COMPLEX NUMBERS

Im A complex number can be represented by an expression of the form a
bi, where a and
2+3i b are real numbers and i is a symbol with the property that i 2
1. The complex num-
_4+2i ber a
bi can also be represented by the ordered pair
a, b and plotted as a point in a
i plane (called the Argand plane) as in Figure 1. Thus, the complex number i
0
1
i is
identified with the point
0, 1.
0 1 Re
_i The real part of the complex number a
bi is the real number a and the imaginary
_2-2i 3-2i part is the real number b. Thus, the real part of 4  3i is 4 and the imaginary part is 3.
Two complex numbers a
bi and c
di are equal if a
c and b
d, that is, their real
parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. In the Argand plane the horizontal axis
FIGURE 1 is called the real axis and the vertical axis is called the imaginary axis.
Complex numbers as points in The sum and difference of two complex numbers are defined by adding or subtracting
the Argand plane their real parts and their imaginary parts:

a
bi

c
di

a
c

b
di

a
bi 
c
di

a  c

b  di

For instance,

1  i

4
7i

1
4

1
7i
5
6i

The product of complex numbers is defined so that the usual commutative and distributive
laws hold:

a
bi
c
di
a
c
di

bi
c
di

ac
adi
bci
bdi 2
Since i 2
1, this becomes

a
bi
c
di

ac  bd

ad
bci

EXAMPLE 1

1
3i
2  5i

1
2  5i
3i
2  5i

2
5i
6i  15
1
13
11i

Division of complex numbers is much like rationalizing the denominator of a rational

expression. For the complex number z
a
bi, we define its complex conjugate to be
z
a  bi. To find the quotient of two complex numbers we multiply numerator and
denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator.

1
3i
EXAMPLE 2 Express the number in the form a
bi.
2
5i
SOLUTION We multiply numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of 2
5i,
namely 2  5i, and we take advantage of the result of Example 1:

1
3i 1
3i 2  5i 13
11i 13 11



2 2

i
2
5i 2
5i 2  5i 2
5 29 29
Im
z=a+bi
The geometric interpretation of the complex conjugate is shown in Figure 2: z is the
i
reflection of z in the real axis. We list some of the properties of the complex conjugate in
the following box. The proofs follow from the definition and are requested in Exercise 18.
0 Re
_i
Properties of Conjugates
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–
z=a-bi
z
w
z
w zw
z w zn
zn
FIGURE 2

1
 2 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS

Im  
The modulus, or absolute value, z of a complex number z
a
bi is its distance
from the origin. From Figure 3 we see that if z
a
bi, then
@ z=a+bi
bi
+„ „b„
„@
 œ   „a
|z|
= b  z 
sa 2
b2

0 a Re
Notice that
FIGURE 3 zz

a
bi
a  bi
a 2
abi  abi  b 2i 2
a 2
b 2

and so zz
z   2

This explains why the division procedure in Example 2 works in general:

z zw zw



w ww w 2

Since i 2
1, we can think of i as a square root of 1. But notice that we also have

i2
i 2
1 and so i is also a square root of 1. We say that i is the principal
square root of 1 and write s1
i. In general, if c is any positive number, we write
sc
sc i
With this convention, the usual derivation and formula for the roots of the quadratic equa-
tion ax 2
bx
c
0 are valid even when b 2  4ac  0:

b  sb 2  4ac
x

2a

EXAMPLE 3 Find the roots of the equation x 2
x
1
0.

SOLUTION Using the quadratic formula, we have

1  s1 2  4
1 1  s3 1  s3 i
x



2 2 2

We observe that the solutions of the equation in Example 3 are complex conjugates of
each other. In general, the solutions of any quadratic equation ax 2
bx
c
0 with real
coefficients a, b, and c are always complex conjugates. (If z is real, z
z, so z is its own
conjugate.)
We have seen that if we allow complex numbers as solutions, then every quadratic equa-
tion has a solution. More generally, it is true that every polynomial equation

a n x n
a n1 x n1
  
a 1 x
a 0
0

of degree at least one has a solution among the complex numbers. This fact is known as
the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and was proved by Gauss.

