4 Static Characteristics Measurements & Instrumentation 0908341

Chapter 4
Static Characteristics
(Revision 6.0, 25/3/2009)

“Accuracy of statement is one of

the first elements of truth;
inaccuracy is a near kin to
falsehood”
Tryon Edwards
American Theologian
1809-1894

1. Introduction
Understanding the performance characteristics of a measurement system is
very critical to the process of selection, and to understanding how they
operate.
Performance characteristics can be divided into static characteristics
and dynamic characteristics. Static characteristics apply when the input is not
changing with time. Dynamic characteristics relate to the time changing
nature of the input signal and how the measurement system responds to it.
This Chapter examines the static characteristics. The next Chapter
examines the dynamic characteristics.

2. Static Characteristics
The following is a discussion of the static characteristics of a measurement
instrument ([1] and [2]). Not all of them will apply in all cases and for all
instruments, but they are listed for completeness. Some or all of those will be
found on the data sheets of measuring instruments and also for sensors and
transducers.
Note that these characteristics are only valid when the environmental
conditions stated in the datasheets are accurate.

1. Accuracy (usually expressed as an inaccuracy): The accuracy of an

instrument is a measure of how close the measured value of the
instrument is to the true value. It is defined as the freedom from
systematic errors1. It is more usual to quote the inaccuracy.
It is important to select suitable range of an instrument for the
application. If the range is not selected correctly, this can effectively
increase the inaccuracy of a measurement system. For example,
using a 0-10 V to measure a signal that will change only between 0 to
1 V will increase the inaccuracy tenfold.

1
There are two different approaches in defining accuracy. Accuracy is sometimes defined as
freedom from all errors (systematic or random). The other approach (that is adopted in this
book) is to define the accuracy as the freedom from systematic errors, whereby precision is
the freedom from random errors. This is supported by the fact that datasheets for
measurement system usually separate the figures for accuracy from the figures for precision,
quoting each item with a separate percentage number. This implies that the random error
caused by precision has not been included in the accuracy figure, and that the accuracy
figure only accounts for the systematic errors such as linearity and environmental effects
among others.

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Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and

defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value.
Whilst it is not, strictly speaking, a static characteristic of measuring
instruments, it is mentioned here because the accuracy of some
instruments is sometimes quoted as a tolerance figure. Tolerance is
more widely used to describe the maximum deviation that a
manufactured component from a specific value (e.g., a resistor of
470±5% ohms). If an instrument has low accuracy this emphasises the
need for re-calibration [6].

2. Repeatability: Repeatability can be defined as the freedom from

random errors. It is also referred to as reproducibility or precision.
High precision does not imply anything about measurement accuracy;
a measurement system can have high precision but low accuracy (see
Example 1). An instrument might be inaccurate, but it is described as
precise if it gives the same reading in successive measurements2.
Most datasheet for measurements devices quote the repeatability
value separately from the accuracy. Some datasheets include the
repeatability value for the device within the accuracy figure.

Freedom from All Errors

Repeatability (precision) can be defined as the freedom from random
errors. Accuracy can be defined as the freedom from systematic errors
(when the accuracy figure does not include repeatability).
Under this framework we can then define overall or total accuracy
as the freedom from both types of errors: systematic and random. In
this case the total accuracy figure is the sum of both the accuracy and
repeatability (precision).

Example 1
Four measurement systems were used to measure the true value of a
variable. Comment on the results shown below.

System System System System

A B C D

True
value

Figure 1: Results from four systems.

Solution
2
Another term that is used in everyday language is ‘consistent’. A student that arrives 5
minutes late to a lecture every time is ‘consistent’, although he/she is late. This is similar to
the concept of precision in measurement systems.

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The average of the readings of system A are approximately equal to

the true value, so we can consider that system A has high accuracy.
But its readings are dispersed around the true value, indicating low
precision. System B has high accuracy and high precision. System D
has low accuracy and high precision. System C has low accuracy and
low precision.■

In this example we have worked on the basis that accuracy is the

freedom from systematic error.

Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility
Both repeatability and reproducibility are part of the precision of a
measurement system. Repeatability refers to the situation where the
same results are obtained a number of times under the same
conditions, using the same instruments and the same observer.
Reproducibility refers to the situation where the same results are
obtained but using different instruments or with a different observer.
An example on the above is given here. A scientist carries out
an experiment in his/her laboratory and repeats it under the same
conditions a number of times getting the same results, showing it is
repeatable. However if he/she announces the results of his/her
experiment and other scientists do the same experiment and get the
same results we say it is reproducible3.

Example 2
A voltmeter is used to read a voltage that is known to be 5.00 V. If it
gives the following 10 readings [5.03, 4.97, 5.00, 4.99, 5.02, 4.98, 5.03,
5.02, 5.01, 4.97], then comment on the accuracy and precision of this
device.

Solution
The voltmeter has high accuracy as the average of the readings is 5.00
V. It also has high precision as the deviations from the mean are very
small (0.03 V maximum).■

Example 3
A voltmeter is used to read a voltage that is known to be 4.00 V. If it
gives the following 4 readings [5.2, 5.2, 5.2, 5.2], then comment on the
accuracy and the precision of this device.

Solution
The voltmeter has low accuracy and high precision.■

3. Resolution: This is the largest possible change in the input measured

quantity that is needed before a change takes place in the output value
of the measurement system. This is a typical quality of digital

3
The ‘cold fusion’ experiment is a typical example of a process that could not be reproduced.
It was announced on March 23, 1989, by Pons and Fleischmann of the University of Utah, but
no one to date has been able to reproduce the same results.

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(discrete) systems. An example on this is the resolution of digital

system that uses a specific number of bits (a system using 12 bits has
1 1
a resolution of 12 = of the full scale deflection). In general, the
2 4096
1
quantisation error is equal to n , where n is the number of bits.
2
Depending on how the system converts the analogue variable to the
discrete variable, the quantisation error could be half this value (i.e.,
1 1
⋅ ). This formula could be used to decide the number of bits based
2 2n
on the acceptable quantisation error (e.g., a quantisation error of 0.1%
will require a 10 bit system).
Obviously the resolution of the system can be improved by
increasing the number of bits, but this leads to extra cost and an
increase in the conversion time of the A to D conversion process.

Example 4
A measurement system has an input range of 0 to 5 V. Calculate the
resolution error both as a voltage and as a percentage of full scale
deflection if the signal is represented internally using:
a) 8 bits.
b) 16 bits.

Solution
The resolution of the 8 bit system is equal to 1/(28)=0.39%
In absolute terms this is equal to: 0.39%x5 V= 19.5 mV.

The resolution of the 16 bit system is equal to 1/(216)= 1.53x10-3%.

In absolute terms this is equal to: 1.53x10-3%x5V=76.3 μV■

4. Range and span [1]: The range of an instrument defines the minimum
and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure, and can be applied to both the input as well as the output of
the measurement system. The range does not necessarily start at zero
(e.g., thermometer that is used to measure body temperature might
range from 30 ºC to 42 ºC). Span is the maximum variation in the input
or output.

5. Sensitivity of measurement (sometimes referred to as the gain)4: This

is the ratio of the change in the output reading (e.g., deflection in mm;
resistance change of thermistor in ohms) divided by the change in the
measured variable (measurand). The sensitivity is also equal to the
steady state gain of the system when subjected to a varying input
signal (usually referred to as K). When the relationship between the
input and output is linear (linear system), the sensitivity is the slope of
the line (see Figure 2). When it is a curve (i.e., non-linear system), it is
the derivative of the curve at the point of interest (i.e. slope or
4
Sensitivity is also widely used in analogue voltmeters, given the unit of Ω/V. This is
discussed in more detail in the Chapter on voltage measurement.

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4 Static Characteristics Measurements & Instrumentation 0908341

Δq(t )
gradient). The unit of sensitivity is , and it is not necessarily
Δp(t )
dimensionless unless p(t) and q(t) have the same units.

qo(t)

Sensitivity is the
slope of the line

qi(t)

Figure 2: The sensitivity is the slope of the straight line relationship between the input
and output.

6. Environmental effects or disturbances: External factors (that are not

part of the measurement process) can interfere in the measurement
and cause an error. The most obvious example is temperature change
in the environment that would cause the characteristics of the
instrument to change. Other factors are humidity and pressure.
These external factors affect both the zero intercept and the
slope of the relationship between the input and output. This results in a
zero drift coefficient (the change in the output when the input is zero for
every unit change in the external variable) and the sensitivity drift
coefficient (that is the change in the sensitivity for every unit change in
the external variable), as shown in Figure 3.

