
This is the major centre for grape growing in New
Zealand, and Sauvignon Blanc makes up the majority
of the plantings here. Most of the vineyards lie in two
adjacent estuary valleys: Wairau, which is by far the
largest, and Awatere. The climate in the Wairau Valley is
very similar to Martinborough with long sunny days, but
this large valley is far from uniform. In particular there
are a number of side valleys on the southern side of
Wairau Valley that give producers a range of aspects and
altitudes to work with. The Awatere Valley is drier, cooler
and windier. As a result, the Sauvignon Blancs from here
have a higher acidity with a pronounced herbaceous
character, and lack the tropical fruit flavours that can
be found in some of the wines from the Wairau Valley.
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are also widely planted and
both are used for still and sparkling wine production .
The still Pinot Noir wines are often medium-bodied with
fine tannins and flavours of cherry and cranberry, and as
more producers start to pay attention to this variety,
increasingly impressive wines are made. Riesling and
Pinot Gris also perform well here.
Nelson
Located to the north-west of the Wairau Valley on the
north coast of South Island, Nelson is cooler and wetter
than Marlborough. Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir and
Pinot Gris dominate plantings.
Canterbury
Canterbury has two main centres of viticulture : one in
the plain immediately to the west of the town of
Christchurch and a larger one, Waipara Valley, to the
172 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Vineyards
in Marlborough
plantedonthevalleyfloor.
north. The plain area is particularly exposed to the
cooling influence of the Pacific although there is a slight
warming effect from north-westerly winds. The impact
of these warm winds is more marked in Waipara, which
is less exposed to the ocean due to a range of hills.
Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir are the most planted
varieties, but Waipara is also noted for the high quality
of its Riesling.
Central Otago
Central Otago is located inland in the foothills of the
Southern New Zealand Alps. The vineyard area itself is
spread over a wide area incorporating a number of
different valleys with different aspects, soils and
altitudes . In contrast to the rest of New Zealand, the
climate here is continental and frost damage is a real risk
both in spring and autumn . Summers can be warm but,
importantly for grape quality, the diurnal range in the
growing season is large. The intensity of sunlight is very
high, which accounts for the high levels of alcohol that
are often encountered in the wines from here. Pinot Noir
accounts for the vast majority of the plantings in Central
Otago, and these wines tend to be full-bodied, juicy and
vibrant with concentrated ripe red fruit flavours. The
other important varieties are Pinot Gris, Riesling and
Chardonnay.
 SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION 173

Sparkling
WineProduction
~ltho~ghtheyareallfizzy,sparklingwi~esaremade ,
m a wide range of styles. They can be wh ite, red or rose,
come in any level of sweetness, and range in flavour from fresh and fruity through to toasty and nutty.
41
In this chapter we will focus on white sparkling wine and the particular grape growing and winemaking
techniques that are used.

THEVINEYARD avoiding crushing , contact between the skins and juice is

The requirements for growing grapes for sparkling wine
are quite different from those needed to produce grapes
for still wine.
First, the grapes should ideally be relatively low in
sugar compared with those used for still wines. The
second fermentation that gives most sparkling wines
their bubbles also increases the alcohol levels of the
w ines by a further 1.2-1.3 % abv. Therefore winemakers
will generally aim to produce a still dry base wine with
10-11 % abv. Second, high acid levels are desired for
many sparkling wines, which are made in a refreshing
style. Third, despite the relatively low sugar concentration
and high acid levels, the flavours of the grapes must still
be sufficiently ripe so that they no longer have any green
herbaceous flavour characteristics.
Meeting these requirements can be difficult in all but
the coolest regions . In cool regions the changes to the
sugar and acid levels happen slowly and at the same
time as the changes to the grapes'flavours. However, in
warm regions sugar levels can rise and acid levels fall
very quickly. Picking early to get the correct levels of
sugar and acid is the only option. However, this often
means picking grapes that are still overly green and
herbaceous. Ultimately, finding an area with a
sufficiently cool climate is fundamental to grow ing
grapes for premium sparkling wine production.
minimised . In most EU regions legislation determines the
maximum pressure that can be used during pressing and
the amount of juice that can be extracted from the grapes.
METHODSOF MAKINGSPARKLING
WINE
The winemaker will use one of five methods to produce
a sparkling wine. In European wine regions the choice
of method may be determined by local laws; outside
Europe, it will be informed by the style or quality of wine
that the winemaker wants to make, or the costs involved.
Traditional Method
This term indicates a wine that has undergone a second
fermentation in the bottle in which it is later sold. It is the
technique most often used to make premium sparkling
wines and although it is costly and time -consuming, the
wines it makes are also those that can often command
the highest prices. After harvesting and pressing, the
principal steps of the traditional method are:
Making the base wine - The first alcoholic fermentation
usually takes place in large temperature controlled Fermentation
vesselsusedto
stainless steel vats but some producers still use oak vats maketankmethodsparkling
or barrels for some or all of their wines . The resulting wines.

HANDLINGTHEGRAPESAND JUICE
To produce high-quality sparkling wines it is vital that
the grapes and their juice are treated with care.

Harvest
The grapes for the best sparkling wines are typically
hand-picked to retain whole bunches of unsplit grapes .
However, in warm regions where grapes are being
grown for the production of inexpensive sparkling
wines, machine harvesting may be the most efficient
way of picking all the grapes before they accumulate
too much sugar and lose their acidity.

Pressing
On arrival at the winery the grapes should be pressed as
soon as possible. Pressing will be gentle, to minimise the
extraction of any tannins and colour . This is especially
important when using black grapes for white sparkling
wines. The use of whole bunches helps with this. By
174 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
base wine is completely dry with neutral flavours and
high acidity. The winemaker will decide, based on the
style of wine to be made, whether the wine will undergo
MLF and/or a period of maturation in oak before the
second alcoholic fermentation.
Most base wines are used the year after the harvest.
However, some wines are stored for use in future years.
These 'reserve' wines have an important role to play in
the blending process.
Blending - The blending process is very important in
the making of sparkling wines and serves a number of
functions. First, many producers aim to make their
sparkling wines in a particular house style, particularly
for non-vintage products. Blending wines from different
vineyards, grape varieties and/or vintages can help to
achieve this house style year-on-year despite vintage
variation.
Second, blending can be used to improve the balance
of the wine . For example, Chardonnay is widely
considered to bring citrus fruit, finesse and longevity to
a blend, whereas Pinot Nair brings aromas and flavours
of red fruit and more body.
Third, blending can enhance the complexity of the
wine. Old reserve wines can bring flavours of dried fruit
to the fresh flavours of the young wine . Likewise, some
producers may choose to blend in wines that have been
matured in oak to bring a broader texture and spicy
flavours to the wine. It is easier to achieve these aims if
blenders have as many wines as possible at their disposal.
For this reason grapes are often fermented in many
different small parcels, giving multiple blending options .
Second alcoholic fermentation - Once the blend is
made up, a small proportion of liqueur de tirage is added.
This is a mixture of wine, sugar, yeast, yeast nutrients and
a clarifying agent. The bottle is closed with a crown cap
that includes a plastic cup insert. The bottles are then
stacked horizontally in the producer's cellars at a cool,
constant temperature . A slow fermentation takes place.
The alcohol is raised by around 1.2-1.3% abv and the
CO2 generated by the yeast dissolves into the wine
creating the sparkle. This creates pressure in the bottle
equivalent to five to six atmospheres.
Yeast autolysis - Once this second alcoholic
fermentation is complete the yeast die and form a
sediment of lees in the bottle. Over a period of months
these dead yeast cells start to break down releasing
chemical compounds into the wine, a process known
as yeast autolysis. These compounds contribute to the
flavour of the wine, typically giving bread, biscuit and
toasty notes. Autolysis usually lasts for between four and
five years, but has been known to continue as long as
ten years. Wines that spend longer on their lees normally
develop a more pronounced yeast character. Once
autolysis is complete, keeping the lees in contact with
the wine can maintain the wine's freshness for years.
Riddling - After the period of maturation, the lees
sediment is removed using the two processes of riddling
and disgorgement. Riddling involves mov ing the bottle
very slowly from a horizontal to an inverted vertical
position. The yeast sediment is dislodged and gradually
slides down the side of the bottle collecting in the plastic
cup insert in the crown cap. Traditionally, this was done
by hand. The bottles were placed horizontally in the
holes of an A-frame rack called a pupitre and then each
day they were given a gentle shake and a twist and
raised slightly closer to vertical. This was a very labour
intensive process and took up to eight weeks to
complete.
Nowadays riddling is usually mechanised so that the
work can be carried out faster and in bulk . The standard
machine in use today is a gyropalette, a cage holding 500
bottles on a hydraulic arm, which is regularly rotated and
inclined. This simulates hand riddling but completes the
job in a matter of days.
Disgorgement and corking - Once riddling is complete
the neck of the upturned bottle is submerged in a very
cold brine solution, which freezes the wine in the neck.
The bottles are then inverted into a normal upright
position and the frozen wine holds the sediment in
place, keeping the wine clear. The crown cap seal is
removed and the pressure created by the dissolved CO2
ejects the frozen wine taking the sediment and plastic
insert with it. The wine is topped up with liqueur
d'expedition and sealed with a cork that is held secure by
a wire cage. This whole process is now fully mechanised
and the time taken from opening to resealing the bottle
is a matter of seconds. This avoids a loss of pressure and
reduces the risk of oxidation.
Liqueurd'expedition is a mixture of wine and sugar.
The amount of sugar used will determine the final level
of sweetness in the wine and is often known as the
dosage. It is used to balance the acidity and it helps with
flavour development. There are some wines that are
made without the addition of sugar at this stage. These
wines are typically labelled Brut nature or Zero dosage
depending on the producer and wine region (for
additional terms see Styles of Sparkling Wine on page
177). A small proportion of wine will still be added to
top up the sparkling wine to the right level in the bottle.
The characteristics of the wine within the liqueur
d'expedition are very important. For example, the wine
may be young and fresh, toasty from maturation in oak,
or display dried fruit flavours from years in bottle . In
effect this is a second blending operation used to create
the house style.
The vast majority of sparkling wines (made by any
method) are sealed with a cork. In its original shape, a
sparkling wine cork is a cylinder with an area on its round
face about three times that of the opening of the bottle.
The familiar mushroom shape comes about after corking.
In order to maintain a perfect seal the cork has to be
compressed considerably before it can be inserted into
 SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION 175

RIDDLING

1.Riddling
byhand.Itcantakeupto
eightweeksto movethebottlefrom
a horizontal
to a vertical
position.
The
A-frameholding thebottlesiscalled
apupltre.

usinggyropalettes.
2. Riddling Riddling
canbecompleted
ina matterof days.

3. BottlesofCava
afterriddling.
Theyeast
sedimentisclearly
visible.

the neck of the bottle. Even with this degree of disgorgement dates on their labels to provide greater
compression, a wire cage is added for complete security . clarity for everyone.

