Contents

ch.l Introductiorr----- --- 0

ch.2 EnergyBandsand Carrier Concentration I
ch.3 CarrierTransportPhenomena ------ ---- 7
ch.4 p-n Junction----- --- 16
ch.5 BipolarTransistorandRelatedDevices- --------- 32
ch.6 MOSFETandRelatedDevices--------- ---------- 48
ch.7 MESFETandRelatedDevices------- -- 60
ch.8 MicrowaveDiode,Quantum-EffectandHot-ElectronDevices ----- 68
ch.9 PhotonicDevices ---------- ----------- 73
c h . 1 0CrystalGrowthand Epitaxy------
c h . r l Film Formation-------- 92
ch.t2 LithographyandEtching ---- 99
ch.13 ImpurityDoping-- - 105
ch.r4 Integrated Devices--------- -- l 13
 CHAPTER 2

1. (a) From Fig. llq the atom at the center of the cube is surroundby four
equidistantnearestneighborsthat lie at the cornersof a tetrahedron.Therefore
the distancebetweennearestneighborsin silicon(a: 5.43A) is
l/2 [(a/2)' * (Jzo /2127t/': J-zo/4 : 235 A.
(b) For the (100) plane,thereare two atoms(one centralatom and4 corneratoms
eachcontributing ll4 of an atom for a total of two atomsas shown in Fig. 4a)
for an areaof d, thereforewe have
2/ &:2/ (5.43,. l0-8)z:618 * 10laatoms/ crt
Similarlywe havefor (110)plane(Fig. 4a andFig. 6)
( 2 + 2 x l l 2 + 4 x l l 4 ) / J T o 2 : 9 . 6 , . 1 0 r sa t o m /sc r 1 . ,
andfor (111)plane(Fig. 4aandFig. 6)

(3x I/2+3x r/6)/ rlz|mlf : : 7.83* 10laatoms

,ffi" I
(9. / crrt.

2. Theheightsat X, Y, andZ pointare

/0, %,^O %.
3. (a) For the simplecubic,a unit cell contains1/8of a sphereat eachof the eight
cornersfor a total of one sphere.

- Ma><imum fractionof cell filled

: no. of spherex volumeof eachsphere/ unit cell volume

:1x 4ng/2)3
la3 :52o/o
(b) For a face-centered
cubic, a unit cell contains1/8 of a sphereat eachof the
eight cornersfor a total of one sphere. The fcc also containshalf a sphereat
eachof the six facesfor a total of threespheres.The nearestneighbordistance
is l/2(a J; ). Thereforethe radiusof eachsphereis l/4 1aJz ).

- Maximum fractionof cell filled

- (1 + 3) {4[ [(a/2)/ 4It I 3] / a3 :74o/o.
(c) For a diamondlaffice,a unit cell contains1/8 of a sphereat eachof the eight
cornersfor a total of one sphere,I/2 of a sphereat eachof the six facesfor a
total of three spheres,and 4 spheresinside the cell. The diagonaldistance
 between(112,0,0) and(114,ll4, Il4) shownin Fig. 9a is

n:1 .(;)'
2 ;)'

The radiusof the sphereisDl}: 1Jj

8
- Maximum fractionof cell filled
: (t + 3+ 4)
' lyErtjl'
13\8 'o, :nJT t16: 34%.
))
This is a relativelylow percentage
compared
to otherlatticestructures.

4. la,l: la,l: la,l:laol :a

4*4+4+4:o
4 . ( 4 * 4 + 4* 4 ) : 4 . o: o
la,l'*4 -4 *4.4 +4. L: o
--d2+ d2coflrz + dcoiln I dcoflr+ ! dz+3 d2coil! 0
- coil:+
[: cos-r [ 109.4/!
+
5. Taking the reciprocalsof theseinterceptswe get ll2, ll3 and l/4. The smallest
three integershaving the sameratio are 6, 4, and 3. The plane is referredto as
(643)plane.
6. (a) The latticeconstantfor GaAs is 5.65 A, and the atomicweightsof Ga and As
are 69.72 and 7492 glmole, respectively. There are four gallium atoms and
four arsenicatomsper unit cell, therefore
4/a3: 4/ (5.65x 10-8)3: 4.22x lTn Ga or As atoms/cr*,
Density: (no.of atoms/crrfx atomicweight)/ Avogadroconstant
: 2.22* 1022(69.72
+ 74.92)I 6.02* 1023: 5.33g I cni.
(b) If GaAs is doped with Sn and Sn atoms displace Ga atoms, donors are
formed,becauseSn has four valenceelectronswhile Ga has onlv three. The
resultingsemiconductor
is n-type.
for Si is l4l2 oC,andfor SiOz is 1600oC. Therefore,
7. (a) The meltingtemperature
SiOz has higher melting temperature.It is more diflicult to breakthe Si-O
bondthanthe Si-Si bond.
(b) The seedcrystal is usedto initiated the growth of the ingot with the correct
crystalorientation.
(c) The crystalorientationdeterminesthe semiconductor's
chemicalandelectrical
 properties,suchas the etch rate, trapdensity,breakageplaneetc.
(d) Thetemperatingof the crusibleandthe pull rate.

4.73x10uT'
ErQ): l.l7 for Si
.'. Es ( 100K) = 1.163eV, andEs(600K): 1.032eV

E,(D=r.5,n -t'o-l!j_"t!1,!'
rorGaAs
(T + 204)
,.Er( 100K) : 1.501eV,andEs(600K) : 1.277eY .

9. The density of holes in the valenceband is given by integratingthe product

N(E)tl-F(DldE from top of the valeric:e band(En takento be E : 0) to the
boffom of the valenceband Rottoml

p: ytu'n^N(qtl _ F(DldE (1)

Ee)*t
where I -F(E): I - {t r[t * "(t- [t *"(E-Eilrt'rlt
]:
If Er- E >> kT then
| - F(E)- expF (n, - r)lwl e)
Then from AppendixH and, Eqs. I and2we obtain
p : 4Df2mp/ h2f3D EtD expI-@r - E) / kT ldE (3)
I:""^
Letxt+ E lkT, andletEbooo*:- @, Eq.3 becomes
p : 4\-2mo / rtflz (kTlttz exp [-(Ep/ kl)i
xtDe*dx
I
wherethe integralon the right is of the standardform and equats G tZ.
- p :2l2Dmo kT / h213D exp [-(Ep/ kI)j
By refeningto the top of the valencebandas ETinsteadof E:0 we have
p:2Qo';f:"i1ff;Trrlf;,
u,/krl
or
where Nv:2 (Nmo kT / rtf .

10. FromEq. 18
Nv :2QDmokT I h2f D
The effectivemassof holesin Si is
mp-- (Nvt 21ztt(rt tzDkT)

1.38x 10-23 3oo)

: 9.4 " 10-3 t kg : 1.03mo.
Similarly, we havefor GaAs
f f i p : 3 . 9 x 1 0 - 3k1g : 0 . 4 3m o .