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New line Change in

qo(t) with sensitivity
external
disturbance

Original line
Change in
zero drift

qi(t)

Figure 3: Zero drift and sensitivity drift.

In some cases two different variables might cause the zero drift and the
sensitivity drift (i.e., one external disturbance variable causes a change
in the zero drift while another causes a change in the sensitivity drift).
A different terminology is sometimes used to describe the
external disturbing variables ([1] and [5]). The external variable that is
causing a change in the sensitivity drift is called a modifying input (or
variable). The external variable that causes the change in the zero
drift is called the interfering input (or variable). Note that the
modifying and interfering variables have become external variables
because they are not an intentional part of the measurement process.

Example 5
A scale that converts mass to a linear displacement is calibrated in an
environment at a temperature of 21 ºC and has the following
deflection/load transfer characteristic:

Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200

Deflection (mm) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

When used in an environment at 35 ºC, its transfer characteristic

changes to the following:

Load (kg) 0 50 100 150 200

Deflection (mm) 0.2 1.3 2.4 3.5 4.6

Calculate the zero-drift coefficient in (mm·ºC-1) and the sensitivity-drift

coefficient in (mm·kg-1·ºC-1).

Solution

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The zero drift coefficient (ZDC) is:

0.2 − 0
ZDC = = 0.0143 mm ⋅ K −1
35 − 21
The sensitivity at 21 ºC is:
1.0 − 0.0
K 21C = = 0.02 mm ⋅ kg −1
50 − 0
The sensitivity at 35 ºC is:
1.3 − 0.2
K 35C = = 0.022 mm ⋅ kg −1
50 − 0
So the sensitivity drift coefficient (SDC) is:

0.022 − 0.02
SDC = = 0.143 × 10 −3 mm ⋅ kg −1 ⋅ K −1 ■
35 − 21

In general, assuming that the input is p(t) and the output is q(t), and
denoting the interfering variable as int(t) and the modifying variable as
mod(t), the units of the zero drift coefficient and the sensitivity drift
coefficients can be expressed as follows:

unit ZDC = Δq ⋅ Δ int −1

unit SDC = ΔK ⋅ Δ mod −1 = Δq ⋅ Δp −1 ⋅ Δ mod −1

7. Sampling Frequency (sometimes referred to as frequency): This is the

frequency at which samples are taken by the device. This is usually
found in range measurement devices (e.g., laser range measurement
devices. A typical value is 500 Hz (i.e., 500 samples per second).

8. Linearity (non-linearity): An ideal measurement system would have a

linear relationship between the input and output. In practice some non-
linearity will exist and this is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4 below.
The figure shows the maximum value of error caused by the linearity
and we can express the non-linearity of the system by dividing this
maximum value by the full scale deflection (FSD) of the measurement
system.

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Ideal linear
characteristic

qo(t)

Maximum non-
linearity Non-linear
characteristic

qi(t)

Figure 4: Non-linearity between the input and output of a measurement system.

Most simple measurement systems will not take the non-linearity into
effect and will use a straight line to express the output signal. This
causes a non-linearity effect. Three types of straight line construction
methods are used (Figure 5):

a. End point linearity method: This is the simplest method

whereby a straight line is connected between the start point
and the end point.

b. Best Fit Straight Line method: A line is drawn such that the
maximum deviation of the curve from the straight line is
minimised.

c. Least Square Best Fit Straight Line method: A line is

constructed using statistical methods to minimise the sum of
the squares of the deviations of a number of calibration
points from the curve.

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BFSL
Non-linear
relationship EPL
Output
variable (qo)

Input
variable (qi)

Figure 5: End Point Linearity and Best Fit Straight Line.