Bottle ageing - Once it has been corked the wine may
then be aged for a further few months to allow the
liqueurd'expeditionto integrate with the wine . Most
sparkling wines are considered to be ready to drink
when released; however, some premium wines can
benefit from further ageing .
Knowing the precise age of a sparkling wine can be
problematic for retailers and consumers. This is because
most sparkling wines are not vintage-dated and it is
nearly always impossible to know whether the wine
inside the bottle is youthful and fresh or more mature.
A number of producers have now decided to include
Transfer Method
The transfer method is an adaptation of the traditional
method that avoids the costly and complex process of
riddling and disgorgement. The processes used in the
transfer method are the same as those used in the
traditional method up to the point of riddling but at
this stage the entire contents of the bottles are simply
disgorged into a sealed tank under pressure. The wine
in the tank is filtered to remove the yeast lees, liqueur
d'expeditionis added and the wine is then rebottled into
a fresh bottle. This can give good quality sparkling wines
at a cheaper price than the traditional method, and with
176 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

MAKING
SPARKLING
WINE

process
input/output
pressthegrapes
andclarify
thejuice

basewine

blending

liqueur
detirage

partial
second
fermentation second
fermentation fermentation
inbottle intanks

storewineon

!
thelees

injectC0
2
riddle transferwine
intotanks

disgorge liqueur
d'expedition

liqueur

t d'expedition

Traditional Transfer
method Tankmethod Carbonated
method sparkling
wine sparkling
wine
sparkling
wine sparkling
wine

large batches it is an easy way to ensure consistent
quality and style.
It is often possible to tell whether a wine has been
made using the traditional or transfer method by looking
at the labels. Transfer method wines will often state
'bottle -fermented ' whereas the prestige that is associated
with the traditional method means that many winemakers
using this technique will print the term 'traditional
method' or methode traditionnelleon their labels.
Tank Method
Whereas both the traditional method and the transfer
method can produce wines that have flavours of bread
and toast, the tank method allows the production of
sparkling wine that retains the flavours of the base wine.
This method is ideal for making sparkling wines out of
grape varieties with strong flavours such as Muscat and
Riesling, as well as for making fruity styles of sparkling
wines such as Prosecco. It is cheaper, faster and less
labour intensive than bottle-fermenting and therefore is
a popular method for the production of sparkling wines.
It has often been considered as an inferior method to the
traditional method but with high-quality grapes and
care during production, high-quality sparkling wines
can be made in this way.
The first fermentation takes place in temperature
controlled stainless steel tanks to retain the pure fruit and
floral flavours of the grapes. The resulting base wines do
not usually undergo MLF or oak ageing. Yeast, sugar, yeast
nutrients and clarifying agents are added to the wine and
second fermentation takes place in a sealed tank able to
withstand the pressure as the CO2 dissolves in the w ine.
The wine is filtered to remove the yeast lees before it is
bottled under pressure. The majority of tank method
wines show no notes of yeast autolysis because they do
not spend extended time on the lees. Autolytic character
can be created by using paddles to stir up the lees during
second fermentation . However, most winemakers using
the tank method will want to retain primary fruit flavours.
AstiMethod
This method is principally used for the production of
sweet sparkling wines in the Asti region of Piemonte,
EU LABELLINGTERMSFORSWEETNESSIN SPARKLINGWINES
Labelling
Term
BrutNature/Bruto
Natural/Naturherb/Zero
Dosage
ExtraBrut/Extra
Bruto/Extra
Herb
Brut/Bruto/Herb
Extra-Sec/Extra-Dry/Extra
Trocken
Sec/Secco/Seco/Dry/Trocken
Demi-Sec/Semi-Seco/Medium
Dry/Abboccato/Halbtrocken
Doux/Dulce/Sweet/Mild
* Dosage
cannot
beadded;
anyslightresidual
sugarpresent
remains
naturally
afterfermentation.
Note:Fortheexamination
students
onlyneedtoknow
thetermsBrutNature,
BrutandDemi
SPARKLING WINE PRODUCTION 177
Italy. It produces sweet fruity sparkling wines, but is
somewhat unusual in that there is only one alcoholic
fermentation involved .
The juice is chilled and stored until needed. When it is
required, the ju ice is warmed and the fermentation takes
place in pressurised tanks. Initially the CO2 is allowed to
escape. Part way through fermentation the tank is
sealed so that CO2 is retained. The ferment continues
until the alcohol has reached approximately 7% abv and
the pressure five to six atmospheres. The fermentation is
stopped early by chilling the wine, which is then filtered
under pressure to remove the yeast. The wine is bottled
for immediate sale.
Carbonation
In this method CO2 is injected into a still wine, which is
then bottled under pressure. It is useful for producing
fruity sparkling wines that retain the flavours of the base
wine. For this reason it is often used to make sparkling
wines from grapes with strong varietal flavours , for
example Sauvignon Blanc. It is the cheapest of all the
methods .
STYLESOF SPARKLINGWINE
Sparkling wines are made in a range of sweetness levels.
Those made within the EU or made for sale within the EU
must use certain labelling terms to denote the level of
sweetness, as shown in the table below. It is important to
note that there is a range of sweetness levels allowed for
each description. Some producers will use the lower end
of the range and some the higher end. This contributes
to different producers' house styles.
Many of these sweetness labelling terms are widely
copied around the globe but only need to comply with
these regulations if the wine is being sold in the EU.
The following terms are used to describe styles of
sparkling wines:
Non-vintage - This is not a labelling term, but it is used
to describe wines made from grapes harvested in more
than one vintage. These wines tend to represent the
standard offering from the producer and display the
house style.
Level
ofResidual
Sugar
0-3 g/L*
0-6g/L
0-12g/L
12-17g/L
17-32g/L
32-50g/L
50+g/L
-Sec,alongwiththeircorresponding
sweetness
levels
.
178 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
Vintage - In Champagne, this term means that the wine
must come from a single year. However, some appellations
in other regions may allow a small percentage of grapes
from other years to be included in the blend. In regions
that experience considerable vintage variation, such as
Champagne, vintage wines will only be made in the very
best years, and thus command a price premium. In other
regions, vintage wines may be made more frequently,
and may not be held in quite the same esteem.
Rose - Rose sparkling wines can either be made by
blending red and white base wines or by a short
maceration. Colour can also be adjusted with the liqueur
d'expedition. There are some sparkling wine appellations
that only permit their rose wines to be made by
maceration.
Blanc de Blancs - A white sparkling wine made only
from white grape varieties.
Blanc de Noirs - A white sparkling wine made only from
black grape varieties.
Prestige Cuvee - This is also not a labelling term but
generally describes the best wine(s) in a producer's
range. Although small in number, these wines are an
important part of the sparkling wine market. This is
particularly true of Champagne, where reputations
have been built based on an association with luxury as
well as celebration.
 SPARKLING WINES OF THE WORLD 179

Sparkling
WinesoftheWorldC~ampagne remains th~ m~st prestigiou_ssparkling
wine and consequently 1twill be treated m the
greatest detail here. Such is its reputation that most premium sparkling wines are not only made in the
42
same way but also using the same grape varieties. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that
Champagne is not to everyone's taste and less acidic and sweeter sparkling wines are hugely popular.

The regulations that relate to sparkling wine in the EU

are varied and complex. In this chapter we will focus
primarily on those relating to permitted grape varieties
and lees ageing. Outside of the EU winemakers ar~ free
from such restraints even though they widely copy
FRANCE
techniques that are practised within Europe.

CHAMPAGNE
There is only one appellation in the Champagne region:
Champagne AC. Certain villages within the region have
a cru status; 44 are rated premier cru and 17 grand cru,
but these are not separate appellations. Unlike in 49' 00' N

Burgundy or Alsace, it is the whole village that is rated

and not specific vineyard sites, and the growers in these
villages are not required to meet stricter production
requirements such as lower yields. Inevitably, there will
be some outstanding sites within villages that have lower
ratings. Equally, not every plot within a village rated
grand cru will have the same potential. Nevertheless,
this classification persists and these terms are permitted
on Champagne labels.
Within the appellation boundaries there are five
48' 30' N
sub-regions where there are major concentrations of
vineyards. These are spread over a considerable area.
The three most famous sub-regions, which are close to
the major production centres of Reims and Epernay, are
o Troyes
Montagne de Reims, Vallee de la Marne and the Cote
des Blancs.The Cote de Sezanne lies approximately
30 kilometres south-west of Epernay and the Cote des
Bar is over 100 kilometres to the south-east.
The region is currently reviewing the delineation of
the appellation. The appellation is made up of hundreds
of villages but not all the surface area within each village
CHAMPAGNE e
is entitled to grow grapes for Champagne production.
The current review aims to assessall the surface area 1--~-'-~ ,. -'-~----'~ ,.-ml-lu -'
"~t
N
within these villages to see if any extra suitable land can
be brought into the appellation. This was land that was
either overlooked in the original classification or that However, even in the warmest years grape sugar levels KEY
was never originally nominated for the appellation as remain very low and acid levels very high, which makes 200m+
the landowner at the time had no interest in producing this region ideal for sparkling wine production.
100- 200 m
Champagne. This revision was still ongoing at the time Frost is one of the biggest challenges in the vineyard.
0- l00m
of publication. In order to minimise this threat most vineyards are
planted on slopes. The soils in Champagne are
Climate and Grape Growing dominated by chalk, which provides good drainage
Champagne has a cool continental climate. Viticulture is after rain storms but retains a sufficient quantity of
challenging and growers regularly have to contend with water in dry periods. Champagne's producers are now
winter freeze, spring frosts and rainy, cloudy weather. fully committed to sustainable agriculture and have
180 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
Thevineyards
ofChampagne
inautumn.
ambitious targets to reduce their use of man-made
fertilisers and pesticides.
Grape Varieties
The three main grape varieties used in the making of
Champagne are Chardonnay, Pinot Nair and Meunier.
Chardonnay is most widely planted in the Cote des Blancs
and Cote de Sezanne. It gives much lighter-bodied wines
than in Burgundy and has high acidity with a floral and
citrus fruit character. Pinot Nair dominates in Montagne
de Reims and Cote des Bar.This variety produces wines
of greater body and provides the structural backbone to
most blends. It can also give blends a red fruit character.
Meunier predominates in the Vallee de la Marne because
it buds late, protecting it from the spring frosts that occur
more frequently in this area. It gives fruity flavours to a
blend, and is especially important for wines that are
made to be enjoyed while young.
Winemaking
Champagne is made using the traditional method.
Grapes must be hand-picked to allow selection in the
vineyard and retain whole, healthy bunches. The
pressing process is also highly controlled. The first liquid
to come off the press is called the cuvee,which contains
the purest juice, and the remainder is called the taille.
The best Champagnes will be made solely from the
cuvee.
Primary fermentation can be carried out in stainless
steel vats, oak barrels or a mixture of the two; MLF can
be encouraged or prevented and the base wines aged
briefly in oak or stored in inert vessels only. This all
depends on house style.
The weather in Champagne can vary significantly
from year to year and therefore blending is incredibly
important. Wines may be fermented in small parcels to
allow a greater number of blending options. Large
Champagne producers will use dozens of wines in their
blends to achieve their house style year on year.
The length of time that the wine is aged, including
its time on lees, is dependent on the style of wine being
made. Non-vintage wines must be aged for a minimum
of 15 months, including at least 12 months on the lees.
Vintage wines must be matured for a minimum of 36
months (there is no extra requirement for lees ageing).
In practice, however, the winemakers frequently mature
their wines for considerably longer.
Champagne comes in a range of quality levels and
styles, but the wines all have high acidity and some
autolytic flavours. Non-vintage wines are generally
lighter in body, with more fresh fruit flavours than
vintage wines. The finest examples display some
complexity from the use of reserve wines . Vintage
wines are made in the best years.They are often more
concentrated than non-vintage wines, and display more
toasty and biscuity notes from longer lees ageing. Rose
Champagne can be made in both non-vintage and
vintage styles. The best wines delicately balance aromas
from autolysis with subtle fruity red berry notes. Blanc de
Blancs wines are typically light - to medium-bodied with
citrus primary fruit, whereas Blanc de Noirs styles tend to
be fuller in body and have more red fruit flavours.
Many Champagne houses now make a PrestigeCuvee
that represents the finest wine in their range. They are
often, but not always, vintage wines and are made from
the best parcels of grapes. Many of these wines can be

