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Experimental Investigations of the

Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition in
Crude Oil Using Chemical Additives
a a a
B. F. Towler , O. Jaripatke & S. Mokhatab
a
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of
Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
Version of record first published: 13 Jan 2011.

To cite this article: B. F. Towler , O. Jaripatke & S. Mokhatab (2011): Experimental Investigations of
the Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition in Crude Oil Using Chemical Additives, Petroleum Science
and Technology, 29:5, 468-483

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 Petroleum Science and Technology, 29:468–483, 2011
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1091-6466 print/1532-2459 online
DOI: 10.1080/10916460903394029

Experimental Investigations of the Mitigation of

Paraffin Wax Deposition in Crude Oil Using
Chemical Additives

B. F. TOWLER,1 O. JARIPATKE,1 AND S. MOKHATAB1

1
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Wyoming,
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Laramie, Wyoming

Abstract Wax deposition from crude oil is a very expensive problem for oil produc-
ers around the world. The objective of this study is to understand the characteristics
of paraffin wax deposition and to test the effectiveness of solvents in the inhibition
of the crystallization and subsequent precipitation of the paraffin wax and to test
the most effective concentration of the solvent used. The oil used here is from the
Dakota formation from the Fourteen Mile Field in the Big Horn Basin of Wyoming.
Two paraffin inhibitors were tested for this crude oil on a horizontal flow system. The
inhibitors are mixtures of solvents, pour point depressants, and wax crystal modifiers.
These inhibitors were tested at different concentrations and temperatures and the
deposition rates were obtained for each. One inhibitor especially designed for this
crude oil was relatively successful, reducing the deposition by up to 59% depending
on the temperature.
Keywords chemical additives, paraffin wax deposition, pour-point depressants, wax
crystal modifiers

Introduction
In the field, the production tubing is often plugged by paraffin wax that deposits on its
walls. The deposition of the paraffin leads to a fall in the production rates of the oil
from that well. The wax deposits not only in the production tubing but also in the flow
lines at the surface and in certain cases in the producing formation down hole. Formation
damage resulting from this crystallization and deposition of paraffin within the reservoir
is dependent on many factors, like temperature, pressure, and the flowing conditions at
the wellbore and the composition of the reservoir crude oil. Formation damage can also
be caused by well mitigation operations like hot oiling, where heated oil is pumped from
the surface to the bottom of the hole to melt the wax deposited in the wellbore. The
deposition of the paraffin waxes from the reservoir fluid occurs when the temperature
and pressure move below the cloud point of the fluid. The precipitated paraffin particles
deposit in the wellbore and even within the pores of the reservoir. When the deposition
occurs within the pores of the reservoir, the permeability of the reservoir region where
this deposition has taken place decreases, which results in a decrease of flow of crude oil
from that region of the reservoir. The paraffin deposits starts off as a thin film and slowly
deposits in the form of crystalline solids, which collects on the interior of the tubing and

Address correspondence to Saeid Mokhatab, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engi-

neering, College of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University
Avenue, Laramie, WY 82071. E-mail: saeid_mokhatab@hotmail.com

