14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference

Distribution Transformer Efficiency Measurement using Infrared Thermography

by E. C. Bortoni*, R. A. Yamachita*, F. M. Silva*, D. G. Mesquita*

* Itajubá Federal University, Institute Power and Energy Systems, Av. BPS 1303, 37500-903, Itajubá, Brazil,
bortoni@unifei.edu.br.br

Abstract
This paper presents the application of Infrared Thermography to measure distribution transformer efficiency.
The method is very intuitive, practical and of ease application. The results obtained with the proposed method are
compared to those obtained by standard method, showing very good agreement with them. The paper presents the
nature of the losses in energy transformation, the theoretical basis of the proposed method, and the comparison of its
results with those obtained from the standard method.

1. Introduction

Transformers are electrical machines of intrinsic high efficiency. Its characteristic of a non-rotating machine
make its difference from an induction motor. The efficiency of electrical transformers can be greater than 96.8%,
reaching values as high as 99.8% [1]. Even with a high efficiency, the energy pass through four or more transformers in
the power system, during its transportation from the generation to the final use. The overall efficiency due only to
transformation reduces to around 85% and, consequently, efficiency of a transformer is a major issue.
The main losses in a transformer which directly impacts in its efficiency are the no-load losses and load losses
[2]. The no-load comprises the no-load current loss in the primary winding, and core losses, which normally is divided in
hysteresis and eddy current losses. The load losses are composed by the current losses in the primary and secondary
windings (sometimes a tertiary winding can be found), and the supplementary or additional loss. This later is composed
by linkage fluxes in the metal closure of the transformer and is proportional to its loading, therefore is normally referred to
the full load condition.
The direct efficiency measurement consists in measuring the power in primary and the secondary terminals for
the desired load condition. As the efficiency of a transformer is high, this method is normally avoided, because the errors
of the measurement instruments can easily lead to efficiencies calculations of more than a hundred percent, which
evidently is impossible. The indirect efficiency measurement consists in measuring all the losses of the transformer, i.e.,
the current losses, the core losses, and the additional losses, for the desired load condition. The resistances of the
transformer’s windings must be measured, the voltage ration between windings must be known, and the additional loss
must be accurately estimated. Naturally, it is a difficult task. The use of a calorimeter may result the total loss summation,
but sometimes, mainly in the bigger transformers, it is difficult to construct a calorimeter around the transformer [3].
In face of the presented constraints, the use of infrared thermography to measure the transformer efficiency is
very welcome. It starts from the principle that all the transformer’s losses are converted into heat, which is a reasonable
approach. In addition, the transformer surface is very regular and well measured. The Infrared Thermography method
was applied to several transformers, calculating the efficiency of energy conversions of each one. The results obtained
with the proposed method application were compared with the results obtained from a standard method, reaching very
good agreement between them. Therefore, it is shown that the proposed method is very accurate and useful for fast
application.

2. Transformers

The great majority of the electricity generation is given between 1 and 25 kV levels. Though, large energy
blocks are more efficiently transmitted, for long distances, using voltage levels upper than 138 kV. On the other hand, the
safe use of electrical energy in homes, commerce, and some industries, is for voltages less than 1 kV. Therefore, the
compatibility of voltage levels is done with power and distributions transformers. Based on electromagnetic phenomena,
the transformers allows that blocks of energy could be transferred from a primary winding to a secondary winding, with
convenient voltage adjustment, use current variation in the inverse order.
In general, the transformers are highly efficient. The absence of moving parts allows the obtaining of efficiencies
of the order of 96.8% to 99.8%. Therefore, the transformers are employed in all the phases of the process of production
and use of electrical power, including transmission and distribution. Practically all the generated power passes through
one or more transformers. The continuous process of voltage levels compatibilizing results in significant losses that must
be conveniently accounted for, with their reduction when possible.
Therefore, the analysis only the efficiency issue may result in a distorted vision of what really happens with the
losses. In other words, considering the efficiency simply as a relation between input and output powers, the feeling of

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License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

what happens with the losses and their magnitude may be missed. Despite the losses are lower in relative terms, they
may have a great significance in absolute terms.
An estimate shows that about 14% of all the Brazilian generated electricity may be transformed in losses,
technical and commercial, in transmission and distribution; and about 30% of the technical losses are within the core of
distribution transformers. The following pictures how the results of a survey, revealing the distribution of some elements
over the total losses of private and public utilities, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. In both cases, from 20% to 40% of the
losses happens in transformers.