closed and austere in their youth and therefore can
repay several years cellaring before drinking. They
command premium prices.
Champagne is made in a range of sweetness levels,
but Brut is by far the most popular style. A trend has
been the rise of Brutnaturewines, but they still represent
a very small proportion of the market .
CREMANT
The term cremant applies to a number of French
sparkling wine ACs, of which the most important are
Cremant d'Alsace, Cremant de Bourgogne and Cremant
de Loire. The wines are made by the traditional method
and must spend a minimum of nine months on the lees.
Generally speaking, each of these wines will be made
from the grapes used for making the still white wines of
the region, although aromatic grape varieties such as
Muscat and Gewurztraminer are not permitted for
cremant wines in Alsace, while Chardonnay is allowed.
SAUMURAND VOUVRAY
After Champagne, the Loire Valley is the next biggest
centre of sparkling wine production in France. There are
two other major appellations for sparkling wine as well
as Cremant de Loire. Sparkling Saumur can be made
from a range of local varieties as well as Chardonnay
which, with Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc, is an
important ingredient in the best wines. Sparkling red
wines are also made, using Cabernet Franc. Sparkling
Vouvray is made in greater volume than still Vouvray,
and the vast majority is made solely from Chenin Blanc.
Chen in Blanc has a naturally high acidity that is well
suited to sparkling wine production. It does not take on
SPARKLING WINES OF THE WORLD 181
Thehillylandscape
of
Conegliano-Valdobbiadene
DOCG
is heavilyplanted
with
Gieragrapesforthe
production
of Prosecco.
as much of a bready, biscuity character as Chardonnay
or Pinot Noir, and the autolytic character, when present,
tends to be more smoky and toasty. Sparkling Saumur
and Vouvray are both made using the traditional
method and must spend a minimum of nine months
on the lees.
CAVA
Cava is an unusual DO as it covers a number of different,
non -contiguous, geographic areas across Spain.
However, the vast majority of Cava comes from the
Catalan vineyards centred on the town of Sant Sadurnf
d'Anoia. Other notable areas where there are vineyards
permitted to make Cava include Navarra, Rioja and
Valencia. The wines are made by the traditional method
and must spend at least nine months on the lees.
Traditional grape varieties include Macabeo (Viura),
Xarel-lo and Parellada for the white wines and Garnacha
and Monastrell for the roses. Most Cava is dry with
medium acidity and some character from yeast autolysis,
although these flavours can differ in nature from the
bread and toast character found in Champagne.
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir were more recently added
to the permitted grape varieties of the appellation and
many producers have found that these varieties can
add an extra level of both fruit and acidity to the wines.
The use of these two varieties has caused controversy in
the region as some producers believe it detracts from
Cava's point of difference.
Most Cava is non-vintage and is ready to drink on
release from the winery. The wines are generally lower
in acidity than most Champagne, giving them an
approachable, easy-drinking style, which is extremely
182 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
popular with consumers. There are a few producers
making premium Cavas that have undergone extensive
lees ageing.
ASTI
The Asti DOCG is located in Piemonte in north-west Italy.
a
It is made from Muscat Blanc Petits Grains using the
Asti Method and has the distinct grapey character
associated with this variety. The best examples have a
pronounced, fruity aroma of peach and grape overlaid
with floral notes. All Asti is sweet, low in alcohol
(approximately 7% abv) and is made without any
autolytic characters, which would detract from the
fruitiness of Muscat. Asti does not benefit from ageing
and should be drunk as young as possible.
PROSECCO
Prosecco is made in north-east Italy. There are two
delimited regions; Prosecco DOC, which covers a wide
area of the Veneto and Friuli, and the higher quality
Conegliano-Valdobbiadene DOCG. Fruit for the latter
must be grown between the two towns of Conegliano
and Valdobbiadene on the steep limestone hills north-
west of Venice. The terms Cartizze and Rive both indicate
a wine from an exceptional vineyard site. The name of
the grape variety, previously also known as Prosecco,
has been changed to 'Giera' to protect the integrity of
these two appellations.
Prosecco is typically produced by the tank method
and the wines have medium acidity with fresh aromas of
green apple and melon. It is made in Brut, Extra-Dry and
Dry styles but typically these wines have slightly higher
levels of residual sugar than would be found in most
Champagne and Cava. In Prosecco any residual sugar is
usually a result of interrupting fermentation by chilling
and filtering. These wines are meant to be consumed
when they are young and fresh and do not benefit from
bottle ageing.
Tasmania's
coolclimate
provides
perfectconditions
forgrowing
grapesfor
sparkling
wines.
SEKT
Germany is an enormous market for sparkling wine and
has the highest per capita consumption of sparkling
wine in the world. Most of this is Sekt, virtually all of
which is made using the tank method. The base wines
generally come from France or Italy, but are turned into
sparkling wines within Germany. On the other hand,
wines labelled as Deutscher Sekt, in addition to being
made sparkling in Germany, must also only use grapes
grown in Germany. The best are made from Riesling. If
all the grapes for the wine come from one of the quality
wine regions, for example Mose!, then the wine can bear
the superior appellation of Deutscher Sekt bA. Some of
the top estates will produce such wines from individual
vineyards, using the traditional method, although these
premium Sekts are rare.
AUSTRALIA
Australian sparkling wines are made in a wide variety of
styles. Cool and moderate regions such as Yarra Valley,
Adelaide Hills and Tasmania, are capable of producing
complex, elegant traditional method wines, usually from
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. These wines are made in a
multitude of styles including non-vintage, vintage, rose,
Blanc de Blancs and Blanc de Noirs.
Inexpensive sparkling wines are typically produced in
warm regions such as Riverina. Generally produced by
tank method or carbonation, they are fruity in style and
come in a range of sweetness levels. Many different
grape varieties may be used.
Although sparkling red wines are not unique to
Australia, this is the country where they have had
most commercial success.However, there has been a
significant decline in the sales of these wines over recent
years. The best sparkling reds are typically made from
Shiraz but some wineries have produced excellent
examples from Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. As with
the white sparkling wines, inexpensive wines are made

by carbonation or tank method, and better examples
are produced by transfer or the traditional method.
Generally the wines are full-bodied, with red berry fruit,
smooth tannins and some residual sugar.
NEWZEALAND
New Zealand has an established reputation for high -
quality traditional method sparkling wines made from
the classic Champagne grape varieties . Its relatively
southerly position in the Southern Hemisphere and
maritime climate with cool sea breezes means that it
can ripen Chardonnay and Pinot Noir slowly enough to
produce elegant sparkling wines. A range of styles is
made including non-vintage, vintage, rose, Blanc de
Blancs and Blanc de Noirs.
Grapes for sparkling wine production are grown in
all the wine regions, with the exception of Auckland;
however, Marlborough produces the highest volumes.
The warmer regions in North Island produce a richer
style compared with the wines from the South Island
and producers often take advantage of this fact making
cross regional blends.
Sparkling Sauvignon Blanc is also produced, usually
by carbonation or the tank method to retain the intense
aromas and flavours of this grape variety.
SOUTHAFRICA
In South Africa, wines made by the traditional method are
labelled Methode Cap Classique.Fruit is sourced from
SPARKLING WINES OF THE WORLD 183
throughout the Western Cape and the best wines are made
using Chardonnay and Pinot Nair. Site selection is very
important in South Africa's warm climate and the best sites
are found on hillside slopes with a south-eastern aspect,
or near the coast. Many premium producers belong to the
Cap Classique Producers Association, which recommends
that its members age their wines on lees for a minimum of
12 months. It is not necessary to be a member of the
association to use the term Cap Classique,and producers
outside of this association only need age their wines for
nine months to call their wines Cap Classique.
There is also a large domestic market for sparkling
off-dry to sweet carbonated sparkling wines.
USA
California is responsible for the vast majority of
sparkling wine production in the USA. The best wines
come from cooler locations, such as LosCarnerosAVA
and Anderson Valley AVA.Premium wines are made
using the traditional method, generally using Pinot Noir
and Chardonnay. These wines typically spend extended
ageing on the lees (five years is not uncommon). Many
of the best wines display concentrated complex flavours
balanced by high acidity.
Large volumes of inexpensive wines are made by the
tank method or carbonation. These wines are typically
fruity and often medium-sweet to sweet in style. They
are made from a range of grape varieties, grown in
warmer, high-yielding regions such as Central Valley.
184 UNDERSTANDING
WINES: EXPLAINING
STYLEAND QUALITY

SherryProbably more than any other wine, Sherry is a wine style that is defined by the processes
43 used during maturation. None of the key techniques, the so/era system, biological ageing
or oxidative ageing, are unique to this region, but it is in Jerez that they are exploited to their fullest
extent.

The vineyard area surrounds the southern Spanish town
of Jerez de la Frontera that gives the region its name.
Jerez is the centre of the Sherry industry and the wines
must be matured either within the city limits or in one of
the two smaller seaside towns of Sanlucar de Barrameda
and El Puerto de Santa Marfa.
IN THE VINEYARD
Climate and Soils
Jerez has a hot, sunny Mediterranean climate although
the vineyards that are nearer the coast are on average a
little cooler and benefit more from the prevailing cool
humid westerly wind known as the poniente.On
occasions the temperature can be sent soaring by the hot
and drying Jevante,which blows from the east. This extra
heat can seriously stress the vines and damage grapes.
Being a coastal region the annual rainfall is high
compared with many other Spanish regions, but rainfall
in the growing season is limited and it is the albariza soil
in the region that ensures the vine can cope.
Albariza has a very high chalk content. It provides
good drainage but vitally its depth and excellent water
holding capacity mean that it can store enough water to
sustain the vines during the hot dry summers. In order
to maximise the amount of water retained by the soil
during the autumn and winter, rectangular pits are dug
between the rows of vines to trap the water and reduce
run-off. This is done once the harvest has finished and
the soil is smoothed out again in the spring. Moisture
retention is further enhanced during the summer when
the albariza soil forms a hard crust that limits
evaporation from the soil.
Grape Varieties
There are three grape varieties permitted in Jerez:
Palomino - This grape accounts for the vast majority
of the plantings in Jerez. It produces wines that are
naturally low in acid and lack obvious varietal aromas.
This makes it ideal for Sherry production where the
styles of wine are largely determined by either biological
or oxidative maturation.
Pedro Ximenez (PX) - In common with Palomino, PX
has little varietal flavour. Its thin skin makes it ideally
suited to being sun dried and consequently it is used in
the production of sweet Sherries.There is very little
planted in Jerez. Most of the grapes that are used come
from the neighbouring region of Montilla-Moriles where
it grows more successfully. It is an unusual feature of the

Thedistinctive
whitecolour
ofthechalky soilis
albariza
clearto seeinthisvineyard.