POLAR FORM

Im We know that any complex number z
a
bi can be considered as a point
a, b and that
a+bi
any such point can be represented by polar coordinates
r,   with r  0. In fact,
r
b a
r cos  b
r sin 
¨
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0 a Re as in Figure 4. Therefore, we have

FIGURE 4 z
a
bi

r cos  

r sin  i

 COMPLEX NUMBERS ■ 3

Thus, we can write any complex number z in the form

z
r
cos 
i sin  

b
where  
r
z
sa 2
b 2 and tan 

a
The angle  is called the argument of z and we write 
arg
z. Note that arg
z is not
unique; any two arguments of z differ by an integer multiple of 2.

EXAMPLE 4 Write the following numbers in polar form.

(a) z
1
i (b) w
s3  i
SOLUTION
 
(a) We have r
z
s12
12
s2 and tan 
1, so we can take 

4.
Therefore, the polar form is

 
Im
1+i  
œ„
2
z
s2 cos
i sin
4 4
π

0
4
π
 
(b) Here we have r
w
s3
1
2 and tan 
1
s3 . Since w lies in the
_
6
Re fourth quadrant, we take 

6 and

    
2
 
œ„
3-i w
2 cos 
i sin 
6 6

FIGURE 5 The numbers z and w are shown in Figure 5.

The polar form of complex numbers gives insight into multiplication and division. Let

z1
r1
cos 1
i sin 1  z2
r2
cos  2
i sin  2 

be two complex numbers written in polar form. Then

Im
z™ z¡
z1 z2
r1r2
cos 1
i sin 1 
cos  2
i sin  2 

¨™
r1r2 
cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2 
i
sin 1 cos  2
cos 1 sin  2 

¨¡ Therefore, using the addition formulas for cosine and sine, we have
Re
¨¡+¨™
1 z1z2
r1r2 cos
1
 2 
i sin
1
 2 

z¡z™
This formula says that to multiply two complex numbers we multiply the moduli and add
FIGURE 6 the arguments. (See Figure 6.)
A similar argument using the subtraction formulas for sine and cosine shows that to
divide two complex numbers we divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.
Im
z z1 r1

cos
1   2 
i sin
1   2  z2  0
r z2 r2

¨ In particular, taking z1
1 and z2
z, (and therefore 1
0 and  2
 ), we have the fol-

0 _¨ Re lowing, which is illustrated in Figure 7.
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1 1
r z 1 1
If z
r
cos 
i sin  , then

cos   i sin  .
z r
FIGURE 7
 4 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS

EXAMPLE 5 Find the product of the complex numbers 1
i and s3  i in polar form.

SOLUTION From Example 4 we have

1
i
s2 cos  
4

i sin

4

Im
z=1+i
and s3  i
2 cos     
6
 

i sin 

6
zw
So, by Equation 1,
œ„
2

    
2œ„2
π    
12
1
i(s3  i)
2s2 cos 
i sin 
0 Re 4 6 4 6
2
w=œ„
3-i

2s2 cos  
12

i sin


12
FIGURE 8 This is illustrated in Figure 8.

Repeated use of Formula 1 shows how to compute powers of a complex number. If

z
r
cos 
i sin  

then z 2
r 2
cos 2
i sin 2 

and z 3
zz 2
r 3
cos 3
i sin 3 

In general, we obtain the following result, which is named after the French mathematician
Abraham De Moivre (1667–1754).

2 De Moivre’s Theorem If z
r
cos 
i sin   and n is a positive integer, then

z n
r
cos 
i sin   n
r n
cos n
i sin n 

This says that to take the nth power of a complex number we take the nth power of the
modulus and multiply the argument by n.

EXAMPLE 6 Find ( 12
12 i)10.

12 i
12
1
i, it follows from Example 4(a) that 12
12 i has the polar
1
SOLUTION Since 2
form

1
2
1

i

2
s2
2
 cos

4

i sin

4

So by De Moivre’s Theorem,

 1
2
1

i
2
  
10


s2
2
10
cos
10
4

i sin
10
4


 25
2 10
cos
5
2

i sin
5
2


1
32
i

De Moivre’s Theorem can also be used to find the n th roots of complex numbers. An n
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th root of the complex number z is a complex number w such that

wn
z
 COMPLEX NUMBERS ■ 5

Writing these two numbers in trigonometric form as

w
s
cos
i sin  and z
r
cos 
i sin  

and using De Moivre’s Theorem, we get

s n
cos n
i sin n 
r
cos 
i sin  

The equality of these two complex numbers shows that

sn
r or s
r 1
n

and cos n
cos  and sin n
sin 

From the fact that sine and cosine have period 2 it follows that


2k
n

2k or

n

Thus  
w
r 1
n cos

2k
n
 

i sin

2k
n

Since this expression gives a different value of w for k
0, 1, 2, . . . , n  1, we have the
following.