1 1 . UsingEq. 19
 Ei =(8, +til' . (%)^ (N,I w,)
= (Ec* Ey)l 2 + (*T I 4) ln

At77 K
lr*,1*,)(o%f (1)

E,: (1.t6/2)+ (3 x 1.3gx t}-,tT) / (4 x 1.6x 10-,r)ln(l.0/0.62)

:0.58 + 3.29x 10-5Z= 0.5g+ 2.54x 10-3- 0.5g3ev.
At 300K
: 0.56+ 0.009: 0.569eV.
Ei: (1.12/2)+ (3.29x 10-sX300;
At 373K
- 0.545+ 0.012:0.557ey.
+ (3.2gx l0-sx3731
Ei: (1.0912)
Becausethe secondterm on the right-handside of the Eq.l is much smaller
comparedto the first term, over the abovetemperafurerange,it is reasonableto
assumethatEi is in the centerof the forbiddengap.

"-@-rrYw6B
T2.KE :
I::@_EC
-Er"-@-tP)/*r6P l'=rr-rr,
f: JE

1.5x0.5"G
0.sJ;

=?
;or.
1 3 .(a)p: ftw:9.109 x 10-3rx105:9.109 x 10-26
kg-mA
h - 6 ' 6 2 6 x 1 0 - 1: 4
7 -. 2 7 x r 0 - em : 7 2 . 7 A
1 :
p x
9.109 l0-'"
m ^ ^ I
( b ) 1 "" 'L : *x 7 2 . 7 : I 1 5 4A .
mp 0.063

14. From Fig.22when nr: l0t5 cd3, the correspondingtemperatureis 1000 / T: l.B.
S o t h a tI : 1 0 0 0 / 1 . 8 : 5 5 5K o r 2 8 2 [

1 5 .From E" - Er: kT lnlNc / (No - N,q)]

which can be rewritten as No - N.e: l/c exp IaE, - Er) I kf I
Then No-N.a:2.86 * 10reexp(-0.20
/0.0259): 1.26x 1016
crn3
or + . t : 2 . 2 6* 1 0 1 6 c r n 3
N o : 1 . 2 6 x 1 0 1 6N
A compensatedsemiconductorcan be fabricatedto provide a specific Fermi
energylevel.

16. From Fig.28a we candraw the following energy-band

diagrams:
 AT 77K Ec(0.ssevi'
EF(0.s3)
E;(o)

Ev(-0.59)

AT 3OOK Ec(0.56ev)
EF(0.38)
E i (o)
ri

Ev(-0.56)

AT 6OOK
E9(0.50eV)

0.s0)

17. (a) The ionization energy for boron in Si is 0.045 eV. At 300 K, all boron
impurities are ionized. Thus pp: N.a: l0ls crn3
np: t?i2/ n.a: (g.6i " K;9f / l}ts :9.3 * lOacrn3.
The Fermi level measured from the top of the valence band is given by:
E p - E v : k T l n ( N / N D ) : 0 . 0 2 5 9 l n ( 2 . 6 6 x 1 0 r e/ l 0 r 5 ; : 0 . 2 6 e Y
(b) The boron atoms compensatethe arsenic atoms; we have

pp: Ne_Nn:3 x 10162 _ . 9x l 0 1 6 : l O l s c r n 3

Sincepo is the same as given in (a), the values for no and Ep are the same as
in (a). However, the mobilities and resistivities for these two samples are
different.

18. Since Np >> ni, wa can approximate e : Nt and

po: n?I no:9.3 xl}te I l0l7 : 9.3 x ld crn3
( "t
p - r"'' \
From fio: txiexPI |'
\. kT )'
we have
Ep - Ei: kT ln (noI n) : 0.0259ln (1017/ 9.65* 10e): 0.42eY
The resultingflat banddiagramis :
 Ec

l
1 . 1 e2 V
A.rr2eY
-E-
EF

F.
t-l

l
19. Assuming complete ionization,the Fermi level measuredfrom the intrinsic
Fermilevelis 0.35eV for 10rscm-3,0.45
eV for 1017crn3,and0.54eV for 10le
crn3.
The numberof electronsthat are ionizedis given by
n = Npfl - F(En)l: Np / fl + "-(ro-rr)r*r]
Usingthe Fermi levelsgivenabove,we obtainthe numberof ionizeddonorsas
n : ! 0 t 5c r n 3 for Na : 1015crn3
n : 0 . 9 3* 1 0 1 7 crn3 forNo: 1017crn3
n : 0 . 2 7 * l O l ec r n 3 forNo: 10lecrn3
Therefore,the assumptionof completeionizationis valid onty for the caseof
10lscrn3.

10tu : _ 1016
20. No*-
l+ e-{Eo-Er)/kr 1+e-0.13s

_ l0tu : 5 . 3 3 t 1 0 l sc r n 3
. l
1.t45
Theneutraldonor: 1016-5.33,.l0lscrr3 : 4.67x 1015
crn3
N; - 4'76-
-The ratioof 0.g76
N; s.33
 CHAPTER3

I . (a)For intrinsicSi, /4,: 1450,l+ :505, andn: p : lti:9.65x lOe

We have p - - 3.31x10' C)-cm

qntth + {lpltp en,(lt, + pr)

(b) Similarlyfor GaAs,lh: 9200,Lb : 320,andn: p : ni:2.25x106

We have p - = 2.92x lOt O-crn

qnltn + llPIIp en,(ltn+ po)

2 . For laffice scatterinE,l-h n 73/2

T : 200K, Lh: r3oox cm2lv-s

#:2388

T : 4ooK, 1^4,:l3oox% : 844"m'lv-s.

2
300-rt

l l l
3. Since - = - + -
P l-t' l-t"

-1= - + -1 1
Fr: 167 cr# N-s.
p 250 500

4. (a) p:5xl01s c d 3 , n : n / / p : ( 9 . 6 5 xl 0 e 1 2 l 5 x 1 0 :r s 1 . 8 6 x 1 0 4c m - 3

14:4lo cm2lv-s, Lh:1300 cm2lv-s

I :3 C)-cm
p: r
qpon + qlrpp qppp

(b) p :Nt-No : 2 x 1 0 1 6 - 1 . 5 x 1 0 1 6 : 5 x 1 0 l "t * ' , n : L 8 6 x 1 0 ac m - 3

: :290
!-b: Ib (M + No) I+ (3.5xl0tu) cm2A/-s,

fh: th(Nt + Np): 1000 cm2ny'-s

| :4.3 C)-cm
p =
qLthn + q[Lpp qppp
 (c) p:N,q @oron)-Nn+ N,q(Gallium):5x10ls
cd3, n: L86xl0a cm-3

I+: I$ (M r Np* Ne): 14 Q.05x10tt): 150 cm2A/-s,

l-h: th (Ne * Np* N,q): 520 crr?A/-s

p:8.3 C)-cm.