Non-linearity can take on many different forms. Two special forms of

non-linearity are hysteresis and dead-zone. These are discussed in
more detail below.

a. Hysteresis: Hysteresis is present in a measurement system if

the relationship between the input and output depends on
whether the input is increasing or decreasing. In other words,
there is one relationship between the input and output when the
input is increasing and a different relationship if the input is
decreasing (sometimes expressed as the non-coincidence of the
loading and unloading curves [5]). This is shown graphically in
Figure 6. Note that it is important to show the arrows on the line
to emphasise the direction of change.
The following are examples of systems the exhibit the
phenomenon of hysteresis between the input and output:

i. Hysteresis in mechanical systems is caused by friction

and by springs. This can be seen in load cells and other
weighing devices that depend on elastic materials.

ii. A good example from electro-magnetics is the

relationship between H (magnetic field intensity/strength)
and B (magnetic flux density) in a toroid or a transformer
core.

iii. Relationship between the pressure and temperature of

steam in the saturation region.

iv. Another example can be found in the relationship

between the pressure applied to a pressure gauge and its
displacement.

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Decreasing
input

qo(t)

Maximum
hysteresis Increasing
input

qi(t)

Figure 6: Hysteresis phenomenon in a measurement system.

v. Other examples of hysteresis are seen in the following:

LVDT (linear variable differential transformer); VIDT
(variable inductance displacement transducer) and the
rotary differential transformer [2].

Not only does the phenomenon of hysteresis cause an error in

the measurement, it is also a source of energy loss (e.g., the
area of the hysteresis loop of the H/B curve represents the
energy loss per cycle).
However, it is worth noting that the phenomenon of
hysteresis is used to advantage in the so-called Schmitt-Trigger
devices in digital electronics. In these cases, the Schmitt-
Trigger logic gate is used to convert a slowly moving signal to a
‘clean’ square wave. It is also introduced into room temperature
thermostats to prevent the heating system switching very
frequently between the on and off conditions.

b. Dead space/zone [2]: Dead space (sometimes called dead-

zone) is the phenomenon where small values of the input signal
do not produce any output signal (for both positive and negative
small deviations) as shown in Figure 7. The most widely known
example on dead-space is the backlash in gears (or gearboxes).
It is a form of non-linearity.
‘Threshold’ is another characteristic and can be
considered one form of dead-space. It is the minimum value the
input has to increase to before the output of the instrument is
large enough to be detectable. This is sometimes quoted by
manufacturers as an absolute value and sometimes as a
percentage of full scale deflection.

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qo(t)

qi(t)

Dead zone

Figure 7: Dead space (dead-zone) relationship between input and output.

9. Life Expectancy: This is the expected design life of the measurement

system.

10. Reliability: The number of failures expected of the device in a certain

period of time. It is usually expressed as MTBF (mean time between
failures) for repairable items and quoted in years. This parameter is
extremely important in order to calculate the overall reliability of a plant
or factory within which the measurement system will be installed.

Example 6
Refer to attachment 1 that shows the datasheet for a flow transmitter that is
used to measure the flow of a liquid. Note that the datasheet covers four
models (U701, U702, U705, and U706). Examine the data-sheet in relation to
model U701 and find as many performance characteristics as possible and
state their values and units if appropriate.
You need to ensure that you have answered the following questions.

a) What is the accuracy (i.e., inaccuracy) expected of the device?

b) What is one of the sources/causes of this inaccuracy?
c) What is the repeatability expected of this device?
d) What is the format of the output signal (i.e., voltage, current or
frequency)?
e) What is the recommended calibration interval?

Solution
Note that the U701 unit has been specified, so you must look under that
column only. The following are the answers to the specific questions above:

a) +/- 3.0% full scale.

b) In the same row in the data-sheet, it says that this figure of inaccuracy
includes linearity, best fit straight line.

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One of the sources is linearity, best fit straight line

c) +/- 0.20% full scale
d) The useful information is what is important in a signal. In this case
the flow will be proportional to the frequency of the signal (square-
wave…0-400 Hz…). So the correct answer is frequency.
e) 12 months.■

The following characteristics can be extracted from the datasheet:

1. Accuracy: The accuracy of the device is ±3.0% of full scale (note

that the accuracy has been quoted as a percentage of full scale, not
of reading). The accuracy includes the linearity (best fit straight line
bfsl) within it, as stated by the datasheet.

2. Non-linearity: Included in the accuracy figure.

3. Precision: This is quoted as repeatability, ±0.2% of full scale (not of

reading).

4. Span/Range: The device can measure flow rates from 15 mL/min

upto 50 L/min.