regulations that these grapes can be used in the
production of Sherry.
Muscat of Alexandria - Only very small amounts of this
are grown and, like PX, it is used to make sweet wines.
IN THE WINERY (DRY STYLES)
Grape Handling and Fermentation
Palomino is used to make the dry wines of Jerez. Given
the high temperatures at harvest time, the grapes must
reach the press as quickly as possible to avoid oxidation.
Fermentation typically takes place in large stainless
steel tanks at temperatures ranging from 20°C to 25°C.
This is high for a white wine but suits the aim of the
Sherry producer who is seeking to produce a neutral
base wine . The base wine is dry with approximately
11- 120/oabv.
First Classification
During the autumn the wines are classified into two
types: those that will be sent for biological ageing and
those that will be sent for oxidative ageing. These
decisions are based on the flavour characteristics of the
wines. Typically, lighter paler wines with more 'finesse'
are selected for biological ageing and darker, richer
'heavier' wines are selected for oxidative ageing. Note
that at this stage the film-forming yeast known as f/or
will have started to grow on the surface of all the wines.
The exact criteria for classification will vary according
to the house style of the producer but this is not a part of
the process that is simply left to chance. Producers need
certain volumes of new wines in particular styles in order
to meet the sales demands of their brands and classify
wines with this in mind. As a simple guide, wines made
from grapes grown in the relatively cooler coastal
vineyards and/or fermented at lower temperatures are
more likely to be suitable for biological ageing . On the
other hand, wines made from grapes grown in the warmer
inland vineyards and/or fermented at higher temperatures
are more likely to be suitable for oxidative ageing .
Fortification and Sobretabla
Once the classification has been made the wines are
fortified using a 96% abv neutral spirit. The w ines are
then set aside for a period of a few months before they
are incorporated into a so/erasystem. This stage is
known as sobretab/a.
Wines for biological ageing - These wines are fortified
to between 15% and 15.5% abv. This is the ideal strength
for the development off/or. For these wines the period
of sobretab/a is very important. The producer needs to
wait and see if the f/or develops correctly on these wines
and therefore a second classification is necessary to
determine whether the wine has a style and character
that is suitable for its respective so/erasystem. Wines
that fail to make the grade are either refortified and
sent for oxidative ageing or rejected altogether.
SHERRY 185
Wines for oxidative ageing - These wines are fortified
to 17% abv; at this strength the flor dies. The period of
sobretabla is not as critical for the quality of these wines
because there is no need to wait and see if f/or flavours
develop.
IN THE WINERY (NATURALLY SWEET STYLES)
Grape Handling
Once picked, the grapes destined for naturally sweet
wines are sun-dried to concentrate their sugar levels.
This process also develops flavours of raisin . For more
information on this technique see section Sweet
Winemaking in Chapter 8.
Fermentation and Fortification
Once the desired must weight is achieved, the grapes are
pressed and fermentation started. The grapes yield such
a concentrated juice that the yeast struggle to ferment
the sugars and rarely manage more than a few degrees
of alcohol. Once fermentation has stopped the must is
fortified to 17% abv.
MATURATION IN THE SOLERA SYSTEM
Sherry has to be aged in 600-litre oak barrels called
butts. The butts are often used to mature unfortified
wines before they are used to mature Sherry so that any
oak flavour is eliminated . The oak is needed to allow
oxygen to reach the wine , and this is further encouraged
by the fact the butts are only ever five-sixths full.
Keeping the maturation environment cool is a
particular challenge in Jerez. Traditional bodegas have
thick whitewashed walls, high ceilings and windows that
po int towards the cooling poniente winds helping to
maintain a relatively cool environment. The earth floors
of these buildings are kept damp to maintain the correct
level of humidity. Some are now air-conditioned.
The Solera System
Sherry is famous for its system of maturation called the
'so/erasystem'. It is a very versatile system that can be
used to sustain biological and oxidative ageing.
The so/erasystem is made up of a number of groups
of butts, referred to here as levels, which hold wines of
different average ages. These levels are called criaderas
and the maturation process involves moving wine
between them over time to achieve a blend of younger
and older wines. To avoid confusion, so/erasystem is
used here to refer to the maturation system as a whole
while so/erais used to refer to the final level in the
system that holds wine of the oldest average age. The
process can be summarised as follows:
• Wine for bottling is taken out of the so/erasystem
from the so/era.An equal amount of wine is taken
from each butt in this level.
The so/erais not fully emptied and the butts are
replenished with the same volume of wine taken from
butts in the next level that contain wine of a slightly
186 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

DIAGRAMMATIC
REPRESENTATIONOF THESOLERA SYSTEM
so/erasystems will have more than two criaderas.
Note: this is not to scale and most

•
theSolera
Stage1 - Emptying andCriadera
Sabretabla

Tankforblending
2ndcriadera winetakenfromthe
2ndcriadera

Tankforblending
1stcriadera winetakenfromthe
1stcriadera

Tankforblending
wine
Solera
takenfromtheso/era

Stage2 - RefillingtheSolera
andCriadera
Thewinethat isusedto refilleachleveltakesonthe characteristics
ofthe olderwineit isaddedto. usedto refill
Sobretabla
the2ndcriadera

Blendedwinefromthe
2ndcriadera 2ndcriaderausedto refill
the1stcriadera

Blendedwinefromthe
1stcriadera 1stcriadera
usedto refill
theso/era

Winetakenfromthe
Solera forfinalblending
so/era
andbottling

younger average age called the first criadera.There are
three steps involved in this replenishment. An equal
volume of wine is taken from each butt in the first
criadera. All of the wine taken from the first criadera is
then mixed together. Finally this blended wine is used
to top up each butt in the so/era.
The first criadera is then replenished in exactly the
same way with wine from the second criadera and so
on, so that each criadera is being replenished in turn
with younger wine.
The criadera containing the youngest wine is usually
replenished with sobretabla wine .
The number of criaderascan vary from as few as three to
as many as 14.
As a result of the systematic blending that happens
every time wine is moved between the levels of the
system, it is only possible to talk about the average age
of wines that are taken out for bottling or blending.
Although the so/era system is complex, the main
advantage it offers is that wine taken out of it for
bottling or blending is the same every time. It is a feature
of the system that the wine introduced into a new level
takes on the characteristics of the older wine it has been
blended with. However, this consistency cannot be
maintained if wine of poor quality is fed into the system
in the first place or too much wine is taken out each year.
Each criadera and so/era is fixed to one so/erasystem. It
is convenient to represent a so/era system
diagrammatically as levels of butts one on top of the
other although this is not necessarily how they are
stacked in a bodega (warehouse). In order to reduce the
risk of losing an entire so/erasystem in one catastrophic
event, criaderasfrom the same so/erasystem are often
kept in different buildings.
Flor and Biological Ageing
Biological ageing requires the presence of flor, which is
made up of a number of yeast strains. Together these
yeast form a thick layer on the surface of the wine. They
feed off the alcohol (and other nutrients) in the wine and
oxygen in the atmosphere to produce carbon dioxide
and acetaldehyde. It is acetaldehyde that gives
biologically aged Sherries their unique flavour.
In order to thrive, f/or needs precise levels of alcohol,
temperature and humidity. Its sensitivity to the ambient
conditions is such that the temperature and humidity of
an individual bodega and even a butt's position within it
can influence the style of the maturing Sherry. Flor
cannot thrive in a wine with an abv above 15.5%, and it
favours cool to moderate temperatures and high levels
of humidity. Consequently, f/or grows more vigorously in
the spring and autumn and dies back in winter and
summer.
The so/erasystem is able to sustain a permanent
culture of florin every butt. The butts are only part filled
so that the f/or has easy access to oxygen. Importantly,
this layer of flor also protects the wine from oxidation.
SHERRY 187
The f/or is also constantly consuming alcohol and other
nutrients and therefore regular additions of new wine
is needed to keep the f/or supplied with these nutrients.
In order to maintain a ready flow of nutrients between
the criaderas,wine is drawn off the so/eraat frequent and
regular periods throughout the year. This also best serves
the style of wine produced. Biologically aged Sherries,
such as Finos,quickly lose their freshness and ideally
need to be consumed as soon as possible after bottling.
Although it is possible to keep the flor culture alive
indefinitely, wine taken from these so/erasystems rarely
has an average age greater than three to four years. As
the average age of the wine increases the overall level of
nutrients in the oldest criadera and so/eradrops and by
the time the average age reaches seven years the levels
are sufficiently low that the f/or can start to fail and
oxidative characteristics develop.
Oxidative Ageing
O/oroso,PX and some Muscat Sherries are aged
oxidatively, without the presence off/or . Amontillado is
aged oxidatively after a period of biological ageing. The
impact of oxygen on these wines is greatly enhanced
by the air present in the part-filled butts. In these so/era
systems the introduction of young wine helps to
preserve the base character of the Sherry, which would
otherwise become overly oxidised.
Sherries can be matured oxidatively for upwards of
30 years although very few wines make it to this age.
With age, the alcohol level of these wines rises to
22% abv as the water content evaporates .
BLENDING AND FINISHING
The advantage of the so/era system is that it produces a
wine of consistent style and quality. Some Sherries are AbuttcontainingF/no.ltis
the product of only one so/erasystem but this is possibletoseetheflor
relatively rare. Most Sherries, including many of the very coveringthesurfaceofthe
best, are blends of wines from several so/erasystems. wine.
188 UNDERSTANDING WINES : EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

MAKING
SHERRY
Palomino
grapes

sun-dried
PXgrapes

process
input/output

alcoholic
fermentation

partial drywhitewine
fermentation

fortification
to first fortification
to
17%abv classification 15%abv

oxidative
ageing oxidative
ageing refortification
to
inso/era
system addPX inso/era
system 17%abv

Fino/
Cream PaleCream
Manzanilla

Oxidatively
agedwines Wines
agedbiologically
andoxidatively Biologically
agedwines

For example, in the case of very old O/oroso this blending
can bring together the intense flavours of very old wines,
which would be unbalanced on their own, with the
freshness of younger wines. The large producers own
many different so/era systems, giving them wines of
different ages and styles that they can use to make up
their various blends.
Most Sherry will undergo fining and filtration prior
to bottling. However, in recent years, there has been a
growing trend towards keeping these interventions to a
minimum. This is particularly true of biologically aged
wines because the vibrancy of their flavours can be
dulled by high levels of intervention .
STYLESOF SHERRY
Dry Styles
Fino and Manzanilla - These wines have only
undergone biological ageing. They are pale lemon in
colour and usually have aromas of citrus fruit, almonds
and herbs, together with bready notes derived from the
action off/or . The flavours are sometimes referred to as
tangy or salty. They do not improve in bottle and should
be consumed as fresh as possible.
Wines that are matured in the coastal town of Sanlucar
de Barrameda qualify as Manzanilla de Sanlucar de
Barrameda, which is a separate DO to that of Jerez. The
wines are made in exactly the same way as Finos from
Jerez but the cooler more humid conditions on the coast
guarantee a thick layer of f/orthroughout the year. This
results in wines that have a more intensely tangy aroma.
Manzanilla is most famous for the Fino style wine that is
called Manzanilla fina .
Wines that have undergone minimal fining and
filtering are commonly labelled en rama.
Oloroso - These wines have only undergone oxidative
ageing. They are brown in colour, full-bodied and
dominated by oxidative aromas such as toffee, leather,
spice and walnut. Very old O/orosos can become very
concentrated, and develop an astringency that is
balanced when blended with younger wines in the
so/era system.
Amontillado - These are wines that have undergone
a period of biological ageing followed by a period of
oxidative ageing. Once their biological ageing is

complete they are refortified to 17% abv, to kill the flor,
and fed into an Amontillado so/era system. These wines
are amber or brown in colour, less full -bodied than
0/orosos and combine yeast derived aromas with
oxidative aromas; although the yeast aromas slowly
fade as the wine ages, they remain recognisable.
Amontillados can be matured for as long as 0/oroso.
Palo Cortado - This is a rare style of Sherry. It is defined
as one that has the aroma character of an Amontillado but
the body and richness of an 0/oroso. Some producers
identify Palo Cortado at the second classification although
this is not universally the case. Producers use a variety of
different methods to make Palo Cortado . Palo Cortado
Sherries can be very difficult to tell apart from both
Amontillado and 0/oroso Sherries with which they share
similar characteristics . Nevertheless they are nearly
always wines of very high quality.
Naturally Sweet Styles
These wines have all undergone oxidative ageing. They
are rare and are more regularly used as a component in
sweetened Sherries.
Pedro Ximenez (PX) - These wines are deep brown and
lusciously sweet, often reaching SOOg/L residual sugar.
They have pronounced aromas of dried fruit, coffee and
liquorice.
Muscat- These wines take on similar characteristics to PX
although they retain a varietal dried citrus peel character .
SHERRY 189
Sweetened Styles
Pale Cream - These wines must have undergone a short
period of biological ageing prior to sweetening, typically
with RCGM.They are similar in appearance to Fino but
rarely have a pronounced flor character.
Medium and Cream - This is a very diverse category
that includes both inexpensive and super premium
wines. A Medium Sherry must show characteristics from
both biological and oxidative ageing whereas a Cream
Sherry only has oxidative characteristics. These wines,
in particular the premium wines, will be sweetened
with PX wine . The best wines seamlessly balance the
toffee, leather and walnut flavours of the dry wine with
the dried fruit notes of the sweet wine. Inexpensive
versions can taste cloying and lack complexity.
As a result of recent changes to the law the terms
Amontillado, 0/oroso and Palo Cortado can only be used
for dry styles of wines. Historically, a sweet O/oroso/PX
blend could be labelled as 0/oroso du/ce but this is no
longer the case.
Sherries with an Indication of Age
There are four categories of age-indicated Sherries. The
top categories are VORS(Vinum Optimum Rare Signatum/
Very Old Rare Sherry) and VOS (Vinum Optimum Signatum/
Very Old Sherry). These indicate that the average age of
the blend is at least 30 years old and 20 years old
respectively, and each batch must be tested to see
whether it complies . The lesser categories, 12 years old
and 15 years old, apply to a whole so/era system, so can
be used more flexibly. Only Amontillado, Palo Cortado,
0/oroso and PX can qualify for age indicated status.
190 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

PortPorts are made by adding grape spirit to a fermenting juice to create an alcoholic sweet wine.
44 This is a technique that has been used in this region since the eighteenth century and it is now
used to make wines of a similar style throughout the world. Port is made in red, white and rose styles but
in this chapter we will focus on red Port.