5. AssumeNo- N1>>n;,the conductivityis givenby

ox qn[h: elh(No - Nd)

We havethat

16 : (1.6xtOae)1^6Qtp-
10tt)

Since mobility is a function of the ionized impurity concentration,we can use

Fig. 3 along with trial and error to determine7^6,

and No. For example,if we

chooseNo : 2xl0r7,thenNr : ND*+ Nd-: 3xlQtt, so that Lh x 510 cm2lV-s

whichgiveso: 8.16.

Furthertrial and effor yields

Nn=3.5x1017crrt.3

and

lh x 400 cm2lV-s

which gives

6x 16 (O-cm)-t

6. o- q(lt n + Fop) = ello(bn + ni t n1

Fromthe conditiondddn: 0. we obtain

ft:ni I {b

Therefore
 p * _ q i o ( b nl,4 b + ^ , l b n ,_) b + l
P, 2JE
QFpni(D + l)

7C
i . At the limit when d >> s, CF: :4.53. Thenfrom Eq. 16
lnz

V l0 x l0-3
p=ixWxCF - x 5 0 x 1 0 - 0 x 4 . 5 3 - 0 . 2 2C6) - c m

FromFig. 6, CF:4.2 (d/s: 10);using thea/d: 1 curvewe obtain

0.226x 10-'
V=p. I/(W.CF)_ - 10.78 mV.
5 0 x 1 0 - ox 4 . 2

8. Hall coefficient,

V,A x1.6xl0-3
10x10-3
Ru= - 426.7 cnf tC
IB,W 2 . 5 x l 0 - 3x ( 3 0 x 1 0 -xnl 0 o ) x 0 . 0 5

Sincethe signof R'7is positive,the carriersareholes.From Eq.22

l l 1

'
eR, l,.6xl0-'nx426.7

AssumingNe x p, fromFig. 7 we obtainp: 1.1f)-cm

The mobllity pg is givenby Eq. 15b

1
I

p, : - = = 380 cm2lv-s.
Wp 1 . 6 x 1 0 - 'xn1 . 4 6 x 1 0 x' 61 . 1

1
9. SinceR n pand p- , hence R o.
qnph + wl_rp . nl+ + pLrp

From Einsteinrelation D n lt

Hllro=DnlDo-59
 R , _ N olt^
0.5Rr
Nolt,+Neqp

We haveN.e:50 Nn .

10. The electric potential @is related to electron potential energy by the charge (- q)

I
Q:*=(Er_ ni)
q

The electric field for the one-dimensionalsituation is defined as

dEi
e(x) : -!!-:l
dx qdx

(n- - n \
ft: ni explT): No(x)

Hence

*r@)
Ep- E;:kTh(
l . )

E &) - -( tt\ t dNo(x)

\q )No(*) dx

ll. (a) FromEq.31, Jn:0 and

d/d* "
D, - - kT No!:a)9- - *kT o
r (x) - -
H n q N o " n ' q

(b) E (r): 0.0259(100):259 V/cm.

12. At thermalandelectricequilibria,

J , = qgn(x)e + qD, 4:!') -,

dx

Dn I dn(x) D, N, -ff.
E(x)=
F, n(x) dx Lt, N o * ( N r - N ' ) ( * l L) L
--Dn N, -No
p, L N o+ ( N , - N o ) t

l0
 D" N, -No
t , - J[ ' -o --o-nNL
p LNo + (N, - N, )r p" N,

1 3 . N t = L p - T o G , = 1 0 x 1 0 - 6x l 0 t u = 1 0 t t c r n 3

fl:ftno + Ln:No + Ln:10Is +10tt -19ts crn3

n? e . 6 5x l o n) ' + l o r ,= l o , , c m - ,
p-
\+4p= 10"

I
t 4 . \a)Tp = = = 10-t s
oor,rry 5 x l 0 - t 5x 1 0 7x 2 x l 0 t s

D oTo 9 x 1 0 - 8- 3 x 1 0 { c m

Sr, : v,r,o,N,,, - 107x 2x 10-t6x 10to- 20 cm/s

(b) The hole concentration at the surface is given by F,q.67

"11'-
p^(o)=pno rlt -,u p * T o S , , ) I
+roG
\

_ (9.g5
1 l9_')'+ 10-,*t0,,(t _ 10-8x 20
2 xl}tu (. 3 x 1 0 - a+ 1 0 - 8x 2 0
= lOe cm-'.

1 5 . 6= QnLIt,* wqy

Before illumination

fln = tlno, Pn = Pno

After illumination

fln=frno*Lrt-ftro*TrG,

pn=pno*Lp-pno*trG

Ao - tqtt,(nno * Ln) + qlrp(p," + 4p)] - (qlt n," * QFop,")

- q(l+ + Fp)r
oG .

ll
 t a )J r . a i n- - n Dr #

- - l.6x 10-lexIZx . - l- x l0rsexp(-x/12)

L2xl0-"

: 1.6exp(-x/12) Alcrrl

(b) /",drift = J,o,o,-Jp,ain

: 4.8 - 1.6exp(-x/12)Alcni.

(c) 't Jn.a,in - qnl+E

-'- 4.8- l.6exp(-xll2): 1.6x10-1ex

1016x
1000x8

E :3-exp(-x/t2) V/cm.

1 7 .F o r E : 0 w e h a v e

a__Pn_Pno
+D,I* =g
0t tp o Ax'

at steadystate,the boundaryconditionsarep" @ - 0) : p" (0) andpn (, : lV) :

Pno.

Therefore

'*F)
'*[fj
p ,(x )= p no + [1t,(0)- p^.

Jr(x-o): - QDp q[.p,(o)

- o,"l+-4+)
H,.-
n
Jo(x-w) = - QD.H,=, - ql.p p^,1?4.
,(o)- 'o
,inhfw I
lL, )
18. The portion of injectioncurrentthat reachesthe oppositesurfaceby diffirsion I S

T2
 given by

J o(W)
a$=
JoQ) c o s h ( Wl L e )

L o= ^ t ' r % = ' & t s o * t o * - 5 x l o - 2c m

;. do - - 0.98
cosh(10-2
/5x 1O-' )

of the injectedcurrentcanreachthe oppositesurface.