468
 Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition 469

flow lines and slowly chokes off the production. The definition of paraffin deposit refers
to the deposit of carbonaceous material, which is not soluble or dispersible by the crude
oil under the prevailing conditions. Paraffins are composed of alkanes with formulas
C18 H38 to C70 H142 (Nathan, 1955; Hunt, 1962; Burger et al., 1981; Newberry, 1984).
These are straight-chained and branch-chained compounds and are generally inert and
resistant to attack by acids, bases, and oxidizing agents. Previous research has shown that
n-paraffins are more responsible for the paraffin wax deposition problem (Nathan, 1955).
The formation of the deposit depends on the cloud point, an available surface, and/or loss
of gas or light ends due to a drop in pressure (Straub et al., 1989). The precipitation is not
uniform (Nathan, 1955); it has peaks at certain points in the tubing and less deposition at
other places. The cloud point temperature is the key factor controlling the paraffin wax
deposition. Paraffinic hydrocarbon liquids form a paraffin or wax solid phase when the
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temperature falls below the cloud point, or wax appearance temperature (WAT), of the
oil. As the oil flows up the wellbore, its pressure drops, causing solution gas to liberate.
This solution gas had acted to some degree as a solvent for waxes. Therefore, the loss
of gas increases the cloud point temperature, causing more precipitation and making the
oil more viscous. Also, as the oil moves upward it cools because the surface temperature
is less than the reservoir temperature. There is a geothermal temperature gradient at
the wall, and when the oil temperature reaches the cloud point the precipitation starts.
This precipitation occurs even if the bulk oil temperature is more than the cloud point
temperature, because it is the temperature of the oil at the wall that plays the most
important role in the precipitation of wax. Another reason for the precipitation to occur
in such a scenario is the presence of different temperature profile. The wax deposition
problem is more prevalent in low-flow-rate wells because of the high residence time of
oil in the wellbore. The increased flow time leads to more heat loss, which results in
lowering of oil temperature and leads to wax precipitation and deposition (Carnahan,
1989). Wellbore studies have shown that the temperature profile in the wellbore is a
strong function of the flow rate. The paraffin wax problem is an example of fluid–solid
equilibrium, which is described as a solution of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons
in low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, which act as solvents. The wax deposits cause
plugging of the tubing and other equipment. This incurs monetary loss and increased
shutdown times. The presence of a solid wax in the crude oil produces non-Newtonian
behavior and makes the oil plastic and thixotropic (Agarwal et al., 1969; Newberry, 1984;
Misra et al., 1995). This also leads to an increase in viscosity, which leads to higher
pressure losses. The reduced viscosity and the reduced diameter due to the deposition
lead to a reduction in effective capacity of the line and hence reduced flow rates. The
deposits also increase the restartable pressure (Misra et al., 1995). The restartable pressure
is the pressure required to restart the flow of the crude after the oil is cooled below its
cloud point. This means that there are solid wax particles in the crude, which can create
the non-Newtonian thixotropic viscosity. However, it becomes a major problem when the
oil is cooled below its pour point. Then the oil is completely solid and the restartable
pressure can become high unless the oil temperature is again raised above the pour
point. Carnahan (1989) has described three classes of problems associated with the wax
deposition: (1) supercritical solvent effects in the reservoir, (2) temperature changes in
the production tubing, and (3) pressure and temperature changes in surface facilities
and pipelines. This problem costs the petroleum industry billions of dollars, in terms of
cost treatment, reduced production, well shut-in, inefficient use of production capacity,
choking of flow lines, premature abandonment, and increased manpower. It occurs in all
parts of world, but in the United States a study of the oils from 69 different oilfields in
 470 B. F. Towler et al.

19 states showed that paraffin deposition was present in 59 of the oilfields in 18 of the
states (Woo et al., 1984).

Factors Affecting Wax Deposition

The three main factors affecting the wax deposition are (1) flow rate, (2) temperature
differential and cooling rate, and (3) surface properties.

Effect of Flow Rate

When the flow is laminar, wax deposition increases with flow rate (Cole and Jessen,
1960; Tronov, 1969). The availability of more particles at the surface for deposition
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is the cause for this relationship. When the flow regime becomes turbulent, the shear
flow mechanism becomes more prevalent and the wax deposition decreases (Jessen and
Howell, 1958). Thus, as turbulence increases deposition decreases. Shear flow transport is
predominant in turbulent flow. In cylindrical pipes the flow transitions into the turbulent
regime when the Reynolds number is more than 2,100. Wax crystals, which deposit at
high flow rates, are hard in nature but are capable of sticking to the surface. The problem
of wax deposition is widespread in low-flow-rate wells, because of the higher residence
time of the oil in the wellbore. More residence time leads to increased heat loss, further
leading to lower oil temperature. In one study the minimum velocity to avoid deposition
was found to be 0.17 m/s (Troynovskii, 1967).

Temperature Effects
The temperature differential between a cold surface and the bulk solution is an important
factor affecting wax deposition along with the rate of cooling. Wax deposition increases
with increases in temperature differential (Jessen and Howell, 1958; Makhmutov, 1977).
Cole and Jessen (1960) proposed that the temperature differential between the solution
cloud point and cold surface has the most important impact on rate of deposition. Seth
(2002) found a linear relationship for wax deposited and the temperature differential
between the bulk oil and the cold surface temperature. Other researchers have reported
that wax deposition occurs only if the temperature of the cold surface is less than the
temperature of the cloud point. Intuitively this seems logical. However, it was observed
that initially the wax deposition increases very rapidly and then the rate of deposition
decreases because of a decrease in the temperature differential, due to the insulating
effect of the wax layer. At a higher cooling rate, small wax crystals are formed in large
numbers due to the availability of large number of crystallization sites (Ragulin and
Lyushin, 1973; Bott and Gudmundsson, 1977). Uniform crystallization takes place at
the lower rate of cooling. Crystals that are packed uniformly and have low free energy
and surface area are formed. The temperature differential also affects the composition
of the wax. The higher the temperature differential, the higher the rate of cooling and
simultaneous crystallization of low- and high-melting waxes, which leads to the formation
of a weak porous structure (Jorda, 1966).