LOCATIONS Marao. However, the climate is not uniform. The Baixo

The activities of the Port industry are divided between
the twin coastal cities of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia
(which lie on opposite sides of the mouth of the river
Douro) and the vineyard area that starts 70 kilometres
upstream of these towns. These two areas are distinctly
different and will be considered separately.
INTHEVINEYARD
The vineyards area is divided into three sub-regions. The
Baixo Cargo produces the lightest wines; the Cima Cargo
is where the greatest number of the top vineyards are
found; and the Douro Superior which, although still
relatively sparsely planted, is also renowned as a source
of top-quality wine.
Climate
Broadly speaking the vineyard area has a warm
continental climate as a result of being shielded from
the cooling rain-bearing Atlantic winds by the Serra do
Cargo in the west is the coolest and wettest of the sub-
regions . The vineyards become progressively hotter and
dryer the further east they are located.
Growers have to contend with frosts in spring and
heavy downpours can, on occasion, disrupt flowering as
well as harvest. In the summer, daytime temperatures
can be very high and rainfall throughout the growing
season is very low. Viticulture is possible thanks to the
schist bedrock, which fractures vertically allowing the
vines' roots to access deep water reserves that are built
up by the winter rains.
Topography
The vineyards in the Baixo and Cima Cargo are planted
on the very tall and very steep slopes that rise up from
the banks of the Douro and its tributaries. The
topography is very varied and this can be exploited by
the growers. For example, there can be clear temperature
differences between the top and the bottom of a slope

VINEYARD
DESIGN
INTHE
DOURO

1.Socalcos.
Theretaining
wallsandthelackofeasyaccessaredeartosee.

2. Patamares.
Therearenoretaining
wallsandeachindividual
terracecanbe
accessed
byroad.

3. Vlnhaaoalto.Thevinesareplantedinlinewiththe slope.Thiscannotbe
usedonthesteepestslopes.Onlythevineyards
atthebottomofthisphoto
areplantedinthisway.

II
 PORT 191

due to the change in altitude. Some sites that have a

more northerly aspect are deliberately used because they
,
face away from the full force of the sun. Nevertheless, /
simply managing vineyards on such steep slopes is an
enormous and costly challenge. PORTUGAL
41' 30' N 41' 30' N
Traditionally, the vines were planted on narrow
terraces, known as socalcos,which were supported by
stone walls. Each terrace can only support a few rows of
vines and no vineyard mechanisation is possible. The
walls are also expensive to maintain. Nevertheless this
system is still widely used.
A new style of terrace was developed to allow some
mechanisation; they are called patamares.They are built
without retaining walls but more importantly each
terrace is wide enough to allow tractor access.Where
the angle of the slope is low an unterraced system called /
vinhaao alto may be used. Vines are planted up and
down the slope and accessed by roads cutting across 20 30 40 50km

the slope from where machinery is operated by winches.

Both of these systems are particularly prone to erosion.
This is particularly true of vinha ao alto, which is simply
41 ' 30 ' N
not viable on the steepest slopes. ,,
Grape Varieties
The vast majority of red Ports are complex blends of
many different varieties which, in the Douro, tend to be
thick-skinned and high in tannin with black fruit and
floral aromas. There are five varieties that are preferred in
premium Port production: Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz,
Tinta Barroca, Touriga Nacional and Tinto Cao.

IN THE WINERY
Fermentation 41 OO'N
Port fermentation is stopped by fortification once the
alcohol level reaches 5-9% abv, to create a sweet wine. PORTVINEYARD
This means the fermentation typically only lasts for AREAS
around 24 to 36 hours. Given the time restraints, the 20 30km

normal extraction techniques used in the production 15mlle$

of red wines are simply not vigorous enough to produce

a wine that has the level of colour and tannin expected
of Port. Instead, other techniques are used.
Foot treading - This is the traditional method of
extraction in Port production and the benchmark
against which all other methods are judged. Large teams
of workers tread the grapes for three to four hours in
holding tank. When the pressure of the (0 2 reaches a KEY
set level a valve is automatically released and the wine 1000 m+
in the holding tank, no longer supported by the gas
S00-1000 m
pressure, floods down over the cap. The valve resets
200- 500 m
itself and the process starts again. This is similar to
pumping over but the amount of contact between the 100- 200 m

shallow granite troughs, or Jagares.Once fermentation
is underway, foot treading stops and the cap is then
regularly punched down to extract more colour and
tannin. This method is not widely used now because it is
so labour intensive but it is still used for some premium
wines.
Autovinifiers - This was one of the earliest methods
used to automate extraction and autovinifers are still
widely used. Crushed grapes are put into sealed vats
and the rising pressure of the (0 2 given off by the
fermentation pushes the juice up through pipes into a
wine and the skins is much higher because, when the 0- l00m
fermentation is very active, a cycle will complete every
15 to 20 minutes. In this system pre-fermentation
extraction is limited and many newer autovinifiers now
include mechanical paddles to help with this.
Piston plungers and robotic lagares - These systems
are designed to imitate foot treading as closely as
possible. Piston-plungers are round shallow open
topped, stainless steel vats where the cap is pressed
down with robotic pistons. The robotic /agarinvolves the
use of a shallow and rectangular stainless steel tank of
192 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY
EXTRACTING
COLOUR
ANDTANNIN
INPORT
PRODUCTION
1.Arobotic/agar.
2. Pistonplungers.
3. Ateamofworkers
foottreading
grapesina traditional
/agar.
the approximate size of the traditional /agar, which is
adapted to carry a self-propelled gantry with robotic
'feet'. The gantry moves up and down the /agar with the
feet copying the action of foot treading by actually
squashing the grapes against the floor of the tank. Once
the 'foot treading' phase is over, these machines carry
out regular punch downs. Many consider these systems
as good as foot treading and they are widely employed
in the production of premium wines.
Fortification
Fortification kills the yeast to create a stable sweet wine
with between 19% and 22% abv. However, although all
Port is sweet, some are sweeter than others. Each
producer has a particular style and the timing of the
fortification will depend on the initial must weight and
the required level of sweetness.
The spirit, or aguardente, that is used can be no
stronger than 77% abv. This, combined with the fact
that alcohol levels are low prior to fortification, means
that significant volumes of spirit have to be used. As an
average 20 per cent of the total volume of a bottle of
Port is spirit. By way of comparison, the amount of spirit
in a bottle of Fino Sherry is approximately 3.5 per cent
of the tota I volume.
Maturation
Ports are generally transported downstream to Vila Nova
de Gaia for maturation. The cooler coastal climate here is
well suited to the slow maturation of Port wines. Some
wines, notably wines destined for Tawny Port, have
always been stored up the Douro, where the higher
temperatures result in faster ageing and a loss in colour.
The advent of fully air-conditioned warehouses has
resulted in more wine being aged in the vineyard area.
Port maturation has traditionally always taken place in
old oak vessels, both small and very large (stainless steel
is now used too). New oak flavours are not a characteristic
that is desired in any Port. There are two broad styles
among red Ports that are a direct consequence of the
type of vessel used: ruby styles and tawny styles.
When bottled, ruby styles of Port have a predominant
primary fruit character. Producers look to minimise the
effect of oxygen on the flavour of these wines and
therefore they will only age these wines for a relatively
short period of time in very large oak vessels or stainless
steel tanks. This is how Ruby, Reserve Ruby, Late Bottled
Vintage (LBV) and Vintage Ports are aged.
Although quality and concentration will vary, these
wines will all be deeply coloured and have intense
primary fruit flavours when bottled. Ruby, Reserve Ruby
and some styles of LBV will be fined and filtered before
bottling and typically do not benefit from bottle ageing.
Some LBVsand all Vintage Ports are not filtered and can
benefit from long bottle ageing. After this extra period of
bottle maturation the wines have a garnet colour and
tertiary cooked fruit and vegetal (prune, leather, wet
leaves) flavours.

True Tawny Ports, on the other hand, undergo long
oxidative maturation in barrels called pipes. The wines
are made in exactly the same way as the ruby styles and
the differences in colour and flavour are entirely down to
the difference in maturation. The wines turn garnet and
finally tawny, although only the very oldest become
fully brown. With age the primary fruit fades, becoming
raisiny and is accompanied by flavours of walnuts, coffee,
chocolate and caramel. These wines throw their deposit
during wood ageing and require little extra treatment in
preparation for bottling. These are fully developed on
release and do not benefit from any extra bottle ageing.
The vast majority of Ports, even vintage styles, are
complex blends of different varieties grown in different
sites and typically blending is an ongoing process that
happens throughout the period of pre-bottle maturation.
TYPES OF PORT
The vast majority of Port is red. Small amounts of white
and rose Ports are also made but these are not discussed
here. All of the wines below are non-vintage with the
obvious exception of LBV and Vintage Ports which must
be made from a single vintage.
Inexpensive Ports
Ruby - These are blends of wines that are typically
between one and three years old. They lack the
concentration, complexity or tannins of more premium
ruby styles.
Tawny- Although these wines show a browning in
common with otherTawnies they are no older than
PORT 193
Ruby Ports and have not undergone a long period of
oxidative ageing. Producers have a number of different
options to achieve this colour, including use of less
heavily extracted or lighter wines from the Baixo Cargo,
blending in White Port, a period of hot maturation in the
Douro and/or heavy fining to remove colour.
Special Categories of Port
Reserve/Reserva - This is a labelling term that can be
applied to both Ruby and Tawny Ports that are of higher
quality than the most basic expressions. A wine's
suitability for this category is determined by an official
tasting panel. Importantly, a ReserveTawny must be
wood aged for a minimum of six years.
Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) - These are vintage wines
that have been aged for between four and six years
before they are bottled. This extra ageing, which
typically takes place in large oak vessels, helps to make
these wines more approachable on release, compared
with Vintage Ports. The vast majority of LBVsare fined
and filtered. These wines, which are similar in style to a
high-quality Reserve Ruby Port, are ready to drink on
release and rarely benefit from extra bottle ageing. A
relatively small number of LBVsare unfiltered. These
wines are more similar in style to Vintage Port and they
can often benefit from bottle ageing. Similar to Vintage
Port, unfiltered LBVsform a sediment in the bottle and
often need decanting before serving.
Tawny with an Indication of Age - These wines
undergo a long period of oxidative maturation in pipes.
AviewofthePortshippers'
warehouses
inVilaNovade
Gaia.Themilderdamper
climatehereis idealforthe
maturation
of Port.
194 UNDERSTANDING
WINES:EXPLAININGSTYLEAND QUALITY
They can be labelled 10, 20, 30 or 40 years old. To qualify,
the wine must be consistent with the characteristics
typical of a wine of that age. The age stated on the label
is therefore an average age, rather than the age of the
youngest component of the blend. The label must state
the year of bottling, which is important as these wines
lose their freshness after bottling. They are the finest of
all Tawny Ports and the best are exceptionally complex
and concentrated. Some producers specialise in Tawny
Port and for them these are their flagship wines.
Vintage - Producers must register their intention to
release a Vintage Port in the second year after the
harvest and the wine must be bottled no later than the
third year. All ageing prior to bottling will take place
in either large oak vessels or stainless steel tanks and
the wines are unfined and unfiltered. On release these
are the most concentrated and tannic Ports. Some
consumers choose to enjoy them young but these
wines are capable of ageing in bottle for decades and
as they age they will throw a heavy sediment.
For most producers, a Vintage Port is their flagship
wine. They are only produced on average three times
a decade. They are typically a blend of the finest wines
from a producer's best vineyards. It is up to an individual
producer whether or not they'declare' a particular
vintage; there is not always a consensus. For example,
some houses declared 1991 as a vintage year, others
declared 1992 and some declared both. However, there
was general agreement that 2000, 2003, 2007 and 2011
should be declared.
Single Quinta Vintage Ports are the product of a single
estate, or quinta. The name of the quinta appears on the
label. Some small producers who only own one quinta
will only declare a vintage in the great years. The large
producers who own several quintas have a different
approach. In the best years they will use the pick of all
of their quintas' wines to make a Vintage Port. In years
that are not considered good enough for a vintage to
be declared they will release their best wines as Single
Quinta Vintage Ports. These are considered to be less
prestigious than their Vintage Port, but they are still
high-quality wines. It is quite common for these
producers to age their single quinta wines once they
have been bottled and release them when they are
ready to drink.