5. Sensitivity: The output signal for this model is 0-400 Hz

corresponding to flow. Further information reveals that the device
can measure up to 50 L/min that corresponds to 400 Hz output. So
the sensitivity is 400/50= 8·Hz·L-1 min-1.

6. Environmental effects: The zero drift is given as zero. No mention

is given of sensitivity drift.

7. Dynamic Characteristics (these are discussed in more detail in the

next Chatper): The time response is given as 300 ms for 97% of
final value. Thus 300 ms equates to 5 time constants, giving the
value for the time constant as 60 ms.

8. Reliability: Reliability is quoted as the mean time between failures

(MTBF) and this is given as 100,000 hours.

9. Ingress protection rating: The ingress protection rating for this

device is given as IP53. Refer to Chapter 1 to find out what the 5
and 3 refer to in terms of solid ingress and liquid ingress protection.

10. Calibration interval: The device must be calibrated once every 12

months. More information on calibration is contained in Chapter 9.■

Example 7
An optical (laser) transducer is to be used to measure the range of an object.
The 2-page-datasheet of the transducer is shown at the end of this Chapter
(Attachment 3). Assuming that the model to be selected is P254B, answer
the following:

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• Based on the information in the datasheet (and the

characteristics you have studied in this course) extract at least 9
characteristics or parameters (e.g., static characteristics,
dynamic characteristic, environmental parameters…..).

• For each characteristic or parameter explain what it means in

practice and show its value based on the model selected above.

Solution
The following are the parameters/characteristics as extracted from the
datasheet:

Table 1: Values for the various parameters/characteristics.

Parameter Value
Form of output (i.e., voltage, current, Current (4 – 20 mA)
frequency, on/off)
Range 50 to 150 mm
Span 100 mm
Accuracy ±0.5 mm
Reproducibility/Precision ±0.2 mm
Resolution <0.1 mm
Response Time <15 ms
Temperature drift (zero drift) 0.25 mm·K-1
IP rating (ingress protection rating) IP65
Operating temperature -20 to 55 °C
Operating life (average service life) 50 000 hours

The explanation of the parameters/characteristics is shown below:

Table 2: Description of the meaning of each parameters/characteristic.

Parameter Value
Form of output (i.e., voltage, The output signal is a current signal
current, frequency, on/off) proportional to the distance
Range Minimum and maximum values of the
measurand
Span Difference between minimum and
maximum value
Accuracy Freedom from systematic errors
Reproducibility/Precision Freedom from random errors
Resolution Smallest change in the input variable to
cause a change in the output variable
Response Time Time taken to respond to a change in the
input variable
Temperature drift (zero drift) Change in output with change in temp (int)
IP rating (ingress protection Enclosure protection against the ingress of
rating) solids (first digit) and liquids (second digit)
Operating temperature Temperature within which the device can

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operate within the parameters quoted

Operating life (average service Expected operational life of the
life) measurement instrument in hours (before
failure)

References
[1] “Principles of Measurement Systems”, John P. Bentley, Fourth Edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall 2005.
[2] “Measurement & Instrumentation Principles”, Alan S. Morris, Elsevier,
2001.
[3] “Elements of Electronics Instrumentation and Measurement”, Joseph J.
Carr, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 1996.
[4] “An introduction to Electrical Instrumentation and Measurement
Systems”, B.A. Gregory, (ELBS Edition) McMillan Press Ltd., Second
edition, 1981.
[5] “Measurement Systems: Application and Design”, Ernest O. Doebelin,
Fifth Edition, McGraw Hill International Edition.
[6] “A course in Mechanical Measurements and Instrumentation”, A.K.
Sawhney, Dhanpat Rai & Sons.

Problems
1. A voltmeter uses 10 bits to express, store and display the measured
voltage. Calculate its resolution as a percentage of the full scale.

2. The steady state (i.e., static) input output relationship for a measurement
system was arrived at experimentally by calibration and the results are as
shown in the table below.

a) What do we call this phenomenon (characteristic)?

b) Express the maximum value of this phenomenon as a
percentage.

output (V)
input (V)
increasing input decreasing input
0 0.00 0.00
1 0.99 1.01
2 1.97 2.03
3 2.94 3.06
4 3.90 4.10
5 4.85 5.15
6 5.90 6.10
7 6.94 7.06
8 7.97 8.03
9 8.99 9.01
10 10.00 10.00

3. A scale gives the following deflections in mm when used for weighing at a

room temperature of 20 ºC.