Therefore,9SYo

19. In steadystate,the recombinationrateatthe surfaceand in the bulk is equal

APr,ou,u LPn,"urf^u
-

sothattheexcess
minorirv" *i:;:*..J#'ff atthesurface
: lora. :1013 cm-3
;,,surrace
- :g
10-o
The generationratecan be determinedfrom the steady-state
conditionsin the
bulk
loto :
G: lom crn3s-l
l0-6
From Eq. 62, we can write

D" ^ a ' L +! G- & : o

Axt To

The boundaryconditionsare4(. = - ): l01acrn3and4(* - 0): 1013crn3

t to
Hence 4(i: lola( 1- o.ge-' )
where Lp:.fio- to-u: 31.6pm.
20. The potentialbarrierheight
Qa= Q^- X: 4.2- 4.0:0.2 volts.
2 t . The numberof electronsoccupyingthe energylevel betweenE andE+dE is
dn: N(DF(DdE
function,andF(E) is Fermi-Diracdistribution
whereN(E^)is the density-of-state
function. Sinceonly electronswith an energygreaterthan E, + eQ^ and having
a velocity componentnormal to the surfacecan escapethe solid, the thermionic
currentdensityis
- | +Az.T)%
J -- = r- 'v,E%e-G-rr)ln4g
JQt, Jrr*qq^ ht
where v, is the componentof velocity normal to the surfaceof the metal. Since
the energy-momentum relationship
n P2 I . ) ) ?r
E--
2m 2m

l3
 PdP
Differentiation leads to dE -
m
By changing the momentum component to rectangular coordinates,
47iP2dP - dp,dp ,dp "
Z? * p2,+
p]-z^t1)lzmkr
f - , S f [- p ,u-'ol dp ,dp ,dp ,
Hence
=Ht', J o,oo,ll- ,-01r,^0,
dp,f- ,-r)/z^kr
dp,
mht p,o ^t'r'-,;t,'^rl')u,,
wherep',o= Zm(E, + qQ).
t "ll 2

e-o"dx -{ ll
lE
Since , the lasttwo integralsyield (2dmkT)v'.
L \a)

The first integralis evaluatedby setting oi:'9' - u

2mkT
Thereforewe have du - P'dP'
mkT
The lower limit of the first integralcan be written as
2m(E, +qQ)-2mE,
_qQ*
2mkT kT
so thatthe first integralbecomesmkT e-" du - mkT e-qL-lkr
fr^,0,

Hence, -4tqmkz 72o-a0^lk,

- A*7, "*(-fg^\
h ' \ k T )
22. Equation79 is the tunnelingprobability

x s i n h2( . 1 7 xl 0 ox g x t o - ' o ] ' ]

r _{t* [20 :3.r9x l0*.
4x2x(20-2)
L )
23. Equation79 is the tunnelingprobability

p-

9.99x 10nx 10-'o)f _

sinh(
r'0-,0) - {, * [6x ]-' 0.403
L 4x2.2x(6-2.2) )

* rinh(q.qq
:. ro' *lo-'l' ]-' = 7.8x r0-,.
Tr0-\' _ {r *' [o
-z.z)
4 x2.2"(e
L^ l

t4
 PdP
Differentiationleadsto dE =
m
By changing the momentum component to rectangular coordinates,
2
47d,dp : dp,dp,dp "

t = +[, dp,dprdp"
[=- [l =*o,r-rr2'+pi+p2,-znr1)''^o'
Hence
= "to'-'^Et)l2^trp,dp,!-_ "-oll'^o'dp,
,r2o ff,, f* "^o1/'^0,
dp,
rvherep',o= 2m(E, + eQ).
r :ll 2
r' *' -
Srnce e-"^dx =[ Z1 , thelasttwo integrals
yield(2dmk|)v,.
J__
\" )
pi;29'
The first integralis evaluatedby setting :, .
2mkT
Thereforewe have 4y - P'dP'
mkT
The lower limit of the first integralcanbe written as
2 m ( E ,+ q Q ) - 2 m E o
=qQ.
2mkT kT
so thatthe first integralbecomes*0, e-"du: mlsTs-tQ./kr
fr^,o
- uh).
- 1 =4tq*k' -72"-t0^lw= A'7, "*"(
Hence
h3 kr)'
ll. Equation79 is the tunnelingprobability
- - 2 ) ( 1 . 6 x1 0 - ' e )
o _ l2*,(qVo E) _ 2(9.lIx t0_3'x20 = 2 . 1 7x 1 O t o m - t
P_tl----------'i-_
(1.054
x 10-'o)t

,r - -lr-
\ r [20x sint(2.17x 100x 3 x 10-'o]' = r . , n , , 0 *
| 4 x 2 x ( 2 0- 2 )
)-'
13. Equation79 is thetunnelingprobability

B=
9.99x10' x10-'o)I
sintr(
r'0-,0) = {r* [6x ] = o.oo,
4 x 2 . 2 x ( -2.2)
6
|. )
( q . q qrIo ' * l o - ' l '
r ' 0 - n l' = [ * [ o * r i n h I ' = 7 . 8 xl 0 - e .
l'' 4 x 2 . 2 " ( a - z . zJ )- '
24. FromFig. 22
Ass:103V/s

ua= l.3xl06 cm/s(Si) and uax 8.7x106cm/s(GaAs)

t x 77 ps(Si) andt x 11.5ps (GaAs)

AsE :5x104V/s

vax 107cm/s(Si) and,uax 8.2x106cm/s(GaAs)

t x l0 ps (Si) andt = l2.2ps (GaAs).

25. Thermal velocitv

2 x|.38x 10-2'x 300

= 9.5x 10nm/s= 9.5x 10ucmls

For electric field of 100 vlcm, drift velocity

va = l_4,E
= 1350x 100= 1.35x 105cm/s<< v,,

For electricfield of 104V/cm.

FoE= 1350x 104= 1.35x 107cm/s= y,r,.

The value is comparableto the thermal velocity, the linear relationshipbetween

drift velocity and the electricfield is not valid.

 CHAPTER 4

l. The impurityprofile is,

(Np-N,a)(cm")

3 xl O r a

x (pm)

c:101ecm-a

The overall space charge neutra of the semiconductor requires that the total negative

space charge per unit area in the p-side must equal the total positive space charge per

unit area in the n-side, thus we can obtain the depletion layer width in the n-side region:

0 . 8 x 8 x 1 0 '- o
W nx 3 x 1 0 ' o

Hence,the n-sidedepletionlayer width is:

W, =1.067
pm

The total depletionlayer width is 1.867pm.

We usethe Poisson'sequationfor calculationof the electric field n(x).

In the n-sideregion,

L=3-*r+r(x^)=LNox+K
d x t " " E s

E ( x , = 1 . $ 6 7F m ) = O + K = - + N , x l . 0 6 7 x1 0 - a
€.,

" ' E ( t , \ = L * 3 x l o r a ( x _ l ' 0 6 7x l o r )

E

E^o, =E ( x, = 0 )= -4. 86 x 103V/cm

In thep-side region,the electricalfield is:

 9d x= L *t r^ = e ( xP" )' = = n r a x 2+ K '
2€,

E( x p = _ 0 . 8 1 m: 0) + K ' = - t * o * ( 0 . S "t 0 - o ) '

- ( o . s , ,'r o - ' ) ' l

\ P"' ) : a * o , l* ' '
. . ,G
2t, L )
E,o, =E (ro =0) = -4.86 x 103V/cm

The built-in potentialis:

v,,= - I _:,, &W = - l'0,,,(r)d*lo_,,0"

_ l;", (')4 n_s
ide=0.s2v .