Fortified
Muscats
Fortified wines are made throughout
Port and Sherry have been successfully copied m many regions. It 1snot
possible to cover all of these and in this chapter we will only focus on fortified Muscats, which are
produced in many of the major wine-producing countries.
Muscat is widely used to make fort ified wine throughout
the world. There are a number of different grape varieties
that are called Muscat but they all have low to medium
acidity and display perfumed aromas of orange blossom,
rose and grape. These varieties can thrive in warm and
hot climates but the best vineyards typically benefit from
some cooling influences, which help to preserve the
grapes' acidity levels and aromas.
Muscats are made in two broad styles: youthful and
unaged or fully developed after an extended period of
ageing.
Youthful, Unaged Muscats
These wines are medium gold in colour, floral and
aromatic. The aim of the grape growing and winemaking
is to make sure that the varietal character is as pure as
possible. They are typically sweet but are rarely luscious.
This type of wine is made in a number of wine regions
throughout the world; one notable example is Muscat
de Beaumes-de-Venise that comes from the Southern
Rhone.
The grapes will be picked when they are ripe and
healthy. Raisining or drying the grapes after picking in
order to concentrate grape sugars is not typically
practised for this style. These techniques add extra dried
fruit characteristics that mask the pure varietal
characteristics.
Once crushed, the juice may be separated from the
skins but some skin contact is widely used to help
increase aromatic intensity and add some richness to
the palate. This can be further enhanced if the skin
contact continues during part or all of the fermentation.
Fermentation is cool and it is stopped by fortification
with 96% abv grape spirit to give a sweet wine. In order
to preserve the primary fruit aromas, the wines are stored
FORTIFIEDMUSCATS 195
45
the w~rld_-Classic sty~essue~ as
in inert vessels prior to bottling and protected from any
contact with oxygen.
Fully Developed, Aged Muscats
These w ines range in colour from amber to brown,
and can be sweet or luscious. Aged Muscats are also
made in many countries. Some of the most celebrated
examples made in the luscious style come from
Rutherglen in Australia . The style of these wines will
be determined by the timing of the harvest , when the
wines are fortified and the length and type of ageing
that they undergo.
In order to make a sweet aged wine the grapes will be
picked when they are ripe and healthy. However, in order
to make the more luscious style, the producer may want
to allow some raisining to happen prior to picking, but
care has to be taken . Raisining does add extra complexity
to the aromas, but excessive raisining will mean that the
grapes lose too much of their varietal aromas and the
resulting wines can lack an expressive Muscat character.
Fermentation will nearly always take place on the skins.
If a luscious style of wine is being made, the fortification
may take place when the fermentation has only reached
20/oabv.
These wines will then undergo a period of oxidative
ageing that can last for decades. Old wood is essential
(new oak aromas would clash with the grape aromas)
and large oak vessels are widely used. These wines are,
on occasion, aged in warm conditions. As they age, these
wines become amber and finally brown, and develop
pronounced oxidative aromas. Even when they are very
old these wines can still retain their Muscat aromas.
However, it is common for the oldest wines to be given
an aromatic lift by blending in a small amount of mo re
youthful wine prior to bottling.
196 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Acknowledgements

The production of this fully revised edition of this book has been a significant team effort, and
would not have been possible without the help of the following people.
Within the WSETthere are a number of staff who have helped to write, edit and/or design
this book, most notably Nicholas King, Victoria Burt MW, Harriet Furze, Sara Hobday, Jaycee
Chan, Karen Douglas, Matthew Forster and Jeremy Wilkinson.
External to WSET,there are many people who have helped with the content of the book.
In alphabetical order they are: Adam Chase, Cathy Marston, Charles Mount, Chloe Delane,
Chris Kissack, Chris Stroud, Flavia Rizzuto, Gareth Lawrence, Dr. Gregory Jones, Jamie Saint,
Janet Dorozynski, John Atkinson MW,John Townley, Konstantinos Lazarakis MW, Lindsay Oram,
Marianne Rodriguez Marty, Mark Davidson, Michael Cooperman, Michelle Cherutti-Kowal MW,
Norrel Robertson MW, Philip Rowles, Raul Riba D'Ave, Richard Bampfield MW, and Tim Hanni MW.
There is also a team of people who were instrumental in the design of this book. They
include Debbie Wayment, Ros Horton, Pete Dolton, Robert Calow, and Ruth Coombs.
 INDEX 197

Index
Numbers in bold type indicates images, diagrams and illustrations.