9.1% 2.0%
Feeder
36.4%
Distribution Transformer
Power Transformer
32.3% Transmission
Secondary Network
Other
4.0% 16.2%

Fig. 1. Losses in private utility [1]

7.8%
8.1% Feeder
34.9%
10.5% Distribution Transformer
Power Transformer
2.2% Transmission
Secondary Network
Other
36.5%

Fig. 2. Losses in public utility [1]

The transformers are indispensable components in the power distribution systems for their capacity of raise and
decrease voltages with simplicity and high efficiency, allowing the profitable use of electricity. As the transformer does
not have rotating parts, this device requires few care and the maintenance expenses are minimal.
Heat due to the losses dissipation is an important issue. While the heat increases as a cubic function of the
linear dimension, the heat dissipation increases only with the square of the linear dimension. In order to reduce the
working temperature, several devices such as cooling tubes, radiators, and even fans, have been used.

3. Transformer losses and efficiency

The transformer can be analysed considering three distinct circuits, the electric, the magnetic, and the dielectric.
In each one of these circuits there are losses, which can be divided as following.

3.1. Losses in the electric circuitry

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3.1.1. Loss due to load current

This type of loss is given as the summation of the squared current times the resistance of the several windings.
The load loss value cannot be reduced as the currents are defined by the load. The single mode to reduce such losses is

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 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

the design phase, reducing the windings resistances. It is done using the minimal length of conductor and the cross
section as large as possible.

3.1.2. Loss due to excitation current

Such loss is very small, as the excitation current in transformers are not great than 5% of the rated current. I
large transformers the excitation current can be as low as 1% to 2%. Once this kind of loss is proportional to the square
of the current, for a current of about 5% of the rated, the excitation loss will be 0.25% of the current loss at full load.

3.1.3. Current losses due to the leakage flux

This kind of loss is due to eddy currents that circulate in each conductor that suffers the influence of the leakage
flux. This loss is very difficult to be calculated accurately, but its magnitude can be estimated, though. Several
expressions, along with many factors, have been proposed to its calculation. It is usual to considerate its value as a
percentage of the load loss, based on experiments in several transformers.
Such loss is proportional to the square of the leakage flux, to the mass of cupper used in the transformer, and to
the square of the cross section of the conductors affected by the leakage flux. As the leakage flux and the mass of
cupper is usually constant, it is common to divide the conductor in several sub-conductors, isolated of each other, in
order to reduce this kind of loss.

3.2. Losses in the magnetic circuitry

3.2.1. Loss due to core hysteresis

This type of loss depends fundamentally of the core material quality and is calculated using curves supplied by
the core manufacturer. The loss is proportional to the weight of the employed core material and is dependent of the flux
density. Reducing as much as possible the weight of material is, therefore, an employed fashion to reduce such loss. If
reducing the flux density is sought, a great amount of ferromagnetic material will be employed, increasing the length of
the cables in the windings, and the current losses.

3.2.2. Loss due to eddy currents

Such loss is dependent of the flux density, of the core material quality, the thickness of the core lamination, and
of the insulation between lamination. The observations done to reduce the current losses due to the leakage flux are
employed here too. In fact, the two kinds of losses are calculated together from curves supplied by the core
manufacturer. For a given amount of material, this loss can be reduced by decreasing the thickness of the core steel
lamination. The extreme reduction of the thickness results in the increase of insulation and of the device size, and
reductions of the mechanical resistance of the equipment.
It is important noticing that the excitation characteristic is close related to the core material quality. Therefore,
knowing the weight of the core, material type, and flux density, it is possible to evaluate the excitation characteristics,
including harmonic contents. If the material used is the same, the loss due to eddy currents can be calculated for a given
transformer as a function of its weight in relation to other transformers.

3.2.3. Audible sound

A parcel of the magnetic losses is converted to audible sound. This is due to the loose in the steel lamination
mounting. The alternate magnetic field acts over the laminated core creating friction between the lamination. After a time,
it can get rid of the insulation between lamination creating more loss due to eddy currents appearance. Of course, this
kind of loss is of difficult calculation and it is considered as a percentage of the total loss.

3.3. Losses in the dielectric circuitry

3.3.1. Loss due to core current leakage

This sort of loss is very difficult to be evaluated. Normally it is considered as a percentage of the losses in the
magnetic core. The amount it shares is determined by experience and curves obtained from the magnetic materials
manufacturer.