Material Effects
The wax crystals adhere and deposit on the pipe wall, so the surface properties may
have an effect on paraffin wax deposition. Parks (1960) studied the effect of coatings and
 Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition 471

found that certain materials can reduce the adherence of wax deposits on the pipe wall.
Cole and Jessen (1960) found that the amount of wax deposited for a given temperature
difference decreased with a decrease in free surface energy. The adherence of deposits to
the wall is dependent on the adsorption forces, which are dependent on free surface energy
possessed by both paraffins and surface. Hunt (1962) studied the effect of roughness of
pipe on the deposit and concluded that deposition is affected by roughness of the pipe.
Patton and Casad (1970) determined that there is no direct correlation between the wax
deposition and surface roughness. However, they stated that the adhesion bond at the
surface should be proportional to surface area and hence related to surface roughness.

Treatment of Paraffin Wax Deposition

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Different methods are applied to treat the paraffin wax deposition. They can be classified
into four broad categories: (1) mechanical, (2) thermal, (3) chemical, and (4) bacterial.
Most of the wax deposition problems cannot be treated by just one method. Combinations
of different methods have to be applied to the deposits depending on the nature of
the deposit and oil from the well. The selection of the method is often based on the
prior experience. However, wax deposition is often controlled by using an inhibitor to
either reduce the rate of deposition or to make the deposition have a reduced yield
stress. The deposits often trap other (noncrystallized) molecules. The characteristics of
the deposit (including yield stress) are often attributed to how the deposits are formed.
The character of the deposits may also change over time due to changes in the amount
of incorporated oil. The variable nature of wax deposits is one factor that complicates
remediation operations (Wilkens, 2002).

Experimental Setup
A paraffin deposition flow system was constructed to simulate the deposition of paraffin
in the wells. The equipment has been described in more detail elsewhere (Jaripatke, 2000;
Seth, 2002; Towler and Rebbapragada, 2004), but a schematic diagram of the system is
shown in Figure 1. Others have used similar equipment to measure the wax deposition
rate (Jessen and Howell, 1958; Hunt, 1962; Burger et al., 1981; Brown et al., 1993).
The equipment consists of two concentric tubes with a facility to measure the pressure
drop between the ends of the inner tube, called the test section. The crude that is used to
conduct the experiments is stored in a reservoir, with a capacity of 10 gallons. The crude
can be pumped into the test section and back into the reservoir. The flow rate is adjusted
using a flow meter and a bypass valve. An inclined manometer is used to measure the
pressure drop across the section. This pressure drop can be used to determine the pipe
diameter and hence the thickness of the wax deposition. The manometer was inclined at
an angle of 35ı to the horizontal and the manometric fluid is water. A facility to monitor
the temperature in the test section and in the reservoir is also provided. A blower was
required to keep the pump from overheating as the experiments were run for long periods.
A water bath attached to a refrigeration unit is used to provide cooling for the walls of
the inner tube. Water is pumped into the outer annulus and then back into the water
bath. This keeps the walls of the test section at the required temperature throughout the
experiment.
At the start of each experiment, the manometer is checked to ensure a zero reading
and the flow rate is adjusted using pump speed and a bypass valve. Manometer readings
are noted at regular intervals until the end of the experiment. At the end of the experiment,
 472 B. F. Towler et al.
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Figure 1. Experimental setup for deposition tests.