L From Vo,= - r (*V, , the potentialdistributioncanbe obtained

J

With zero potential in the neutralp-region as a reference,the potential in the p-side

depletionregion is

v,(,)=- li e)a*
=- ft *o*l'- (o.r
x10')'f* =-ftLir - (o.s " -l{orx100
* r0-o)'
= -7.5e6x
10"x - (0.r,ro-')'* -?r(0.t,.
to-')']
[1"'
With the condition Vp(0):V"(0),the potentialin the n-regionis

=-t":' ro''[]"'-t.o67xro-ax.UF,.ro-')
v^&)

= -4.56xr0'
"()* -1.067x
lo-ox ,o-')
T,.
 [[-

!!- )D---
lr-
l[_ l l . - , .
!_-.[.-_
m_ l!_.- n!

!m l[ n_
_tr- ,
[!- l! , fl_
-____t ,_
[[^ l!-
-^-[-
m_ l![[--
l--
!!t [[[. .,
__fl-
l[l-_J_
t--
---l[- t![. f_
___ r

["Jr][+n_Jo_!{
i. The intrinsic carriersdensity in Si at different temperaturescan be obtained by using Fig22 in

Chapter2:

Temperature(K) lntrinsic carrierdensity(n,)

250 1.50+108

300 9.65+10'

350 2.oo+10"
400 8.50]l10''

450 9.00+10'3

500 2.20+10t4

The Vu canbe obtainedby using Eq.12, and the resultsare listed in the following table.

J! --lmIml ![-

__m m nmt m-
__tr . n[[![_ m,n
__tr l![[[- m_
ml mlm!- Iu-
MD ,n,n[!* !!-J

Thus,the built-in potentialis decreased

as the temperatureis increased.

The depletionlayer width and the maximumfield at 300 K are

2 xll.9 x 8.85x 10-'ox0.717

IT: =0.9715lnt
4No 1.6x10-texl0t5
p f t r _ 1 . 6x 1 0 - ' ex 1 0 ' 5x 9 . 7 1 5x 1 0 - 5
_mu =qN =1.476x 104V/cm.
q 1 1 . 9x 8 . 8 5x l O - ' a
 ' ' x 3 0 [' 9 ] ' t ,
+ .. E
mu-=- l
. z r n ( . y ^ * +) - l " ' = 4 x r 0 s - f 2 x t . 6 xl0 )l'"
L e [Nr*Nr)) o 0 ' ' +N " ) ]
[ l t . e x 8 . 8 5 x l 0 - [' 1
ND
x 0 t u=
> 1 . 7 5 51
r+#
We can selectn-typedopingconcentrationof Nr: 1.755x10t6crnt for the iunction.

5. From Eq. 12 and Eq. 35, we can obtain the l/C2 versus Zrelationship for doping concentration of

l0't, 10t6,or lOtt crn3, respectively.

ForNr:16r5 "*-:,

'V:, z x ( o . s t-tv )
+= _') - - = 1 . 1 8 71x0 ,( 6o . t z-tv )
C,' Qd"Nu 1 . 6 x 1 0 - ' nx l l . 9 x 8 . 8 5 x 1 0 - ' nx l 0 '
ForNo:19r6"*-:,

= 1 ' 1 8 7 xt o " ( o ' s l o - r )

c,' ed"Nu l . 6 x 1 0 - r ex 1 1 . 9 x g . g 5 xl 0 - , 0 ; 1 0 "
For Nlr:1017 crn3,

I _ zVu,-v) _ zx(o.gsa-v)
C,'4d,Nul.6xl0-l9'ttffi=L.|87xto'o(o.eso-r,)
Whenthe reversedbias is applied,we summarizeatableof I /Ct, vs V for variousNp values as
following,
 [_ l!.-._lI [[_-*JI l! , - fl-l
'-l
Lt__-[[ x. fr! ][ ,. flt l !. f[n -
L- ._n
3r nl![[!_ rr__Jm n n m
. f-l
[-JD 4U/4U
TIT] iL__.__.![ n . n n n
.-n
[ " __[-_.n __-!-_ul D[!!D[-
n- .-n
[. nD -n.^---_l _J____-[! _nn. n[[_
n. --!
.--8.-.-D n n n
!* J_n._nl 1!J1_!U

[- ._n
mm ._-[!__^-l! -_rJJil -i--m
--[
! ][l [![- Jln__-lil [-__n[
I .-n
Hence,we obtain a seriesof curvesof I/A versus Zas following,

.|II- !

t r s L
tk<{mth4}g

The slopesof the curves is positive proportionalto the values of the doping concentration.
The interceptionsgive the built-in potentialof thep-n junctions.
6 . The builrin potentialis

( l 0 ' o x 1 0 2 0x I 1 . 9x
2kT,(a'e"kr\ ? 8 . 8 5 x1 0 - ' ax 0 . 0 2 5e )
V"r ,': = - l n l --i; l= i*0.0259x hl -)
3q \ \ q ' n )i 3 t 8 x 1.6x l0-'nr (l.os* to' I
= 0.5686V

From Eq. 38, thejunction capacitancecanbe obtained

- - 4 - l q o t , ', l ' " =L

(.,=T=lq;4j = [[ . 6 x1 0 - ' x' l o' ox ( t t.e-vR)
" 8.85xlo"o) '
rz(o.s6s6 ]"'

At reversebiasof 4V, thejunction capacitanceis 6.866xl0-e F/crf .

7 . FromEq. 35, we canobtain

+=ry#+N,=&*r|
' . ' v R > > v u , +N o = 2 ( v ^ )r ' 2x4
r
x (0.85x 10-')2
QE" 1 . 6x l 0 - t e x 1 1 . 9 x 8 . 8 5
x10-'a
+No =3.43x10"cm-'

We can selectthe n-type doping concentrationof 3.43x l015crn3

8. FromEq.56,

,-, " ocnD,rN,

G = -rr
L : fl l
rf o,e*n[-;-J]l n ,
Lo,"*ol- )+
[
.r-l5vln7ylnl5 I
x l 0 - t 5x 1 0 7x l 0 r t
10-t5
=l
_ l

.lxe.65x10e:3.8exr0'6
and
 2 x I l . 9 x 8 . 8 5x 1 0 - ' ox ( 0 . 7 1 7+ 0 . 5 )
=12.66x l0-5 cm=1.266tm
1.6x10-'e
xl0tt

Thus

J g " , = q G W r= 1 . 6 x l O t nx 3 . 8 9 x 1 0 ' ux 1 2 . 6 6 x l 0 - t = 7 . 8 7 9 x l 0 - t A / c m ' .