3 Roots of a Complex Number Let z
r
cos 
i sin   and let n be a positive inte-
ger. Then z has the n distinct n th roots

 
wk
r 1
n cos

2k
n
 

i sin

2k
n

where k
0, 1, 2, . . . , n  1.

 
Notice that each of the nth roots of z has modulus wk
r 1
n. Thus, all the nth roots
of z lie on the circle of radius r 1
n in the complex plane. Also, since the argument of each
successive nth root exceeds the argument of the previous root by 2
n , we see that the n
th roots of z are equally spaced on this circle.

EXAMPLE 7 Find the six sixth roots of z
8 and graph these roots in the complex
plane.
SOLUTION In trigonometric form, z
8
cos 
i sin  . Applying Equation 3 with n
6,
we get


wk
8 1
6 cos

2k
6

i sin

2k
6

We get the six sixth roots of 8 by taking k
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in this formula:


w0
8 1
6 cos

6

i sin

6
 

s2
s3
2
1

i
2


w1
8 1
6 cos

2

i sin

2

s2 i
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w2
8 1
6 cos
5
6

i sin
5
6
 
s2 
s3
2
1

i
2

 6 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS

Im
œ„2 i w¡ 
w3
8 1
6 cos
7
6

i sin
7
6
 
s2 
s3
2
1
 i
2

w™ w¸

w4
8 1
6 cos
3
2

i sin
3
2

s2 i

   
2
_œ„ 0 2 Re
œ„
11 11 s3 1
w£ w∞ w5
8 1
6 cos
i sin
s2  i
6 6 2 2
w¢
_œ„2 i All these points lie on the circle of radius s2 as shown in Figure 9.
FIGURE 9
The six sixth roots of z=_8 COMPLEX EXPONENTIALS

We also need to give a meaning to the expression e z when z
x
iy is a complex num-

ber. The theory of infinite series as developed in Chapter 8 can be extended to the case
where the terms are complex numbers. Using the Taylor series for e x (8.7.12)
2 as our guide,
we define

zn z2 z3
4 ez

n
0 n!

1
z

2!


3!



and it turns out that this complex exponential function has the same properties as the real
exponential function. In particular, it is true that

5 e z
z
e z e z
1 2 1 2

If we put z
iy, where y is a real number, in Equation 4, and use the facts that

i 2
1, i 3
i 2i
i, i 4
1, i 5
i, . . .

we get

iy2
iy3
iy4
iy5
e iy
1
iy





2! 3! 4! 5!

y2 y3 y4 y5

1
iy  i

i

2! 3! 4! 5!



1
y2
2!


y4
4!

y6
6!


i y 
y3
3!
 


y5
5!
  

cos y
i sin y

Here we have used the Taylor series for cos y and sin y (Equations 8.7.17 and 8.7.16).
The result is a famous formula called Euler’s formula:

6 e iy
cos y
i sin y

Combining Euler’s formula with Equation 5, we get

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7 e x
iy
e xe iy
e x
cos y
i sin y

 COMPLEX NUMBERS ■ 7

EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate: (a) e i (b) e1
i

2
■ ■ We could write the result of Example 8(a) SOLUTION
as (a) From Euler’s equation (6) we have
e i
1
0
This equation relates the five most famous e i
cos 
i sin 
1
i
0
1
numbers in all of mathematics: 0, 1, e, i, and .
(b) Using Equation 7 we get


e1
i
2
e1 cos

2

i sin

2


1
e
0
i
1

i
e

Finally, we note that Euler’s equation provides us with an easier method of proving
De Moivre’s Theorem:

r
cos 
i sin   n

re i n
r ne in
r n
cos n
i sin n 

EXERCISES

25–28 Write the number in polar form with argument between 0

A Click here for answers. S Click here for solutions. and 2.