all the pumps and coolers are switched off and the test section is dissembled. Paraffin
that is deposited in the test section is removed using scrapers and the amount of paraffin
is measured using a measuring jar. All the experiments were performed on crude oil from
the Dakota formation from the Fourteen Mile Field in the Big Horn Basin of Wyoming.
The general properties of the crude oil used in these experiments are given in Table 1.
The Dakota is an Upper Cretaceous formation and most of the oils from the Creta-
ceous formations in Wyoming are paraffinic in nature and tend to exhibit wax deposition
problems. Two commercial solvents were provided by an oil service company to test their
effectiveness. These two solvents were unique in the sense that the chemical reactions
between the solvents and the crudes would result in small-chained n-paraffins. Each was a
mixture of solvents, pour point depressants, paraffin dispersants, and wax crystal modifiers
but is generally referred to as the solvent. The first had been specially formulated for
the Dakota crude and the second for another oil, the Octh Louie oil from the Manderson
field in the same basin. We will refer to them as the Dakota solvent and the Octh Louie
solvent. The experiments were conducted under different conditions and the deposition
rates were plotted with respect to the time of deposition. The amount of deposit at the
end of the experiments was calculated theoretically from the fluid mechanics theory and

Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of the Dakota crude oil

Description: Thin yellow-colored liquid with sweet odor

API gravity: 46ı API
Fluid type: Volatile oil
Paraffin content: 9% mole fraction
Asphaltene content: negligible
Cloud point: 80ı F
Pour point: 5ı F
Sulfur content: 0.93% mole fraction
 Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition 473

also physically measured. Both measurements were found to be in good agreement. The
experimental conditions were changed by changing the coolant temperature and also by
changing the concentration of the amount of solvents to be used in the given reservoir of
oil. The solvent meant for Octh Louie oil, called here the Octh Louie solvent, was also
used on the Dakota Crude in different concentrations to test whether it was effective on
inhibition of paraffin wax deposit from Dakota Crude. The oil is a thin liquid initially
but when exposed to air becomes thicker and more viscous. This thick viscous oil
becomes thin and less viscous again on heating. This shows that if the oil is kept at
temperatures above the cloud point or in airtight containers the wax has less potential to
crystallize, precipitate, and hence deposit. However, the waxiness of the crude does appear
to increase after prolonged exposure to air. This effect is documented elsewhere (Towler
and Siddhartha, 2004) and is under active investigation. The solvent has to make some
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kind of changes in the crystal structure, which will prevent crystallization, precipitation,
and deposition of the wax from the crude oil. Each experimental run was conducted
for 3 days at a time so that the exact depositional behavior is obtained. The deposition
at a particular instant could be calculated from the corresponding pressure drop at that
particular instant, which could be noted from the manometer reading. The flow rate for
all the experiments was 3.5 gal/min, which was calculated using the Reynolds number
at the Fourteen Mile Field, which is about 2,000, and this means that the flow regime is
laminar but close to the transition state.

Calculations
The first task is to calculate the pressure drop indicated by the inclined manometer. The
manometer is inclined at an angle of 35ı to the horizontal and the manometric fluid is
water. Therefore, the pressure drop would be

P D h
g
sin.35/ (1)

where P is the pressure drop across the manometer, g is acceleration due to gravity, 
is the wax crystal density, and h is the difference in the heights of manometric fluid in
the two columns in meters. The clean diameter of the test section is one inch. The flow
rate of the crude through the test section was maintained at 3.5 gal/min throughout the
experiment. The average velocity of the crude oil (V ) in the test section is then calculated
from:
Q
V D (2)
.D 2 =4/
where Q is the volumetric flow rate, and D is the diameter of the pipe. Because the
viscosity of the crude varied slightly from experiment to experiment, it was calculated
initially using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, which is
32
L
V

P D (3)
D2
where L is the differential length of the pipe, and  is viscosity of crude oil. Because
the length of the test section and its initial diameter are known and the average velocity
and the pressure drop were measured, the viscosity of the crude can be found. The
viscosity that is calculated is then used to calculate the net diameter of the test section
as paraffin gets deposited on its walls.
 474 B. F. Towler et al.