9 . F r o m E q . 4 9 , a n dp -no^ = i l ' '

ND

we canobtainthe hole concentrationat the edgeof the spacechargeregion,

or / -\r / nc \
(
n.,
,^ =#"ii;i'
)
-g{#lel;'-'J t0,,,cm-,.
=2.42x
lvD

1 0 .J = J o ( r , ) + J , ( - * o )= J , G " ' r ' _ t )

" I - e o . ov2 5 e
) _l
J"
v
-
3 0 . 9 5 e o o 2 s_el

= V = 0 . 0 1 7V .

l l . The parametersare

ni: 9.65x10ecm-3 Dn: 21 cm2lsec

Do:|0 cm2lseceo:T.o:5xI0-7sec

FromEq. 52 andBq.54

J ,' ( r , \ =n':o-
Lp
(suvr* -,)=nF*, ND
z f (qv"\
!i-"leltrr J-l I
1

L ]
-

7 = 1 . 6 x 1 0 - t xt
l0
" ton)' I r--qrt
(q.os,. I
x l e \ o o 2 s-el l I
5 ><10- ND t l
L J

No=5.2x1015cm-'
 J^(-*r)

=
=no:'*
Ln
(4vrtr -l)=q
[;"t"1't*t-'],
2 5 = 1 . 6 x 1 0 - t tx

::>

cm 3
N t = 5.278x 1016

We can selecta p-n diodewith the conditionsof Nn: 5.279xl016crn3

and Np :

5.4x10lscrn3.

12. Assume[s 4p {,r: 1O6s,Dn:21 cr*/sec,andDo: 10 c#/sec

(a) The saturationcurrentcalculation.

FromEq. 55aand to =,[Drrr, we canobtain

1 '- _ Q D o P n o* Q D , n p o= o" n
| .:N( LDEI ?
_ *p o
t F;)
Le Ln NA !^)
= r.6xlo-'xe(e.os',0')'[*.,8.
' +.8]
[ l o ' ' l l t o - u t o ' u\ l t o - ")
= 6.87xl}-t'Ncmt

And from the cross-sectional

areaA: 1.2x10-5
cm2,we obtain

I , = A x J " = 1 . 2 x1 0 - 5x 6 . 8 7x l 0 - t ' = 8 . 2 4 4 x l 0 - t 7 A .

(b) The total currentdensityis

( q v \
J =J"l"' -tl
\ /

Thus

( o r \
I o r n = 8 . 2 4 4x l 0 - r ? [ e o o r t-,r | | = t . 244x l0-t7 x 5.47x 10" = 4.51x l0-5 A

( u , \
4 1 0 - r ? [ e o .-ot " n
I _ o . r ,= 8 . 2 4 x .244x 10-"A.
r=f
 ( q v \
13. From J = J " l r n - l l
\ /

we can obtain

v ="[f+]* r = v :0.025e*
,[l, to-' ,=)* ,l - 0.78
0.02se l l0-''
v.
L\/"/ I L\t.z++" J I

14. FromEq. 59, andassumeDo: l0 cnflsec,we canobtain

J"- ='1a f i " : * Q ' ' w

r, No t,

= r.6x lo.n /-lL (q'os* ton)'

* l . 6 x l O - t ex 9 . 6 5 x 1 0 e 2 x l l . 9 x 8 . 8 5x 1 0 - r ax ( V o+, V ^
l Jt o * l o '5 l0-u 1.6x10-tex10'5

x lo'5-
vo,=0.0259,r,-lo'' = 0.834V
( 9 . 6 5x l 0 ' ) '

Thus

J n : 5 . 2 6 x1 0 - 'l+ 1 .8 7 2 x1 0 -'J0 .s3 4+ V ^

 ( ._-[*-__-m
l^
Il._ --l--lm
[^
[l.- ._ff_-_m
[^
m_ J. "nm
!^
m
mI _lm__nI
[^
DI -n__1._nt
[^
![^ -J-- .![
!^
m_ _ff__!m
n ^
!m __n-._.[_-!l
[^
__n m!
!^
 ll-fi_ ro0ri

m -

Jm^

-
E
_!00^
J
Jm^

o:B:_.

olo0t0

cn 3,we obtain
WhenNo:1017

x l0't-
v ^ ,= 0 . 0 2 5 g , - 1 0 ' ' = 0 . g 5 3v
(9.65x l o')'

J n = 5.26x10-''+1.872*
to-'.ft.lso+ tu*
llJr]- trri.a.O

u-L uL u1_
R<dIIl ll"llrtl

1 5 . FromEq. 39,
Q o = 4 f , b " - p ^ " \d *
 = n[l,o*(ftvrn -t) e-G-',\/'04*

The hole diffusion lengthis largerthanthe lengthof neutralregion.

Qo=ef;{0,-p,,)d*

=a rtcr- l) e-G-.,),t"
4*
ln *Q{
( qv
-t-t ';-t
\f )
=epnoct)1"'-ljle Lp-e "
)
x"i#tl(-5xro .,["
:r.6xr0-'e -'1" * -" ;)
=8.784x 10-3Clcm'.

16. From Fig. 26, the critical field at breakdownfor a Si one-sidedabrupt

junction is about2.8+105V/cm.Thenfrom Eq. 85,we obtain

t:'"'
zr(breakdownuottugq=E{ = (t, )'
2 2 q

_ 1 1 . 9 x 8 . 8 5 x 1 0x-(' 2o . 8 x 1-0z'-),('1 0
.-\,
''/
2xl.6xro-,,

= 2 s sv

2xll.9x 8.85x l0-'a x 258

:1.843x 10-3cm= 18.43fem
1.6x10-rexl0t5

when the n-region is reducedto 5pm, the punch-throughwill take place first.

From Eq. 87, we can obtain

Zr' _ shadedar_eain
F_is.
2ginsert=(!_)(r_y_)
vB G.w'Iz \w^ )\" w^)
(w\( w\ ( s \/ s \
V u ' = V;u l l l2 - - l = 2 5 8 x- 1 l l z - - - : - -l = 1 2 vl
\w ^ )\ It/^ ) 18.43l\ t8.43
\ )

Compared
to Fig. 29, thecalculated
resultis the sameasthe valueunderthe
 conditions
ofW:5 pm andNa: 1015cnL3.

17. we can usefollowing equationsto determinethe parametersof the diode.

J ,' = e' \, p" -, n , ' , u , 0 , * Q w t l ,e c v t 2 k-=r'"\Et t, LNeos -v t k r

N, 2T,

2 =t,!"'
vr=t"!
" 2 q (*).