Abruzzo 128 bacterial diseases 40 canopy management 34, 35, 40, 85

acid 43, 48, 49 Baden 111-12 Canterbury 171-2
lactic 49 bag-in-box 52, 53 Cap C/assique (see Methode Cap C/assique)
malic43,49 Baga 140 cap management 63
tartaric 43, 48 Bairrada 140 Cape South Coast 163
acidification 48 balance 9 carbon dioxide (CO2) 3, 24, 25, 64, 174, 177
acidity 6-7, 11 Bandol 107 carbonation 177
in food 11-12, 13 Barbaresco 124 carbonicmaceration64
Aconcagua Region 153-4 Barbera (grape variety) 124 Carignan 70, 1OS(see also Carinena, Mazuelo)
Aconcagua Valley 153- 4 Barbera d'Asti 124 Carinena (grape variety) 132, 135, 136 (see also
Adelaide Hills 60, 166, 182 Barcia 124 Carignan, Mazuelo)
adjustments 47-8 Barossa 166 Carinena (region) 135
acid 48 Barossa Valley 166 Carmenere 153
alcohol47 barrel46 Casablanca Valley 154
sugar47 barrique46 Castilla y Leon 134
Agiorgitiko 118 Barsac 82 Castilla-La Mancha 137- 8
Aglianico (grape variety) 129 Basilicata 129 Catalunya 135-6, 181
Aglianico del Vulture 129 Beaujolais 90- 1 Cava 181- 2
Airen 133, 137, 138 Beaujolais Nouveau 90 Central Italy 126-8
Albarino 133, 137 Beaujolais Villages 90, 91 Central Otago 172
a/bariza 184, 184 Beaune 86, 88 Central Valley
alcohol 8, 47, 48, 49 Beerenaus/ese (BA), Germany 58, 109 California 144, 147
safe consumption 75-6 bench grafting 22, 23 Chile 154-5
Alentejano 141 Bergerac 83 Chablis 60, 61-2, 85, 86- 7
Alentejo 140- 1, 141 Bernkastel 110 Champagne 179-81, 180
Alexander Valley 146 Bierzo 137 chaptalisation 47
Alfrocheiro 140 Bio Bio Valley 155 Chardonnay 56, 60-2, 85, 85,106, 130, 134, 135,
Alicante Bouschet 140 biodynamic agriculture 40-1 144,148,153,157,161,164,170,180,181,
Aligote 86 biological ageing, Sherry 185, 187 182,183
Aloxe-Corton 88 birds 37 Chassagne-Montrachet 88
Alsace 59, 60, 61, 92- 4 bitterness in food 12, 13 Chateauneuf-du-Pape 102, 103
Alsatian appellations and classifications 92 Blaufrankisch 113 chemical sprays 38, 39, 40
Alsace Grand Cru 92 blending 50, 55, 66, 67, 174, 187- 8 Chenin Blanc 96-7, 161
altitude 24, 28 body8 Chianti 126- 7
AltoAdige60, 121,122 Bolgheri 127 Chianti Classico 127
Alvarinho 139 (see also Albarino) Bonarda 156 Chile 152-5
Amarone della Valpolicella 123 Bordeaux 67, 78- 82 Chilean wine laws 152
American vines 19, 22 Bordeaux classifications 79 chilli heat in food 12, 13
Amontillado 188-9 Bordeaux Superieur 80 Chinen 97
anaerobicwinemaking 44 Botrytis cinerea 40, 41-2, 58, 59, 82 chlorosis 31, 32
Anderson Valley 1B3 bottles 52, 52-3 Cinsault 102, 105
Andes, Chilean classification 152 Bourgogne (rouge, blanc) 87 Clare Valley 166
Anjou 96 Bourgogne Cote Chalonnaise 89 clarification 50-1, 55-6, 66
appearance 2-3 Bourgogne Hautes Cotes de Beaune 87, 88 clarity, tasting 2
Appellation d'origine contr6/ee (AC) 77 Bourgogne Hautes Cotes de Nu its 87, BB clarity of juice 55
Appellation d'origine protegee (AOP) 77 Bourgueil 97 C/assico120
Aragones 140 (see also Tempranillo) Breede River Valley 162 climate 28-9, 30-1
Argentina 156-9 Brettanomyces ('Brett') 4 clones 19
Arinto 139 British Columbia 151 closures 53, 53
aromas 4-5, 7 Brouilly91 CO, (see carbon dioxide)
compounds 49 Brunelle di Montalcino 127 co-operative 72
condition 4 bubbles 3 Coastal Region, South Africa 161
development 5 budburst 38, 38 Colchagua Valley 67, 155
primary4-5 buds 20, 38 cold maceration 63
secondary 5 Burgenland 114- 15 Colli Orientali 122
tertiary 5 Burgundy 60, 61, 68, 85- 9 Cellio 122
aromatic grape varieties 56- 7, 59-60 Burgundy appellations 87 colour 3, 43, 49, 63, 64, 67
aspect 25, 27, 29, 88, 112 Grandcru 87 Columbia Valley 148
Assyrtiko 119 bush vines 34, 36, 97, 103, 162 corn plexity 9
Asti 58, 182 concrete vessels 45, 46
Asti method 177 Cabernet d'Anjou 98 Condrieu 100
aszu (grapes) 116, 117, 117 Cabernet Franc 78, 97, 98 Conegliano-Valdobbiadene 181, 182
Aszu (wines) 116, 117 Cabernet Sauvignon 66- 7, 78, 98,106, 127, 134, Constantia 162
Auckland 171 135,136,143,148,152,157,160,164,171 constituents of wine 49
Auslese 109 Cachapoal Valley 155 continental climate 31
Australia 164-9 Cafayate 158 continentality 25-6
Australian wine laws 164 Cahors 83 Coonawarra 167
Austria 58, 113- 15 Calatayud 135 Coquimbo Region 153
Austrian wine laws 113 California 60, 143- 7, 183 Corbieres 107
autolysis (see yeast autolysis) Campania 129 cordon 34, 35
autovinifiers 191 Canada 58, 150- 1 corks 15, 53, 53, 54, 139
American Viticultural Area (AVA) 142 Canadian wine laws 150 synthetic corks 53, 53
cane 21, 21, 34, 35 Comas 101
bacteria 49, 51, 52 canopy 34, 35 Cortese 125
198 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Corvina 123 malolactic fermentation (MLF) 49, SS,60, 61- 2, gyropa/ettes 174, 175
Costa, Chilean classification 152 63,174
costs 71-2 temperature 48, SS,63 hail 30,30
packaging 72 whole bunch 64 hand harvesting 41, 41
production 71- 2 Fiano 129 Harslevelu 116
Cote Chalonnaise 88- 9 Fiano di Avellino 129 harvest 38, 38, 41, 173
Cote d'Or60, 61, 68, 85, 86, 87- 8 filtration 50-1, 51 harvesting 41- 2, 41
Cote de Beaune 87- 8 Finger Lakes 59, 149 Haut-Medoc 67, 78, 80
Cote de Beaune-Villages 88 fining SO,51 Hawke's Bay 67, 171
Cote de Nuits 87- 8 finish 9 hazards
Cote de Nuits-Villages 88 Fino 187,188 sunlight 27
Cote Rotie 69, 99, 100 Fitou 107 temperature 26
Coteaux du Layon 97 flavour compounds 43, 49, 63, 64 water 27-30
Cotes de Bordeaux 81-2 flavours 7, 8 head grafting 23, 23
Cotes de Gascogne 83 Fleurie 91 heat 24-6, 25
Cotes de Provence 107 f/or187, 187,188 Heathcote 168
Cotes du Rhone 103 flowering 39, 39 Hemel-en-Aarde 163
Cotes du Rhone Villages 103 flowers 20, 39 Hermitage 69, 99, 100
Cotes du Roussillon 106, 107 fog 25, 143, 143 high-volume, inexpensive wines 56, 66
Cotes du Roussillon Villages 107 food pairing 11-14 Howell Mountain 146
cou/ure39 foot treading 191,192 HunterValley 168
cremanr181 Forst 111 hybrids 22
criadera 185-7, 186 fortification 58, 185, 192
Crianza 132 fortified Muscat 195 ice buckets 16
crossings 22 France 77-107 lcewine 58, 59, 150, 151, 151 (see also Eiswein)
Crazes-Hermitage 101 French wine laws 77 Indication geographique protegee (IGP) 77
cru bourgeois 79 Franken 112 lndicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) 120
cruc/ass,!79 Frascati 127 inert vessels 45, 46, 56, 135, 173
crushed fruit fermentation 63- 4 free run juice 46 inflorescence 39, 39
crushing 46, 47 free run wine 64 insects 37
cultivars 19 freezing grapes 58, 59 intensity 9
Curic6 Valley 155 Friuli Grave 122 of aromas4
cutting(s) 19 Friuli-Venezia Giulia 60- 1, 122 of colour 2- 3
frost 26, 26, 28 offiavours 8
Dao 140 fruit set 39, 39 irrigation 27, 27, 157
deacidification 48 Fume Blanc 60, 144 ISO glass 1, 2
decanting 17 fungal diseases 37- 40 Italy 120-30
Deidesheim 111 fungicides 40 Italian wine laws 120
depth filtration 51, 51 Furmint 116 ltata Valley 155
density of planting 36-7
destemming 46, 47 Gamay 86, 89, 90, 90 Jaen 140
diseases 37-40 Garganega 123 Jerez de la Frontera 184
bacterial 40 Garnacha 66, 132, 134, 135, 136 (see also Johannisberg 111
fungal 37-40 Grenache) )oven 132
disgorgement 174 Gavi 125 Jumilla 137
distribution 72 Geelong 168 Juran~on 84
district 160 geographical indication (GI) 74-5
Districtus Austriae Control/atus (DAC) 113 Germany 59, 60, 108-12, 182 Kabinett 58, 108-9
diurnal range 25, 26 German wine laws and labels 109
Denominaci6 d'Origen Qualificada (DOQ) 132 Gevrey-Chambertin 88 La Mancha 137-8
Denominaci6n de Origen (DO) 132, 152 Gewurztraminer 93-4, 153 La Rioja, Argentina 158
Denominaci6n de Origen Calificada (DOCa) 132 Gigondas 104 label integrity 74-5
Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) Gimblett Gravels 171 lactic acid 49
120 Gisborne 171 lagares 191-2, 192
Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita Givry89 lakes 27
(DOCG) 120 glassware 2, 16, 16 Languedoc 69, 70, 106-7
Dolcetto (grape variety) 124 glucose 20, 25 Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) Port 193
Dolcetto d'Alba 124 gobelet 34, 90 late harvest 58, 92, 117
domaine (estate) 72 Goulburn Valley 168 latitude 24, 27, 29
Dordogne 83 Graciano 132, 134 law (see wine laws)
Dornfelder 110 grafting 22-3, 22-3 layering 19
Douro 140, 190, 190 Gran Reserva 132 Lazio 127
downy mildew 37-40 grandcru87 leaves 20
drought 27 grape lees 49, SO,55, 61
Dry Creek Valley 146 berries 20 ageing 174, 180, 183
drying grapes 58, 59 constituent parts of 43 stirring 61, 62
Duero Valley 136-7 processing 46- 7, 47 legs (tears) 3
Durbanville 162 reception 46, 47 length 9
varieties19 Levante 137
Eden Valley 166 Graves 79, 80- 1, 82 Leyda Valley 154
Eiswein 58, 59, 110 (see also lcewine) Great Southern 169 LimariValley 153
Elgin 163 Grechetto 127 liqueurd'expedition 174,175
Elim 163 Greco 129 liqueur de tirage 174
Elqui Valley 153 Greco di Tufo 129 Lirac 103-4
enrichment 47 Greece 118-19 Lodi 147
Entre Cordilleras, Chilean classification 152 Greek wine laws 119 Loire Valley 57, 95-8, 181
Entre-Deux-Mers 79, 82 green harvesting 37, 39 Los Cameras 145, 146, 183
estate (domaine) 72, 160 Grenache 66, 69- 70, 102,105, 164 (see also Loureiro 139
Estate Wines 160 Garnacha) Lujan de Cuyo 158
Eszencia 116, 117 grey rot 40
ethanol 49 Grolleau 98 Macabeo 181 (see also Viura)
Etna 130 GrossesGew<'ichs(GG) 108, 109 maceration 63, 64, 67
extraction growing environment 24-32, 25 machine harvesting 41, 41
Port 191-2, 192 climate 28-9, 30-1 Macon 89
post-fermentation64 heat 24-6, 25 Macon Villages 89
pre-fermentation 63 nutrients 24, 25, 32, 36-7 Maconnais 60, 89
fatty foods 12 soil 25, 31-2 Madiran 83
faults 3 sunlight 24, 25, 26-7 Maipo Valley 154
fermentation 43, 44, 48-9, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, water 24, 25, 27-30, 31, 36-7 Maipu 159
63-4, 173-4, 177,180,185,191 weather 30 Malbec 83, 156
alcoholic 48 growth cycle 24, 38-9, 38-9 malic acid 43, 49
crushed fruit 63-4 GrunerVeltliner 113 malolactic fermentation (MLF) 49, SS,60, 61- 2,
 INDEX 199

63, 174 vessels 44-6, 45, 56, 59, 61, 64- 6, 94 protective winemaking 44
Malvasia 127 Oakville 145 pruning 21, 21, 34, 35,38-9, 38-9
mammals 37 ocean currents 24-5, 29 replacement cane 21, 34, 35
Manzanilla 188 Okanagan Valley 151 spur 21, 34, 35
Marche 128 Oloroso 188, 189 summer 34, 39, 171
Margaret River 168- 9 one-year-old wood 21, 21, 35 winter 34, 35, 38, 38
Mar9aux80 Ontario 150 Puglia 129
maritime climate 31 opening wine 16- 17 Puligny-Montrachet 88
market forces 72 ordering wine 17 pumping over 63, 68
Marlborough 57,171,172 Oregon 148 punching down 63, 69
Marsanne 100 organic agriculture 40 pupitre174, 175
Martinborough 171 Orvieto 127 puttonyos 116
maturation 43, 44, 49- 50, 53-4, SS,64, 185, 187 out of condition 4
192-3 oxidation 4, 15, 17-18, 43-4, 52, 53 Quafitiitswein 108, 109, 113
Maule Valley 155 oxidative ageing, Sherry 185, 187 quality
Mazuelo 132, 134 (see also Carignan, Cariiiena) oxygen 24, 25, 43-4, 46, 52 level9
McLaren Vale 70, 167 stability 52 quality and style indications 75
Mediterranean climate 31
Medoc79,80 Paarl 161 rack and return 63
Melon Blanc 97 packaging 52- 3, 52 racking 50
Mencia 132, 137 costs 72 rainfall 27, 30, 36- 7
Mendocino County 146 palate 5-9 readiness for drinking 9- 10
Mendoza 156, 158- 9 Palo Cortado 189 Recioto della Valpolicella 58, 123
Menetou-Salon 95 Palomino 184 Rectified Concentrated Grape Must (RCGM)47,
merchant (negociant) 72 Parellada 181 56, 58
Mercurey89 Paso Robles 147 red winemaking 63- 70, 65
Merlot66,67-8, 7B, 106,134,135,144,148,153, passerilfage 58, 59 high-volume, inexpensive wines 66
160,164,171 passito 58, 123 premium wines 66 - 70
Methode Cap Classique 183 Patagonia 159 reduction 4
Meunier 180 patamares 190, 191 region (GI) 160, 164
Meursault 88 Pauillac 80 replacement cane pruning 21, 34, 35
microbiological stability 52 Pays d'Oc 107 Reserva,Spain 132
mildew 37-40 Pedro Ximenez (PX) 184, 189 Reserve Ports 193
mil/erandage 39 Penedes 135 retailers 72
Minervois 107 permanent wood 21, 21, 35 Rheingau 111
MLF (see malolactic fermentation) Pessac-Leognan 60, 79, 80-1, 82 Rheinhessen 711
Monastrell 132, 137 (see also Mourvedre) pests and diseases 37-40 Rias Baixas 137
Monbazillac 83 bacterial diseases 40 Ribera del Duero 136
Montagny89 birds and mammals 37 riddling 174, 175
Montepulciano d'Abruzzo 128 fungal diseases 37-40 Riesling 56- 60, 93, 108, 113, 149, 150, 153, 165,
Monterey 147 insects 37 170, 182
Morgon 91 nematodes 37 Rioja 69, 131, 132, 134
Mornington Peninsula 168 Phylfoxera 22, 3 7 ripening 39, 39, 41
Mosel 71, 110, 112 viruses40 Riserva 120
Moulin-a-Vent 97 petillance 3 Riverina 165
Mount Veeder 146 Petit Manseng 84 Riverland 165
Mourvedre 102, 105-6 Petit Verdot 78 Robertson 162- 3
mousses Pfalz 111 roots 21
Muller-Thurgau 110 Phyf/oxera 22, 37 rootstocks 22- 3
Murray-Darling 165 Picpoul (grape variety) 106 Rose d'Anjou 98
Muscadelle 79 Picpoul de Pinet 107 Rose de Loire 98
Muscadet 97 piece46 rose winemaking 65, 67
Muscat (grape varieties) 94, 195 Piemonte 123-5 rotary fermenters 63
Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains 182 Piesport 11o Roussanne 100
Muscat of Alexandria 185 Pinot Blanc 94 Roussillon 69, 70, 106-7
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise 195 Pinot Gris/Grigio 56, 60-2, 94, 121, 122, 170 Ruby Port 193
Muscat (wines) PinotNoir64,66,68,85,87, 110,144,148,153, RGdesheim 111
Sherry 189 160,164, 170- 2, 174,180,182,183 Rueda 136-7
fortified 195 Pinotage 160 Rully89
must (juice) 47 piston plungers 191-2, 192 Russian River Valley 146
must weight 47, 109 planting/replanting 33 Rutherford 145
Pomerol 78, 79, 81 Rutherglen Muscat 195
Nahe 110-11 Pommard88
Naoussa 118 Port 190-4 safe consumption 75-6
Napa County 142, 145-6 fortification 192 Saint-~milion 67, 78, 79, 81
Napa Valley 67, 145 extraction 191-2, 192 Saint-~milion Grand Cru 79
natural wines 43 maturation 192-3 Saint-Estephe 80
Navarra 69, 134-5 types of 193- 4 Saint-Joseph 100
Nebbiolo 124 Portugal 139-41 Saint-Julien 80
negociant (merchant) 72 post-bottling maturation 53-4 Saint-Veran 89
Negroamaro 129 Pouilly-Fuisse 88, 89 sales 72
Nelson 171 Pouilly Fume 57, 95 Salice Salentino 129
nematodes 37 powdery mildew 37-40 salt in food 12, 13
Nemea 118 Priidikat/Priidikatswein 108, 109, 113 Salta 158
Nero d'Avola 130 pre-bottling maturation 49-50, 55, 64 San Antonio Valley 154
New South Wales 168 premier cru 87 San Juan 158
New York 59, 149 premium wines 56-62 , 66-70 San Luis Obispo County 147
New Zealand 61, 170- 2, 183 preserving wine 17-18 Sancerre 57, 95, 95
Niagara Peninsula 1SO press Sangiovese 67, 126-7
Nieder6sterreich (Lower Austria ) 114 basket 46, 48 Santa Barbara County 147
Nierstein 111 fractions 47, 64, 66 Santa Cruz Mountains 147
noble rot 40, 41-2, 58, 59, 82 pneumatic 46- 7, 48 Santa Maria Valley 147
North Island, New Zealand 171 presswine 47, 64 Santorini 118-19
North-west Spain 137 pressing 46- 7, 48, 67, 173- 4 Sarga Muskotaly 116 (see also Muscat Blanc a
Northern Italy 121-5 price of wine 71- 3 Petits Grains)
Northern Rhone 69, 99-101 Primitivo 129 (see also Zinfandel ) Saumur 96, 181
nose 3-5 Priorat 24, 69, 132, 135-6, 137 Saumur-Champigny 97-8
Nuits-Saint-Georges 88 producers, types of 72 Sauternes 58, 79, 82, 82
nutrients 24, 25, 32, 36- 7 production costs 71-2 Sauvignon Blanc 56, 57, 59-60, 79, 95-6, 106, 133,
Prosecco 181, 182 134,136,144,153,161,165,170
oak Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) 74- 5 Savennieres 97, 97
alternatives 45, 46 Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) 74-5 SAT(see Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine)
200 UNDERSTANDING WINES: EXPLAINING STYLE AND QUALITY