Experimental Results
In this section results of various experiments conducted are presented along with the
calculations and discussion of the results. The first experiment was performed on the
Dakota crude with the bath temperature of the cooling water kept at 5ı C. The oil flow rate
was kept constant during all experiments at 3.5 gal/min (0.000221 m3 /s). The manometer
legs were checked, to see whether both of the legs were at same level. The experiment
was run for approximately 72 hr, but total times for different experimental runs varied
due to operating conditions. No solvent was initially used in the crude oil. This was done
to establish the base deposition for comparison purposes. The velocity and the viscosity
of the crude wax were found to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s (3.96 cP). The net deposit
collected at the end of the experiment was 330 mL. There was some entrapped oil along
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with the lumps of the paraffin wax, which was collected. The theoretical calculations from
the pressure drop measurement showed the total deposit at the end of the experiment to
be 308.2 mL. The difference between theoretical and calculated deposit volumes was 22
mL. Both the above measurements are in reasonable agreement but both contain different
experimental errors. The deposit calculated from the pressure drop measurement assumes
that the wax is perfectly cylindrical, and the wax scraped out of the pipe includes entrained
oil. The amount of deposit from pressure drop measurements at each particular instant
is plotted with respect to time of deposition. The plot, which includes the results of the
first five experiments, is shown in Figure 2.
For the second experiment, the coolant temperature was kept constant at 5ıC. Fresh
oil was used for each new experimental run. This time, 5 mL of Dakota solvent was
added to the 10 gallons of crude oil before the experiment. Velocity and viscosity were
calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00429 Pa.s. The amount of deposit at the end of the
experiment was physically measured to be 300 mL and the amount of deposit calculated
theoretically was found to be 268.7 mL. Both of these amounts are slightly lower than the

Figure 2. Wax deposit at 5ı C for experiments 1–5 with Dakota solvent.

 Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition 475

depositions determined in the earlier experiment. For the third experiment the temperature
of the coolant was kept constant at 5ı C, but the amount of the Dakota solvent used
was 7.5 mL compared to that of 5 mL used in the previous experiment. The velocity
and viscosity were 0.436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s, respectively. The amount of deposition
measured physically was 300 mL and that from calculations was found to be 265.57
mL. There was no big reduction in amount of deposition in this case when compared
to the previous case. The temperature for the fourth experiment was the same, 5ıC. The
velocity and viscosity were also the same. This time 24 mL of Dakota solvent was added
to the oil. The amount of deposit collected physically was found to be 225 mL and that
from pressure calculations was 199.9 mL. This higher concentration of solvent resulted
in a significant reduction in the wax deposition. The fifth experiment was conducted at
the same temperature of 5ı C. The solvent used was Dakota solvent and 5 mL was added.
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However, this time the solvent was added at the 57th hour of the experimental run. This
was done to see whether the effect of the solvent is instantaneous or whether it has to be
added before the start of the experiment itself. This experiment was run for 66.5 hr. By
this time the exponential curve had flattened. The pressure drop remained constant for
quite some time, indicating that deposition had ceased. The deposition was calculated to
be 318.7 mL and measured physically to be 350 mL. This experiment was significant in
that it showed that though the solvent was effective in preventing further deposition, it
had no effect on removing the wax already deposited. The plot of deposition vs. time is
shown in Figure 2 along with the other results from the first five experiments. The Octh
Louie solvent was used for the sixth experiment. The effectiveness of the Octh Louie
solvent for the Dakota crude would be tested in this experimental run. Five milliliters of
the Octh Louie solvent was added to the 10 gallons of Dakota crude oil. A fresh batch of
oil was drawn for this experiment. The coolant was maintained at 5ıC and the velocity
and viscosity were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00297 Pa.s, respectively. The amount
of deposit collected physically was 325 mL and the amount calculated theoretically from
the measured pressure drop was found to be 303.50 mL. This shows that not much effect
was observed when using 5 mL of the Octh Louie solvent on the Dakota Crude. The
deposition curve is shown in Figure 3.
In the seventh experiment, the concentration of Octh Louie solvent was increased
from 5 to 10 mL. The temperature of coolant was kept at 5ı C as in the previous
experiments. The flow rate was maintained at 3.5 gal/min. The velocity and viscosity
were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00429 Pa.s. The differences in viscosities are
apparently because the properties of the crude oil changed after exposure to the air. It is
manifested as a higher initial pressure drop at the start of the experiment before any wax
has deposited. The amount of deposit collected physically at the end of this experiment
was 300 mL and that calculated from the pressure drop measurements was 295.7 mL.
This experiment was only run for 42 hr when a malfunction forced the cessation of the
experiment. However, the data from this experiment showed that not much reduction was
achieved even when using 10 mL of solvent. For the eighth experiment the temperature
of the coolant was changed to 7ı C. The previous experiments were performed at 5ıC.
In this experiment, fresh oil was used with no solvent. The flow rate was kept at 3.5
gal/min. The velocity and viscosity were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s.
The final paraffin deposit was collected and measured to be 315 mL. The amount from
theoretical calculations was determined to be 301.2 mL. These are in good agreement.
The experiment was run for 77.5 hr. As the temperature increases a little the amount
of deposition increases a bit. The plot of amount of deposition vs. time of deposition is
shown in Figure 4, which compares the effect of wall temperature. The ninth experiment
 476 B. F. Towler et al.
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Figure 3. Comparison of depositions with Octh Louie solvent at 6ı C.