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 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

3.3.2. Loss due to tank current leakage

This loss is also very difficult to be calculated, as the previous one, acting mainly increasing the cupper loss.
Usually it is also considered as a percentage of the total loss or calculated through curves obtained from the magnetic
materials manufacturer. It can achieve a high value specially when the secondary current assumes high value.

3.4. Efficiency

Numerous manners have been tested to reduce the aforementioned losses, with the use of conductors of
special shape, employment of low losses core with a great amount of silicon in the steel, better lamination, lamination
packing, better assembly, and the use of amorphous materials are one of the solutions.
The efficiency of an electric machine is the output power to input power ratio, as can be schematically seen in
Figure 3. Nevertheless, the input power can be stated as the output power plus the losses of the power conversion.
Therefore, the machine efficiency can be stated as a function of the output power and of the machine losses, calculated
as shown in (2).

P1 P2

PLOSS
Fig. 3. Energy flow in any machine.

𝑃2 𝑃2
𝜂= = (1)
𝑃1 𝑃2 + 𝑃𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆

Where  is the efficiency, P1 is the input power (W), P2 is the output power (W), and PLOSS is the summation of
all the losses of the transformer (W).
It is common to split the aforementioned losses in two groups, the no-load loss and the load loss, which can be
determinate through specific tests. The output power depends on the loading of the transformer, the load losses are
basically the summation of all the current losses and vary with the square of the loading, the no-load losses are constant
and includes the summation of the core losses and a percentage due to leakage losses, as follows:

𝐿𝐹 𝑆𝑁 𝑃𝐹
𝜂= (2)
𝐿𝐹 𝑆𝑁 𝑃𝐹 + 𝐿𝐹 2 𝑃𝐿 + 1.2 𝑃𝑁𝐿

Where LF is the loading factor, SN is the rated complex rated power (VA), PF is the loading power factor, PL is
the load loss (W), and PNL is the no-load loss (W).
The determination of all of those quantities requires a number of tests and measurements that are virtually
impracticable in field. In addition, general factors are used in this formula, which cannot be the truth for a given
transformer. Therefore, the employment of thermography techniques in order to calculate all the loss summation is very
welcome.

4. Thermodynamic method for efficiency determination

The calorimetric, or thermodynamic, method is preconized in the main electric machine test standards.
Therefore, it can be applied without any additional constraints. However, thermography is proposed to be applied to
determine the losses in transformers. The main explanation of the related issues of the methods are presented as
follows.

4.1. Losses

The method application considers that all the losses in the machine are eventually converted to heat. This
assumption is particularly correct as, in transformers, only a negligible part of the losses are converted in audible sound.
Therefore, considering a control volume that surrounds the transformer, the total losses can be obtained from the
radiation and convection heat through the transformer surfaces.
The heat lost by radiation and convection may be particularly important in small machines or in large machines
having a relatively large amount of exposed surface with operating temperatures appreciably above ambient [4]. These

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 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

losses comprise all the heat transfer from the machine surface to the environment and the general equation of the losses
is.

𝑃𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆 = ℎ 𝐴 ∆𝜃 (3)

In this equation PLOSS is the total losses (W), h is the heat transfer coefficient (W/m²K), A is the area of the
radiant surface (m²), and  is the temperature difference between the surface and the environment (K).

4.2. Thermography method

Figure 4 shows an example of the thermography surface of a transformer and its isothermal representation.

(a) (b)

Fig. 4. Infrared image of the surface of a transformer (a) and related isotherms (b).

The developed method is based in the creation of a pixel matrix of each surface of the transformer under test.
The first step is to use a tool that allows draw a polygon surround the transformer, and export the image as a excel file of
temperatures.

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Infrared image of the surface of a transformer.

Each pixel act as a temperature sensor, therefore, the total loss is the summation of the contribution of each n-
th pixel.

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 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

𝑃𝐿𝑂𝑆𝑆 = ∑ ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ∆𝜃𝑖 (4)

𝑖=1

5. Methods application

The losses of a transformer are traditionally determined with the no-load and load tests, resulting in the
efficiency of the transformer. This paper proposes a thermography based calorimetric method to determine the loss
summation and the efficiency. This section presents both methods and a comparison of their application.

