Week 12

Appendix A: Complex Numbers

In this course, we have looked at extending vectors that we can visualize in R2 and R3 to more
abstract vector spaces. We can also look at the extension of scalars. So far in this course, we have
assumed our scalars have been real numbers. We can think of real scalars as an extension of integers,
which are in turn an extension of natural numbers.
For example, if we are working in the Natural numbers, the equation x + 4 = 0 has no solutions.
However if we extend our definition of scalar to include all the integers, the equation x + 4 = 0 has
the solution x = 4. But the equation 3x + 2 = 0 has no solutions unless we allow fractions by
extending our definition of scalar even further.
In solving x2 +1 = 0, there are no solutions in the real number system. But if we extendour definition
of scalar to allow for square roots of negative numbers,
we obtain the solution x = 1 or x = i
in the complex numbers. Note that if we define i = 1, then i2 = 1. This process of extending
scalars to capture all solutions to a polynomial equation ends here. Every polynomial has complex
roots.
Recall: A polynomial p(x) has root x = c if p(c) = 0.

Example
Find the roots of x2 + 2x + 5 = 0.
Solution:

Definition:
A complex number is an expression of the form z = a + bi, where a and b are real numbers. We
call a the real part of z or Re(z) and b is called the Imaginary part of z or Im(z). We denote the
set of all complex numbers C.
Note: The Real numbers are a subset of the Complex numbers. We wouldnt call them a subspace
since we might wonder which set of numbers to use as our scalars in checking for closure under scalar
multiplication. In fact, scalars are part of their own separate abstract space called a field. In a
field we allow elements to be multiplied together. So while a vector space is closed under addition
and scalar multiplication, a field is closed under addition and multiplication and furthermore, every
element of a field has a multiplicative inverse that is also an element of the field.
1

We will look at some algebraic properties of the complex number system.

Let z = a + bi and w = c + di be two complex numbers.
Equality:
Sum:
Multiplication:
Conjugate:

z = w iff a = c and b = d
z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
zw = (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
The complex conjugate of z is z = a + bi = a bi

Example
If z = 2 + 3i and w = 5 4i, find z + w and 3wz.
Solution:

Division of complex numbers is simplified by the use of complex conjugates. Note that zz = a2 + b2 , a
real number. This fact allows us to rationalize or realize the denominator of a fraction of complex
numbers. We multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
Example
Write

3 + 2i
in the form a + bi.
2 + 5i

Exercise
Show that z = a + bi has inverse z 1 =

a bi
. (Hint: Verify that this pair satisfies zz 1 = 1.)
a2 + b 2

Now that we can perform arithmetic operations with complex numbers, we will return to the problem
of finding roots of quadratics.
Definition:
A real quadratic is an expression of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0, b, c R. A complex
number u is called a root of the quadratic if au2 + bu + c = 0. The roots are found by the quadratic
formula

b b2 4ac
u=
2a
We call D = b2 4ac the discriminant and the quadratic has 2 real roots if D > 0, 1 real root if
D = 0 and no real root is D < 0.
In fact, if D < 0, there are two complex roots that are complex conjugates of each other.
Fact:
Given any u C, u and u are the roots of some real irreducible quadratic.
(x u)(x u) = x2 xu ux + uu
= x2 (u + u)x + uu
Example:
Find a real irreducible quadratic with u = 3 4i as a root.

Polar and Cartesian Form

We can plot complex numbers in the Cartesian plane where the x-axis is the Real axis and the y-axis
is the Imaginary axis.
1. Plot z = 2 + 3i
2. Plot z = 2 3i
3. Find |z|, the distance from z to the origin.

The magnitude of z is |z|. If z = a + bi, then |z| = a2 + b2 .