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Load (kg) 0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm) 0.0 13.1 26.2 39.3 52.4

When used in an environment at 52 ºC, its characteristic changes to the

following:

Load (kg) 0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm) 0.0 14.7 29.4 44.1 58.8

Calculate the zero-drift coefficient (mm·ºC-1) and the sensitivity-drift coefficient

(mm·kg-1·ºC-1).

4. A scale is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20 ºC and has

the following deflection/load characteristic:

Load (kg) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Deflection (mm) 0 10 20 30 40 50

When used in an environment at 40 ºC, its characteristic changes to the

following:

Load (kg) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Deflection (mm) 3 14 25 36 47 58

Calculate the zero-drift coefficient and the sensitivity-drift coefficients.

5. A pressure transducer has an input range of 0 to 104 Pa that corresponds

to an output range of 1.0 to 5.0 V at a standard temperature of 20 ºC. When
the temperature changes to 30 ºC, the output range changes to 1.2 V to 5.2
V. Calculate the zero-drift coefficient and the sensitivity-drift coefficient.

Ignore any non-linearity and assume a straight line relationship between the
input and output at both temperatures (i.e., 20 ºC and 30 ºC).

6. A scale that is used to measure body weight has the following

characteristics at 24 ºC:

0.0 kg 0.0 mm deflection

70 kg 35 mm deflection

When used in an ambient temperature of 40 ºC, it has the following

characteristics:

0.0 kg 4 mm deflection
70 kg 32 mm deflection

Calculate the zero-drift coefficient and the sensitivity-drift coefficient.

(Assume a linear relationship between the input and output, ignoring any non-
linearities).

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7. Repeat the last problem for the same scale given the following:

When used at a temperature of 24 ºC:

0.0 kg 0.0 mm deflection

70 kg 35 mm deflection

When used in an ambient temperature of 40 ºC, it has the following

characteristics:

0.0 kg -4.0 mm deflection

70 kg 38 mm deflection

Advanced Problems

8. The three page datasheet for a pressure transducer is shown at the end of
this Chapter (Model 355 Flush Diaphragm Pressure Transducer) in
Attachment 2. Based on the information found in the datasheet, answer the
following questions: (part d is related to calibration that will be discussed in
Chapter 9).

a) If the model selected has a range from 0-5000 psi (pounds per
square inch), calculate the zero drift coefficient, and express its
value in SI units.
b) What is the accuracy of the sensor? What are the three
sources/reasons for this figure of accuracy?
c) What are the available output formats for the signal?
d) Under the section of ‘special Calibration’ option 9a, the datasheet
says: “10 points (5 up/ 5 down) 20% increments @ 20º C”.
Explain what this means and how the calibration would be done in
practice based on this statement.

9. A force transmitter is used to measure the force in newtons (N) and

produces a voltage output in volts (V) proportional to the input force. It
operates from a voltage supply of 12 V. It is affected by changes in the
ambient temperature and supply voltage. Its characteristics are shown in the
table below.

Output voltage of force transmitter (V)

T=20 ºC T= 30 ºC T= 20 ºC
Force (N) Vsupply= 12 V Vsupply= 12 V Vsupply= 14 V
0 0V 0V 0.2 V
500 10 V 9.5 V 10.2 V

a) What is the term (expression) used to describe the temperature

in this case?
b) What is the term (expression) used to describe the voltage
supply in this case?
c) Calculate the sensitivity drift and the zero drift coefficients.

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Next problem is similar to problem 9 but worded differently.

10. A force transmitter is used to measure the force in newtons (N) and
produces a voltage output in volts (V) proportional to the input force. The
relationship between the input and output is shown in the table below. If we
know that temperature is interfering variable and supply voltage is the
modifying variable, calculate the zero drift coefficient and the zero drift
coefficients.

Output voltage of force transmitter (V)

T=20 ºC T= 30 ºC
Force (N) Vsupply= 12 V Vsupply= 14 V
0 0V 0.2 V
500 10 V 9.7 V

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Attachment 1: Datasheet for the flow transmitter

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Attachment 2: Datasheet of Pressure Transducer

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Attachment 3: Datasheet for Laser distance sensor (Example 7)

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