5.1. Traditional method for losses measurement and efficiency calculation

The method application considers that all the losses in the machine are eventually converted to heat. This
assumption is particularly correct as, in transformers, only a negligible part of the losses are converted in audible sound.
Therefore, considering a control volume that surrounds the transformer, the total losses can be obtained from the
radiation and convection heat through the transformer surfaces.
The losses of a transformer are determined through the application of two tests: the no-load test and the load
test normally known as short-circuit test. With the no-load test application it is possible to determine the no-load losses,
which comprise the current losses due to the no-load current, and the core losses, which comprises the hysteresis and
eddy current losses. The diagram of its application is depicted in Figure 6. Three-phase voltage, at rated values and
rated frequency is applied to the low voltage side, being the high voltage side opened as a no-load circuit.

LV T HV
R
A W A
V N
3 Phase S
Rated A F
Voltage O
V R
A W M
E
R
Fig. 6. No-load transformer testing scheme.

In this Figure 6, there are ampere meters (A), volt meters (b), and power meters (W). Therefore, it is possible to
determine the no-load losses and other quantities of interest.
The short-circuit test allows the determination of the total current losses of the primary and secondary circuitry.
In this test, the low-voltage winding is short-circuited and low voltage, rated frequency, is applied to the high-voltage
winding to stablish rated current. The scheme of the short-circuit test is depicted in Figure 7.
.

HV T LV
R
A W A
N
3 Phase V S
Reduced A F
Voltage O
V R
A W M
E
R
Fig. 7. Short-circuit transformer testing scheme.

Other kinds of losses are taken as a percentage of the no-load losses. In both cases, winding resistances are
measured prior the tests and corrected to 75 °C. A picture of the traditional testing of transformers is presented in Figure
8.

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 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

Fig. 8. Setup of transformer test.

5.2. Thermographic method application

Infrared images were obtained of the transformer under test, such as those showed in Figures 9 and 10 for a
single-phase transformer, and exported as an Excel spreadsheet. The area of each pixel is obtained according to the
FOV of the employed camera. The total area of each side of the transformer is standard established.
The emissivity of the target is important information. In this case an emissivity of 0.85 was used. This value is
specified by the transformer painting. Special paints have been used to assure a given emissivity.

(a) (b)

Fig. 9. Example of thermal images and exported temperature spreadsheet.

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 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

(d) (e)

Fig. 10. Example of thermal images and exported temperature spreadsheet.

5.3. Comparison of the methods

The proposed method was applied to 5 distribution transformers. The total losses and the efficiency at full load
obtained from the proposed method and those obtained from the standard method are presented in Table 1. Figures 10
and 11 present graphical results comparing both tests.

Table 1. Tested transformers and main results.

Standard method Proposed method

Order Number of
Power (kVA) Total losses Efficiency Total losses Efficiency
Number phases
(W) (%) (W) (%)
#1 1 10 249 97.51 244 97.56
#2 1 10 265 97.35 235 97.65
#3 1 25 511 97.96 502 97.99
#4 3 30 737 97.54 721 97.60
#5 3 45 1087 97.58 1034 97.70

1200

1000

800
Total Loss (W)

600

400

200

0
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Standard Method Proposed Method

Fig. 11. Comparison between standard and proposed methods – absolute loss.

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 14th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference, 25 – 29 June 2018, Berlin, Germany

98.1 0.35
98.0 0.30
97.9
0.25

Diference (%)
Efficience (%)

97.8
0.20
97.7
0.15
97.6
0.10
97.5
97.4 0.05

97.3 0.00
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Standard Method Proposed Method Difference

Fig. 12. Comparison between standard and proposed methods – efficiencies and difference.

6. Conclusion

The paper presented a test proposal for distribution transformer total losses and efficiency determination using
a thermal infrared based approach. The proposed method was applied to five distribution transformers and the obtained
errors were less than 0.3% for the full load efficiency. The proposed method can be used both in laboratory and in field,
opening a wide opportunity for its application. In general the proposed method gives lower losses and better efficiency in
relation to the standard method, nevertheless, the proposed method shows to be of great interest due to the obtained
results.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to thank FAPEMIG, INERGE, CAPES and CNPq for the support in conducting research.

REFERENCES

[1] Kennedy BW. Energy efficient transformers. New York: McGraw Hill; 1998.
[2] IEEE Std. C57.12.90-2015. IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers. Piscataway, NJ. 2016. 120p.
[3] Bortoni EC, Siniscalchi RT, Jardini JA. Determination of hydro generator efficiency using infrared thermal
imaging techniques. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 26, No. 4, Dec. 2011, pp. 1134-1139.
[4] Incropera F. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed. New Jersey: Wiley; 2006.