Note: |z|2 = a2 + b2 = zz.
The argument of z is the angle , measured in radians, that z makes with the positive Real axis.
The radian measure of an angle is the length of the arc on the unit circle counterclockwise from the
positive Real axis to z.
We can completely describe a complex number z by its distance from the origin |z| = r and . This is
known as the polar form of a complex number. Note that this form is not unique since any + 2k
will give the same complex number.
The relationship between Cartesian form z = a + bi and polar form is given by the equations
a = r cos
b = r sin

where r = |z| = a2 + b2 .
The polar form of z is
z = r cos + ir sin
= r(cos + i sin )
= rcis
The cis is a condensed notation for cos, i and sin.
Two complex numbers in polar form z1 = r1 cis1 and z2 = r2 cis2 are equal iff r1 = r2 and 1 =
2 + 2k.

Cartesian to Polar
Convert the following complex numbers from Cartesian to Polar form.
1. z = 1
2. z = 1
3. z = i
4. z = 1 + i
5. z = 1

3i

Polar to Cartesian
3i
to Cartesian form.
Convert z = 4cis
4

Relationship between cis and ei

We can also refer to a complex number z by z = ei and while we can think of this as a short-hand
notation, it turns out the expressions cos + i sin and ei are in fact equal.
It is easy to see that these two expressions behave the same way when we look at computing powers
of complex numbers.
Suppose z = rei . Then
z 2 = (rei )2
= r2 ei2
If we write z = rcis, then
z2 =
=
=
=
=
=

(rcis)2
r2 (cis)2
r2 (cos + i sin )2
r2 (cos2 + 2i cos sin + i2 sin2 )
r2 (cos2 sin2 + 2i cos sin )
r2 (cos(2) + 2i sin(2))
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In each case the radius is squared and the angle is doubled.

In fact, if z = rcis, then z n = rn cis(n) = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) or if z = rei , z n = rn ein . This
is known as De Moivres Theorem. We can use this formula to compute powers and roots of
complex numbers.
Exercise
Verify that De Moivres Theorem holds when n = 3.
That is, show that (rcis)3 = r3 cis(3).
Example:
If z = 1 + i, compute z 5 .
Solution:
Rather than compute (1 + i)(1 + i)(1 + i)(1 + i)(1 + i) we will convert 1 + i to polar form, use De
Moivres Theorem with n = 5 and convert back to Cartesian.

Example
Find the 4th roots of

2+

2i.

Solution:

We must solve the equation z 4 = 2 + 2i.

We will convert both sides of this equation to polar form and use De Moivres Theorem.
Let z = rcis.
Then z 4 =
r4 cis4.

And since 2 + 2i = 2cis , we have r4 cis4 = 2cis .

4
4
Two complex numbers in polar form are equal if they have the same magnitude and their angles
differ by multiples of 2.
6

2k
+ 2k or =
+
for k = 0, 1, 2, 3. (Note that for
4
16
4
k 4 we start to repeat the same solutions.)

9
17
25
, 4 2cis
.
The four solutions are: z = 4 2cis , 4 2cis , 4 2cis
16
16
16
16
So we have r4 = 2 or r =

2 and 4 =

Example:
Find all complex numbers such that z 3 = 1. These are called the 3rd roots of unity. (Hint: Start by
writing both sides of the equation in Polar form like in the last example.)

Why are the two polar representations of complex numbers equal?

Next term in your calculus class you will learn the follow functions can be represented by an infinite
power series:
x

X
xn
n=0

sin x =

x2 x3
=1+x+
+
+ ...
n!
2!
3!

(1)n

x2n+1
x3 x5 x7
=x
+

+ ...
(2n + 1)!
3!
5!
7!

(1)n

x2n
x2 x4 x6
=1
+

+ ...
(2n)!
2!
4!
6!

n=0

cos x =

X
n=0

Now, using these representations





3 5 7
2 4 6
+

+ ... + i
+

+ ...
cos + i sin =
1
2!
4!
6!
3!
5!
7!
2 i3 4 i5 6 i7
= 1 + i

+
+

+ ...
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!
(i)2 (i)3 (i)4
= 1 + (i) +
+
+
+ ...
2!
3!
4!
= ei