1–14 Evaluate the expression and write your answer in the 25. 3
3i 26. 1  s3 i
form a
bi. 27. 3
4i 28. 8i
1.
5  6i 

3
2i  2. (4  2 i)  (9
2 i)
1 5 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

29–32 Find polar forms for z w, z

w, and 1
z by first putting z
3.
2
5i 
4  i 4.
1  2i 
8  3i 
and w into polar form.
5. 12
7i 6. 2i ( 12  i )
29. z
s3
i, w
1
s3 i
1
4i 3
2i
7. 8. 30. z
4 s3  4i, w
8i
3
2i 1  4i
31. z
2 s3  2i, w
1
i
1 3
9. 10. 32. z
4(s3
i ), w
3  3i
1
i 4  3i
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

11. i 3 12. i 100

33–36 Find the indicated power using De Moivre’s Theorem.
13. s25 14. s3 s12
33.
1
i 20 34. (1  s3 i )
5
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

35. (2 s3
2i ) 36.
1  i 8
5

15–17 Find the complex conjugate and the modulus of the ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

number.
37–40 Find the indicated roots. Sketch the roots in the complex
15. 12  5i 16. 1
2 s2 i plane.
17. 4i 37. The eighth roots of 1 38. The fifth roots of 32
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

39. The cube roots of i 40. The cube roots of 1
i

18. Prove the following properties of complex numbers.
(a) z
w
z
w (b) zw
z w
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

(c) z
z , where n is a positive integer

n n 41–46 Write the number in the form a
bi.
[Hint: Write z
a
bi, w
c
di.] 41. e i
2
42. e 2 i
19–24 Find all solutions of the equation. 43. e i
3 44. e i
19. 4x
9
0 2
20. x
1 4
45. e 2
i 46. e 
i
21. x
2x
5
0
2
22. 2x  2x
1
0
2 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

23. z
z
2
0 24. z
z

0 47. Use De Moivre’s Theorem with n
3 to express cos 3 and
2 2 1 1
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2 4
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ sin 3 in terms of cos  and sin .
 8 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS

48. Use Euler’s formula to prove the following formulas for cos x 50. (a) If u is a complex-valued function of a real variable, its
and sin x : indefinite integral x u
x dx is an antiderivative of u.
Evaluate
e ix
eix e ix  eix
cos x
sin x
ye
1
i x
dx
2 2i

49. If u
x
f
x
it
x is a complex-valued function of a real (b) By considering the real and imaginary parts of the integral
variable x and the real and imaginary parts f
x and t
x are in part (a), evaluate the real integrals
differentiable functions of x, then the derivative of u is defined
to be u
x
f 
x
it
x. Use this together with Equation 7 ye x
cos x dx and ye x
sin x dx
to prove that if F
x
e rx, then F
x
re rx when r
a
bi
is a complex number. (c) Compare with the method used in Example 4 in Section 6.1.
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 COMPLEX NUMBERS ■ 9

ANSWERS

31. 4 s2 cos
7
12
i sin
7
12,
S Click here for solutions. (2 s2 )cos
13
12
i sin
13
12, 14 cos

6
i sin

6
1. 8  4i 3. 13
18i 33. 1024 35. 512 s3
512i
37. 1, i, (1
s2 )
1  i  39. (s3
2)
2 i, i
1
5. 12  7i

11 10
7. 13 13 i
 12 i 11. i 15. 12
5i; 13
1
9. 2 13. 5i Im Im
i
19.  2 i
3
17. 4i, 4
21. 1  2i 23.  2  (s7
2)i
1
0 1 Re 0 Re

25. 3 s2 cos
3
4
i sin
3
4 _i

27. 5{cos tan [ ( )]
i sin[tan ( )]}

1 4
3
1 4
3

(s3
2) i 45. e 2
1
41. i 43.
29. 4cos

2
i sin

2, cos

6
i sin

6, 2
1
2 cos

6
i sin

6 47. cos 3
cos3  3 cos  sin2, sin 3
3 cos2 sin   sin3
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 10 ■ COMPLEX NUMBERS