Schlossbockelheim 110- 11 tannin 8, 13, 43, 44, 49, 63, 64, 67 cycle 38-9, 38-9
screw caps 15, 53, 53 tartaric acid 43, 48 management 33-42
seas 27 tartrate stability 51 vinha ao alto 190, 191
sedimentation SO Tasmania 60, 68, 169, 182, 182 Vinho Verde 139-40
Sekt 182 Taurasi 129 Vino de fa Tierra (VdlT) 132
Selection de Grains Nobles (SGN)92 Tave! 103-4 Vino Nobile di Montepulciano 127
semi-carbonicmaceration64 Tawny Port 193-4 Vinasde Pago (VP) 132
Semillon/Semillon 79, 82,165 TCA (trichloroanisole) 4, 53 vintage, Champagne 178
serviceof wine 15-18 temperature Vintage Port 194
servicetemperatures 15- 16 fermentation 48, 55, 63 Vintners Quality Alliance (VOA) 150
Sherry 184-9 hazards 26 Viognier99, 100,106,153
fortification 185 service 15- 16 viruses40
maturation 185-7, 186 Tempranillo 131-2 viticultural practices 40-1
styles of 188-9 tendrils 20 Vitisvinifera 19, 21, 22-3, 22
Shiraz 66, 68-9, 164, 167 (see also Syrah) Terre di Sicilia/TerreSiciliane130 Viura 134 (see also Macabeo)
shoots 20, 34, 35, 38-9 Tinta Barroca 140,191 volatile acidity (VA) 4
Sicily/Sicilia, 130 nnta Roriz 140, 191 (see also Tempranillo) Volnay 88
Silvaner 1 10 (see also Sylvaner) Tinto Cao 191 Vosne-Romanee 88
site selection 33 toasting of barrels 46 Vougeot88
skin contact 55, 63, 191 Tokaj (region) 116- 17 Vouvray 96,181
SO, (see sulfur dioxide) Tokaji sweet wine laws 1 16
Soave 122- 3 Tokaji (wine) 58, 116-17, 117 Wachau 114, 114
Soave Classico 123 Toro 136 Wairarapa 171
sobretab/a 185, 186, 187 Torrontes 157 Walker Bay 68, 163
soca/cos190, 191 Toscana IGT 127 ward 160
soil 25, 31-2 Touraine 95, 96, 97 Washington 59, 69, 148
so/era 185- 7, 186 Touriga Franca 191 water 25, 43, 49
so/erasystem 185-7, 186 Touriga Nacional 140, 191 availability 31, 36-7
Sonoma Coast 146 traditional method 173-5 bodies of 24, 27, 29
Sonoma County 68,146 , training 33-4, 35 hazards 27- 30
sorting 46, 47, 81 transfer method 175-7 irrigation 27, 27, 157
South Africa 57,69, 160-3, 162,183 transport 72 weather30
South African wine laws 160 Trebbiano 127 Wehlen 110
South Australia 165-7 trellising 34, 35 Weinviertel 114
South Eastern Australia 165 Trentino60-1, 121-2 Welschriesling 113
South Island, New Zealand 171-2 Trincadeira 140 Western Australia 168-9
South West France 83- 4 Trockenbeerenausfese (TBA), Germany 58, 109 Western Cape 161
Southern France 105-7 Tuscany 126-7 white winemaking 55-7, 57
Southern Italy 129-30 high-volume, inexpensivewines 56
Southern Region, Chile 155 UcoValley 158,159 premium wines 56-62
Southern Rhone 102-4, 102, 195 Ugni Blanc 83 White Zinfandel (see Zinfandel)
Spain 69, 131-8 umami 11, 12-13 whole bunch fermentation 64
Spanish wine laws 132 Umbria 127 Willamette Valley 148
sparkling wines 173-83 unfermented grape juice 58 wine laws
EU labelling terms 177 USA 142-9 Australian wine laws 164
production methods 173- 7, 176 United States' wine laws 142 Canadianwine laws 1SO
regions 179-183 Upper Ebro 134-5 Chilean wine laws 152
styles 177-8 French wine laws 77
Spatburgunder 11o Vacqueyras 104 German wine laws and labels 109
Spat/ese58, 109 Valdepeiias 138 Greek wine laws 119
spraying 38, 39, 40 Valencia 137 Italian wine laws 120
spur 21, 21 Valpolicella 123, 123 Portuguese wine laws 139
spur pruning 21, 34, 35 Classico 123 Spanish wine laws 132
St Laurent 113 Ripasso 123 South African wine laws 160
stabilisation 51- 2, 55- 6, 66 VendangesTardives(VT) 92 Tokaji sweet wine laws 116
Stags Leap District 145 Veneto 122-3 United States' wine laws 142
stainless steel vessels 45, 46, 56, 135, 173 Veneto IGT 122 wine and the law 74-6
Stellenbosch 67,161 veraison 24, 35, 38-9, 39, 41 Wine of Origin (W.O.) 160
sterile filtration 51 Verdejo 133 wine service15- 18
storage of wine 15 Verdicchio (grape variety) 128 Wine-Lexicon4, 7
sub-region (GI) 164 Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi 128 winemaking 43-54
sugar 12, 20, 41, 47, 48, 49 Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP)34, 35, 85 adjustments 47-8
in food 11, 12 vessels 44-6, 45 anaerobic 44
sulfur dioxide (SO,) 4, 44, 46, 49, 52, 56, 58, 59, 60, inert 45, 46, 56, 135, 173 fortified wines 784-8, 186,188, 191-3, 192,
61,74 oak 44- 6, 45, 56, 59, 61, 64-6, 94 195
summer pruning 34, 39, 171 Victoria 167-8 protective 44
sunlight 24, 25, 26-7 Vidal 150 red wines 63-70, 65
hazards 27 Vin de France77 rose wines 65, 67
surfie 97 Vin de Pays77 sparkling wines 173-7, 175,176
surface filtration 51, 51 vines 19-23 sweet wines 58-9
SOssreserve 58, 109 anatomy of 20- 1 white wines 55-7, 57
sustainable agriculture 40 bush 34, 36, 97, 103, 162 winter dormancy 38, 38
Swartland 162, 162 canopy 34, 35 winter freeze 26, 38
sweet winemaking 58- 9 clones 19 winter pruning 34, 35, 38, 38
sweetness 5-6, 11 crossings 22 Worcester 162
infoodll,12 density 36-7
Sylvaner 94 (see also Silvaner) grafting 22-3, 22-3 Xarel-lo 181
Syrah 64, 66, 68-9, 99, 102, 105, 130, 144, 153, growth cycle 24, 38-9, 38-9 Xinomavro 118
160, 171 (see also Shiraz) hybrids 22
Systematic Approach to Tasting Wine (SAT) 1-10 pests and diseases 37-40 Yakima Valley, 148
appearance 2-3 planting/replanting 33 Yarra Valley 167-8
conclusions9 pruning of 21, 21, 34, 35, 38-9, 38- 9 yeast 48, 51, 52
nose 3-5 rootstocks 22-3 yeast autolysis 174, 180, 183
palate 5-9 species 19 Yecla 137
preparation 2 training of 33-4, 35 yields 37
scales 2 trellising 34, 35
Wine-Lexicon 4, 7 varieties 19 Zinfandel 144 (see also Primitivo)
veraison24, 35, 38-9, 39, 41 zone 764
tank method 173, 177 yields 37 Zweigelt 1 13
Tannat 84 vineyard
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W_SET Level 1 Award in Spirits
in wines ancl spirits. Our programmes are WSET Level 2 Award in Wines c1ndSpirits
clesignecl for anyone looking to develop WSET Level 2 Award in Spirits
WSET Level 3 Award in Wines
their knowledge in wines ancl spirits - from
WSET Level 3 Award in Sake
beginners to professionals. We currently WSET Level 4 Diploma in Wines and Spirits
offe1·eight qualifications - from one-clay
begin11er courses through to a specialist
level Diploma.

For more information about WSET or to

locate your nearest course provider visit
wsetglobal.com

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Wine & Spirit Education Trust t... +44(0)20 7089 3800 Issue No.1
International Wine & Spirit Centre ~ wset ·c:,
iwset.co.uk
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