,kt os* lot)'

. ,=1n"
AJ, o N o , r , + A+ x |Axr.6x
l TE:-eqv 0 _ ", " Ex i , ;b? e a o 2 5 9 _ 2 . 2 x 1 o - 3
. 6 x ll0-re

v,:E+=ff{* ")-r =aH*#5

=130 (ru,)-'

Let E.:4x105 Y/cm,wecanobtainNo:4.05x101scrn3.

The mobility of minoritycarrierholeis about500 at No:4.05x l0r5

.' Dp:0.0259x500:12.95cnfls

Thus,the cross-sectional
areaA is 8.6x10-5cm2.

18. As the temperatureincreases,the total reversecurrent also increases.That is.

the total electroncurrentincreases.

The impact ionizationtakesplacewhen the

electrongains enoughenergy from the electricalfield to createan electron-

hole pair. When the temperatureincreases,total numberof electronincreases

resulting in easy to lose their energy by collision with other electron before

breakingthe latticebonds.This needhigherbreakdownvoltage.

19. (a) The i.layer is easy to deplete,and assumethe field in the depletion region is
 constant.From Eq. 84, we canobtain.

"w .( r \u .( e \o t/
, IJ o l 0 ' l = - - | d*=l=1001.-- | x l 0 - ' = l l E " , n i , o t : 4 x 1 0 5x ( 1 0 ) l o= 5 . 8 7x 1 0 5V / c m
\4x10'/ [axl05/
4 V B = 5 . 8 7x 1 0 ' x 1 0 - 3= 5 8 7 V

(b) From Fig.26, the critical field is 5 x 105V/cm.

uottu):{
Z"(breakdown =''i;' (wr)'

x 8.85
- 12.4 x 10-ta
ab x 105IQ * t',uf'
2 xl.6xl0

= 42.8V.

I - tnl8
20, e-on'u =1022cm-o
2 xl}-o

y, =Y - +""' l2e"1"'1o1'"'
E ^
r 3 L q l
o
- 4Er"' |z * n,gl,s,Ls-.:to' 1"' * 1ror,1-,,,
3 1 . 6x l 0 - ' '
L ,j
= 4.84 xl}-,E"3 /t

The breakdown voltage can be determined by a selected t".

21. To calculatethe resultswith appliedvoltageof V = 0.5V , we can use a similar calculation

in Example 10 with (1.6-0.5) replacing 1.6 for the voltage. The obtainedelectrostatic

potentials are l.lV and 3.4x l0-o V, respectively.The depletion widths are

-s -8
3.821xl 0 cm and 1.274 x 10 cm, respectively.

Also, bysubstituting V =-5 V to Eqs.90 and 91, the electrostatic

potentialsare 6.6V

and 20.3x l0-4 V , and the depletionwidths ue 9.359x l0-5 cm and 3.12x l0-8 cm,

respectively.

The total depletionwidth will be reducedwhen the heterojunctionis forward-biasedfrom

the thermalequilibrium condition.On the other hand,when the heterojunctionis reverse-

 biased,the total depletionwidth will be increased.

22. Es(0.3)= 1.424+ 1.247x 0.3 = 1.789eV

r/ - _Esz
/ b i_ _'c
A-E _ ( E o r _ E r r ) /
q _ ( E r r _ E r r ) /q
q q

= t.tle* o.^-gh oI \l=orr'

-4r 1,.l:,, = r.273
y
q 5x10" e 5xl0

r ^,, tV r
| 2N /E$.v^,
^' , - , - , - ,
LqNo(e,Nr+erNn))
l" I 2x12.4xLI.46x8.85x l}-ta x1.273
1'
t 1 . 6x t o - ' e x 5 x 1 o r 5( t z . + + 1 1 . 4 6 )

:4.1x10-5cm.

Since Nrr, = N ,txz .-.xr = xz

. ' .W : 2 x , : 9 . 2 x 1 0 - 5c m = 0 . 8 2 p t m .
 CHAPTER 5

l. (a) The common-baseand common-emittercurrentgainsis given by

do: 1&r = 0.997x 0.998= 0.995

o ao 0.995
l-d^ l-0.995
= 1 9 9.

(6) Since 1a =0 and lgr=l}xl0-eA,then lruo is toxlO-e A.Theemittercurrentis

Icno =(t+ p)truo

= (t +tr).to x lo-e
=2x10{A.

2. For an idealtransistor,

d'o=f=Q'!))

P ' : & : s e s'

Iruo is known and equals to t0 x t0-5 A . Therefore,

Iceo = (* gotruo
: ( l + 9 9 9 ) . 1 0x 1 0 - 6
=10rnA.

junction is forward biased.From Chapter3 we obtain

3. (a) The emitter-base

=kr 1n(N
vo, sl to'''z'-t-9'' o.nru
't! 'l= o.orrnrf u.
q l=
\ ni- ) t p.65xlo"f J

Thedepletion-layer
widthin thebaseis
 N n=, gotAa"ptetion-
4 ' =( ,, I layerwidthof theemitter- basejunction)
(N, +No )
-
=^lz,(yolf
q =_+lr,,u, _r,)
1l [lro )\',n-',o 1

= /z.r.os
_ * ro_,,
f:::g:)f , \. -0's)
I '- ,-'' t; , rorj(.;,.
roq;Ar.,l(0'es6
=5.364x 10-6
cm =5.364xl0-2trrm.

Similarly we obtain for the base-collector function

-l
ro'''
ro:
" =o.o25e"[?'
v^, =o.rn,
u.
" lo'Jr
LP.os l

l
4.254x706
cm:4.254x10-2
um .

Thereforethe neutralbasewidth is

Vl =Wn-Wr-W, =l-5.364x10-2-4.254x10'2
= 0.904Um.

(b) UsingEq.l3a

. | ^\2
x l0-'f
= l-i' ,rrolor - (9'65
p,(0) = pnoe4vralkr =2.543x l0r cm-3
eosloo2ss
ND- 2x10t1

4. [n the emitterregion

D, =52 cmls L, =62,10-t = 0 . 7 2 1 x 1 0 ' c m

g s- l o -')' =rg .625
nE o=(q .
5x l 0 ' 8

In the baseregion
 D o = 4 0 c m l sL o = f f i = J + o ' 1 0 -=72 x 1 0 -c3m

= -,
' ro-nY
^ - n,'-=(q'os =465.613
P ro = = +o).1 .
Vtr- "10--

In the collectorregion

Dc =ll5 cm/s Z. =fis 3 cm

to* =10.724x.10

' =futrt=9.3r2x lo3

,rn
lo'u

aregivenby Eqs.20, 2I, 22, and23:.