SOLUTIONS

1. (5 − 6i) + (3 + 2i) = (5 + 3) + (−6 + 2)i = 8 + (−4)i = 8 − 4i

3. (2 + 5i)(4 − i) = 2(4) + 2(−i) + (5i)(4) + (5i)(−i) = 8 − 2i + 20i − 5i2
= 8 + 18i − 5(−1) = 8 + 18i + 5 = 13 + 18i
5. 12 + 7i = 12 − 7i
1 + 4i 1 + 4i 3 − 2i 3 − 2i + 12i − 8(−1) 11 + 10i 11 10
7. = · = = = + i
3 + 2i 3 + 2i 3 − 2i 32 + 22 13 13 13
1 1 1−i 1−i 1−i 1 1
9. = · = = = − i
1+i 1+i 1−i 1 − (−1) 2 2 2
11. i3 = i2 · i = (−1)i = −i
√ √
13. −25 = 25 i = 5i
s √ √
15. 12 − 5i = 12 + 15i and |12 − 15i| = 122 + (−5)2 = 144 + 25 = 169 = 13
t √
17. −4i = 0 − 4i = 0 + 4i = 4i and |−4i| = 02 + (−4)2 = 16 = 4
t t
19. 4x2 + 9 = 0 ⇔ 4x2 = −9 ⇔ x2 = − 94 ⇔ x = ± − 94 = ± 94 i = ± 32 i.

21. By the quadratic formula, x2 + 2x + 5 = 0 ⇔

s √
−2 ± 22 − 4(1)(5) −2 ± −16 −2 ± 4i
x= = = = −1 ± 2i.
2(1) 2 2
s √ √
−1 ± 12 − 4(1)(2) −1 ± −7 1 7
23. By the quadratic formula, z + z + 2 = 0 ⇔ z =
2
= =− ± i.
2(1) 2 2 2
s √
25. For z = −3 + 3i, r = (−3)2 + 32 = 3 2 and tan θ = −3 3
= −1 ⇒ θ = 3π 4 (since z lies in the second
√  
quadrant). Therefore, −3 + 3i = 3 2 cos 4 + i sin 4 .
3π 3π

√  
27. For z = 3 + 4i, r = 32 + 42 = 5 and tan θ = 43 ⇒ θ = tan−1 43 (since z lies in the first quadrant).
    
Therefore, 3 + 4i = 5 cos tan−1 43 + i sin tan−1 43 .
√ t√   
2
29. For z = 3 + i, r = 3 + 12 = 2 and tan θ = √13 ⇒ θ = π6 ⇒ z = 2 cos π6 + i sin π6 .
√ √  
For w = 1 + 3 i, r = 2 and tan θ = 3 ⇒ θ = π3 ⇒ w = 2 cos π3 + i sin π3 . Therefore,
      
zw = 2 · 2 cos π6 + π3 + i sin π6 + π3 = 4 cos π2 + i sin π2 ,
        
z/w = 22 cos π6 − π3 + i sin π6 − π3 = cos − π6 + i sin − π6 , and 1 = 1 + 0i = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0) ⇒
         
1/z = 12 cos 0 − π6 + i sin 0 − π6 = 12 cos − π6 + i sin − π6 . For 1/z, we could also use the formula that
 
precedes Example 5 to obtain 1/z = 12 cos π6 − i sin π6 .
√ t √ 
2
31. For z = 2 3 − 2i, r = 2 3 + (−2)2 = 4 and tan θ = 2−2 √ = − √1
3 3
     √
⇒ θ = − π6 ⇒ z = 4 cos − π6 + i sin − π6 . For w = −1 + i, r = 2,
√  
tan θ = −11
= −1 ⇒ θ = 3π 4 ⇒ w = 2 cos 3π 3π
4 + i sin 4
. Therefore,
√   π   π  √  
3π
zw = 4 2 cos − 6 + 4 + i sin − 6 + 4 3π
= 4 2 cos 12 + i sin 7π
7π
12
,
4
  π 3π
  π 3π
 4
  11π   11π 
z/w = √2 cos − 6 − 4 + i sin − 6 − 4 = √2 cos − 12 + i sin − 12
√  
= 2 2 cos 12 + i sin 12 , and
13π 13π
      