was run at a 15ıC wall temperature. The solvent was not used in this run to establish the
base depositional behavior at this coolant temperature. The flow rate was constant at 3.5
gal/min. The velocity and viscosity of the oil were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.0039
Pa.s. The initial pressure drop was nearly always the same reading for the experiments
where fresh oil was used but sometimes due to exposure to the air a slight change in the

Figure 4. Comparison of depositions showing the effect of temperature with no solvent.

 Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition 477

oil composition occurred and the oil viscosity increased slightly. However, the addition
of solvent then decreased the viscosity. The amount of wax collected at the end of this
experimental run was 150 mL and that calculated was found to be 114.2 mL. So at 15ı C
the wax deposition was reduced drastically. The deposition curves for this run are shown
in Figures 4 and 5.
The tenth experiment was performed at the same coolant temperature of 15ı C and
5 mL of Dakota solvent was added to the Dakota crude oil. The velocity and viscosity
were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s. The experiment was run for 48 hr,
because the deposition had stopped from the 27th hour onwards. This happened because
the experiment was run at a higher temperature and with 5 mL of Dakota solvent. The
wax was very soft in nature and measured 70 mL. The amount of deposit from the
pressure calculations was 56.7 mL. So the amount of wax deposited was reduced with
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use of 5 mL of Dakota solvent when compared to that without solvent at the same
temperature. The plot of this deposition curve is shown in Figure 5. The 11th experiment
was performed at 15ı C with 10 mL of Dakota solvent added to the oil. The velocity and
viscosity were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s, respectively. The amount of
deposit collected was 70 mL and that calculated was 53.65 mL. This experiment was
run for 72 hr and the deposition had stopped from the 34th hour. We see this from the
pressure drop readings, which are constant from the 34th hour. The deposition curve
for this experiment is in Figure 5. For the 12th experiment the coolant temperature was
still maintained at 15ıC and the amount of Dakota solvent added this time was 15 mL.
This experiment was done to see whether more concentration of Dakota solvent at this
temperature would be more effective. The velocity and viscosity were calculated to be
0.436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s, respectively. The amount of deposit collected was physically
measured to be 60 mL and that from pressure calculations was 45.90 mL. This shows that
deposition was further reduced using 15 mL solvent than 10 mL solvent. The deposition
curve for this experiment is in Figure 5. The 13th experiment was performed at a new

Figure 5. Comparison of depositions with Dakota solvent at 15ı C.

 478 B. F. Towler et al.

coolant temperature of 12ı C. This time fresh crude oil with no added solvent was used to
establish the behavior of deposition at this new temperature. The velocity and viscosity
were calculated to be 436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s, respectively. The amount of deposit
collected after the experiment was 185 mL and the amount from pressure calculations
was 148.57 mL. We see that there is an increase in deposition when compared to 15ıC
without solvent. This experiment was run for 74.5 hr. The deposition was constant from
the 71st hour, as seen from the pressure drop measurement. The plot for the deposition
curve is shown in Figure 4. The 14th experiment was conducted at the same temperature
of 12ıC. This time 10 mL of solvent was used. The use of the solvent did not reduce
the wax deposited; in fact, we see that it increased compared to the case without the
use of solvent. This time the physically measured deposit was 250 mL and that from
calculations was 239.11 mL. This amount is much greater than the 148.57 mL obtained
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without solvent. The oil used in this experiment had become very old and a lot of wax
had precipitated from it because it had been reused several times. The use of this oil even
after heating caused more precipitation and it appeared that the solvent was less effective.
Hence, we have an interesting result, which will be discussed later. This experiment was
run for 60 hr. The wax deposition reached a peak at 35 hr and then reduced again and
then increased. The deposition curve for this experiment is shown in Figure 6.
After this experiment the oil was changed and a fresh batch of 10 gallons of oil was
added to the oil reservoir. The coolant temperature was again maintained at 12ı C. Ten
milliliters of Dakota solvent was added to the crude oil. This experiment was performed
to replicate the 14th experiment, which had been performed immediately prior. The flow
rate was constant at 3.5 gal/min. The velocity and viscosity were calculated to be 0.436
m/s and 0.00396 m2 /s, respectively. This experiment was run for 75 hr. The results showed
that the deposition reduced significantly. The physically measured deposition was found
to be 115 mL and that from the calculations was 81.13 mL. This shows that the solvent is
effective and in the earlier experiment it was not effective because of heavy wax crystals

Figure 6. Comparison of depositions with Dakota solvent at 12ıC.

 Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition 479

present in the reservoir initially. The deposition curve for this run is shown in Figure 6.
In the 16th experiment fresh oil was again used and the temperature of the coolant was
changed to 9ı C to study the depositional characteristics at this temperature. No solvent
was added to the crude oil. The velocity and viscosity were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and
0.00396 Pa.s, respectively. The flow rate was kept constant at 3.5 gal/min. The amount
of deposit collected was 250 mL and that from the calculations was found to be 191.59
mL. The experiment was run for 72 hr. The deposition curve is shown in Figure 4. The
amount of deposition increased when compared to that when the coolant temperature was
12ı C and 15ıC. The 17th experiment was conducted keeping the coolant temperature at
6ı C and no solvent was added so that the deposition characteristic with some solvent
at this temperature could be studied. The flow rate was kept constant as usual at 3.5
gal/min. The velocity and viscosity were calculated to be 0.436 m/s and 0.00396 Pa.s,
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respectively. The amount of deposit collected physically was found to be 325 mL and
that from calculations was 298.48 mL. We see that the amount of deposition increased
more than the deposition at 9ıC. This experiment was run for 72 hr and the deposition
curve is shown in Figure 4. The 18th experiment was conducted with temperature of the
coolant kept at 6ıC. This time 10 mL of Dakota solvent was used in the crude oil. The
flow rate was kept constant at 3.5 gal/min. The velocity and viscosity were calculated
to be 0.436 m/s and 0.0039 Pa.s, respectively. The experiment was run for 74 hr. The
deposition was measured to be 250 mL and calculated to be 222.2 mL. We see that the
deposition reduced using 10 mL of solvent when compared to situation of no solvent at
same temperature. The deposition curve is shown in Figure 7.
The 19th experiment was performed at the lowest temperature of 3ı C and it was
expected that the maximum deposition might occur following the previous trends. In
this experiment no solvent was added to see the deposition and then compare it with
a run with some amount of solvent. The flow rate was at 3.5 gal/min. The deposition
physically collected was 275 mL and that from pressure calculations was 221.6 mL. This

Figure 7. Comparison of deposition with Dakota solvent at 6ı C.

 480 B. F. Towler et al.
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Figure 8. Comparison of deposition with Dakota solvent at 3ıC.

is less compared to the other lower temperatures like 6ı C and 9ı C. But note that the
deposition had reached a peak of 312.1 mL after 17.75 hr. Then the pressure drop started
falling, indicating that deposits were sloughing off. But from 20.75 to 41.5 hr there was
an increase in the pressure drop, indicating an increase in deposits. This experiment was
run for 65.5 hr. The deposition curve is shown in Figure 8.
The 20th experiment was performed at the same low temperature of 3ıC. This time
5 mL of Dakota solvent was added in the crude oil. The flow rate was kept constant at
3.5 gal/min. We see that the amount of deposit collected was 350 mL and that calculated
from the pressure drop was 303.9 mL. Thus, the amount of the total deposit was more
than without solvent but the peaking and sloughing did not occur. The deposit never went
through any maxima and minima even after 72.5 hr of running the experiment.

Discussion of Results
From the above results we see that from the first four experiments, we can infer that
solvent does have an effect on the inhibition of the wax deposition. There was not
much reduction in the deposits when a small concentration of solvent was used. This
is seen from the second and third experiment where the deposit was 268.72 and 265.6
mL when 5 and 7.5 mL solvent were used. When 24 mL of solvent was used, the
reduction was sizeable: 308.2 mL was deposited without any solvent addition at the
same temperature and with 24 mL of solvent addition the wax deposition was found to
be 199.9 mL, a 35% reduction. When 5 mL of Octh Louie solvent was used for the
Dakota Crude oil, there was nearly no effect because the deposition was still 303.5 mL,
which was nearly equal to the deposition in the case where no solvent was used at the
same coolant temperature. When 10 mL of Octh Louie solvent was used in the Dakota
Crude oil, the deposition was found to be 295.6 mL, which was also little different
from the original deposition. This shows that the Octh Louie solvent is ineffective for
 Mitigation of Paraffin Wax Deposition 481