1/z = 14 cos − π6 − i sin − π6 = 14 cos π6 + i sin π6 .
√ √  
33. For z = 1 + i, r = 2 and tan θ = 11 = 1 ⇒ θ = π4 ⇒ z = 2 cos π4 + i sin π4 . So by
De Moivre’s Theorem,
k√  l20  1/2 20  
(1 + i)20 = 2 cos π4 + i sin π4 = 2 cos 204· π + i sin 204· π
Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007

= 210 (cos 5π + i sin 5π) = 210 [−1 + i(0)] = −210 = −1024

 COMPLEX NUMBERS ■ 11

√ t √  √
2
35. For z = 2 3 + 2i, r = 2 3 + 22 = 16 = 4 and tan θ = 2√ 2
3
= √13 ⇒ θ = π6 ⇒
 
z = 4 cos π6 + i sin π6 . So by De Moivre’s Theorem,
 √ 5   5   k √ l √
2 3 + 2i = 4 cos π6 + i sin π6 = 45 cos 5π
6
+ i sin 5π
6
= 1024 − 23 + 12 i = −512 3 + 512i

37. 1 = 1 + 0i = 1 (cos 0 + i sin 0). Using Equation 3 with r = 1, n = 8, and θ = 0, we have

    
1/8 0 + 2kπ 0 + 2kπ kπ kπ
wk = 1 cos + i sin = cos + i sin , where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 7.
8 8 4 4
 
w0 = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0) = 1, w1 = 1 cos π4 + i sin π4 = √12 + √12 i,
   
w2 = 1 cos π2 + i sin π2 = i, w3 = 1 cos 3π 4
+ i sin 3π
4
= − √12 + √12 i,
 
w4 = 1(cos π + i sin π) = −1, w5 = 1 cos 5π 4 + i sin 4
5π
= − √12 − √12 i,
   
w6 = 1 cos 3π2
+ i sin 3π
2
= −i, w7 = 1 cos 7π 4
+ i sin 7π4
= √12 − √12 i

 
39. i = 0 + i = 1 cos π2 + i sin π2 . Using Equation 3 with r = 1, n = 3, and θ = π
2
, we have
 π  π 
+ 2kπ + 2kπ
wk = 11/3 cos 2 + i sin 2 , where k = 0, 1, 2.
3 3
  √
w0 = cos π6 + i sin π6 = 23 + 12 i
  √
w1 = cos 5π6 + i sin 6
5π
= − 23 + 12 i
 
w2 = cos 9π6 + i sin 6
9π
= −i

41. Using Euler’s formula (6) with y = ,

we have eiπ/2 = cos π2 + i sin π2 = 0 + 1i = i.
π
2
√
π π π 1 3
43. Using Euler’s formula (6) with y = , we have eiπ/3 = cos + i sin = + i.
3 3 3 2 2
45. Using Equation 7 with x = 2 and y = π, we have e2+iπ = e2 eiπ = e2 (cos π + i sin π) = e2 (−1 + 0) = −e2 .
47. Take r = 1 and n = 3 in De Moivre’s Theorem to get
[1(cos θ + i sin θ)]3 = 13 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ)
(cos θ + i sin θ)3 = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ
 
cos3 θ + 3 cos2 θ (i sin θ) + 3(cos θ)(i sin θ)2 + (i sin θ)3 = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ
   
cos3 θ + 3 cos2 θ sin θ i − 3 cos θ sin2 θ − sin3 θ i = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ
 3   
cos θ − 3 sin2 θ cos θ + 3 sin θ cos2 θ − sin3 θ i = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ

Equating real and imaginary parts gives cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos θ and sin 3θ = 3 sin θ cos2 θ − sin3 θ
49. F (x) = erx = e(a+bi)x = eax+bxi = eax (cos bx + i sin bx) = eax cos bx + i(eax sin bx) ⇒
F 0 (x) = (eax cos bx)0 + i(eax sin bx)0

= (aeax cos bx − beax sin bx) + i(aeax sin bx + beax cos bx)

= a [eax (cos bx + i sin bx)] + b [eax (− sin bx + i cos bx)]

  
= aerx + b eax i2 sin bx + i cos bx

= aerx + bi [eax (cos bx + i sin bx)] = aerx + bierx = (a + bi)erx = rerx

Thomson Brooks-Cole copyright 2007