Dakota Crude. The next four experiments were performed at a temperature of 15ıC.
At this temperature the deposition was reduced significantly and the solvent was more
effective, as can be seen from the reduction in the deposition. The solvent was used
in proportions of 5, 10, and 15 mL. The next three experiments were performed at
12ı C. The first one was without any solvent and deposition was less than the 15ı C
and more than the lower temperatures. Then 10 mL of Dakota solvent was added
to the Dakota crude but surprisingly the deposition was very high. We came to the
conclusion that the oil we were using had somehow increased in wax content, so we
decided to use a fresh batch of oil and again used 10 mL of Dakota solvent. This
time the deposition was just 81.3 mL, in accordance with the expected trend. The
next experiment was conducted at 9ıC without any solvent. The deposition was found
to be 191.6 mL, which is more than 148.6 mL, which was the deposition at 12ı C
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mL without any solvent. The next experiment was performed at a temperature of 3ı C

and no solvent was used. We see a maximum in the deposition curve and the final
deposition was just 221.6 mL. This was because heavy deposition of the wax had taken
place quickly and the deposition was sloughed away by the crude oil flow, due to the
shear flow, and then the buildup started again. In the following experiment the coolant
temperature was kept at 3ı C but 5 mL of Dakota solvent was added. This did not
show a maximum in deposition but the end deposition was very high. From this we can
infer that the solvent was rather ineffective at very low temperatures. Figure 4 shows
the plot comparing the deposition at various coolant temperatures without any solvent
added to the crude oil. This plot clearly shows that the deposition increases as the
coolant temperature is decreased and vice versa. Figure 5 shows a plot comparing the
deposition at 15ıC at various solvent concentrations varying from 0 to 15 mL. Figure
6 shows the comparison of the deposition at 12ıC without any solvent and with 10
mL of Dakota solvent. This plot also shows the results with old oil and fresh oil.
Figure 8 shows the deposition behavior of the crude oil at the coolant temperature of
3ı C without solvent and with 5 mL of Dakota solvent. All the results are summarized in
Table 2.

Conclusions
The paraffin flow system described here, which was constructed to simulate the paraffin
deposition in the wells and flow lines, can be used to test the paraffin deposition rates
for various crudes and chemical inhibitors. It was noted that the paraffin deposited at
a faster rate initially and then the deposition slowly steadied. When a small amount
of Dakota solvent was used at low temperatures, the inhibition of wax deposition was
nearly negligible. We see from the results of the two experiments, where 5 and 7.5 mL
of Dakota solvent at coolant temperature of 5ı C, that there was not much difference in
the amount of deposition at the end of the two experiments. At higher temperatures, the
wax deposition decreases and the solvent is more effective. The Octh Louie solvent is
ineffective for inhibition of paraffin wax from Dakota Crude oil. When exposed to air, the
Dakota crude oil becomes thick and viscous and seemingly more waxy. At 3ı C without
any solvent the deposition curve went through a maximum and then sloughing of the
wax deposit took place, which led to a decrease in the pressure drop. Then the deposition
started increasing again and the pressure drop increased. When 5 mL of Dakota solvent
was used there was no maxima observed but deposition nevertheless was very high,
showing that the solvent was not effective at very low temperatures.
 482 B. F. Towler et al.

Table 2
Summary of experimental results

Experiment Temperature, Deposit

ı
number C Solvent, mL Type of solvent measured, mL

1 5 0 308.1
2 5 5 Dakota 268.7
3 5 7.5 Dakota 265.5
4 5 24 Dakota 199.9
5 5 5 (at 57th hour) Dakota 318.7
6 5 5 Octh Louie 303.5
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7 5 10 Octh Louie 295.6

8 7 0 301.2
9 15 0 114.2
10 15 5 Dakota 56.7
11 15 10 Dakota 53.6
12 15 15 Dakota 45.9
13 12 0 148.6
14 12 10 Dakota 239.1 (old oil)
15 12 10 Dakota 81.1 (new oil)
16 9 0 191.6
17 6 0 298.5
18 6 10 Dakota 222.2
19 3 0 221.6
20 3 5 Dakota 303.9

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