The currentcomponents

l . 6 x l 0 - ' e. 0 . 2 x I 0 - 2. 4 0 . 4 6 5 . 6 1 3
Iuo e o s l o o z=s1e. 5 9 6 x l o r A
0.904x 10-o
Iro 7 I u o= 1 . 5 9 6 xl 0 - ' A
. 0 . Z x l 0 - . 2. 5 2 . 1 9 . 6 2 5
Iun _ l . 6 x l 0 , n ( r o r t r o r r nl_) = t . 0 4 l x I 0 _ i A
v
0.721x10-3
1 . 6x 1 0 - ' '. 0 . 2 x 1 0 - 2
. I l 5 . 9 . 31 2x l 0 3
1,, = 3 . 1 9 6 x1 O - t A
o
10.724x10-'
Iuu = I r o - I r o = 0

5. (a) The emitter,collector,and basecurrentsaregiven by

I, = I to * Irn = l'606x10-5 A
5
I c = I c p * I c n = 1 . 5 9 6x l 0 A

I u = I r n * I u , - I c ^ = l ' 0 4 1 x 1 0 - 7A '

(b) We can obtain the emitter efficiency and the basetransport factor:

1,,
"' 1.596x lo-5
Y-
' = =0.9938
I" 1.606xl0-'

Iro 1.596x l0-5

*r -
Itu l.596xlo-5

Hence, the common-base and common-emitter current gains are

d,=fUr=0.9938

F o= : a o :160.3
l-do
 (c) To improve y,the emitterhasto be dopedmuch heavierthan the base.

To improve a, we can makethe basewidth narrower.

6. We cansketchp^(x)l p,(0) curvesby usinga computerprogram:

o
c
o-
x
vc
0.4

0.4 0.6

D I S T A N C Ex

In the figure, we can see when WlLo.O.L (WlLe=0.05 in this case),the

minority carrier distributionapproaches

a straightline and can be simplified to

Eq. 15.

7 . UsingEq.l4, 1r, is givenby

 I,o:A(-ro,H,^)

- t.ornEl
=u(nilfo
l
Le

'*g)
'ulkr
' a V
e'
\e - n lL, )
no rno

I -r)
tt l l
= nn.'=O"f
L o, l
t-rrf 'alkt
e7 4' Y t lkr _ tl
L ll
.l
=uDrf "o'th'hlL,W I

\
rfr
?)l
Similarly, we can obtain lro:

,r,=u(-no,H,=,)
t , ( w- * \ -a"".n[l]
^.r"'^'*- ttl,*r4)
=^-rr,rln
l_
Lp Izo ) Lp
'I'no
lL, )
,t"hf4l

|
\1, ) \1, )

,,[---L1:{All
=qoTI*'^'-
L,*[fJ]
r,
L'ry';]i
=qAT;E *,-,)."".{fJ]
lQ,,

8. The total excessminority carrierchargecanbe expressedby

 g,:nn([r,e)- p,"fdx
-1
,wl -
= q A l I p , o " o " u , o , 1| l--; l a x
Jo L-"" W )
" t w
:qApnoeorol*
O-+)l
2prh
otr14tr..
-"evrolkI
2
_ qAWp"(0)
4
L

From Fig. 6, the triangularareain the baseregioni, wpo(O). By multiplying this

z

valueby q andthecross-sectional
areaA, we can obtainthe sameexpressionas en.

In Problem3,

1 . 6x l 0 - t e . 0 . 2 x 1 0 - 2 . 0 . 9 M x l 0 { . 2 . 5 4 3 x l } t l
2
=3.678x10-t5C.

9. lnEq.27,

I c = or, (f avulw -l)+ a,

_ qAD,p,(0)
W
qAep,(o)
=2Do
w.2 2
2D
= '
*?Q'
Therefore,the collectorcurrentis directly proportionalto the minority carrier

chargestoredin the base.

10. The basetransportfactoris

 -r)*
l{""*'*."./zll
-. I
l 'l
sllillt - |
\1, ))
I"^ lL' )
d ,' Z J =
Ib
t
""'nI
HV L
L)=1. Thus,
For t4fLo<<1, cosh(Vf

dr=

,,,,,i',hfzl
""rh(L\
\1, ) \1, )

:.""nIlL)
\1, )

t-t(w)'
2lL' )
=r-0t'lzro
z)

11. The common-emitter

currentgain is givenby

R: do - Wr
'o-
l-oo l-wr'

Since7 = 1,

a'
8..=
l-d,

_ r-frr,'lz4')
,,
t-[-Vy'lzr,')]
=Qto'fw')-t
.

rf WfLp <<1,thenpo=zLo'fW' .

12. L o = r l D o t , = ^ / 1 0 0 . 3x 1 0 - 7= 5 . 4 7 7x 1 0 - 3c m= 5 4 . 7 7p m

Therefore, the common-emitter current gain is

 "to.:\'
P' = 2 LP, 2tl W , = z ( s ! . l l
Q"lo-')'
= 1500.

13. In the emitterregion,

Fpr =54.3+ =87.6

l + 0 . 3 7 4x l 0 - r t . 3 x l 0 r 8

-87.6= 2.26cmls
D t = 0.0259

In the base region,

1252
pn =88+ = 1186.63
I + 0 . 6 9 8x l 0 - r t . 2 x l 0 t 6

Dp =0.0259.1186.63
=30.73cm/s .

In the collectorregion,

407
Lr.r-= 54.3+ .= ,, = 453.82
l+0.374x10-".5x10''

. 453.82
Dc = 0.0259 = I l.75cm/s .

14. In the emifterregion,

x l0 3 cm
I
L, = ^tDp, =^lZ.Z6g.l0*=1.506

fri (9.65r'^nY
_ _=
rn L,(,, = = 3r.04cm-j
NF 3r.lir

In the baseregion,

L, = J3u734.10u= 5.544x10-3
cm

6.os ' tonY =

n ^- = Y:::::LJ- 4656.13 cm-3
2x l0'o

ln the collectorregion,

L. --"111.754-10{= 3.428x10-3
cm
 / ^\,
,.^ -19'65 xlol- f = 18624.5cm'3
5x l 0 ' '

The emiffer current components are given by

, r, :Weo.6ro o2se
= 526.g3x
lo-6 A
0 . 5 xl 0 +

..?.?69.3r.04
'rEP-_1.6xrc-t:..1_0: Qo
\
4o.ozse_r)=
t.OOex l0_eA .
r.506 x lo-3

Hence,the emittercunent is

It = I tna Itu = 526.839x lOj A .

And the collectorcurrentcomponentsare given by

.10-o-30.734.4656.13
,r^ _l.6xl}'" =526.g3x10_6A
eoqo.o2ss
0 . 5x l 0 {

. 1 0 4. 1 1 . 7 5 4 . 1 9 6 2 4 . 5
- _
I'cP - 1.6x101e = 1 . 0 2 2 x 1 0 rA
n .
3.428xro-3

Therefore, the collector current is obtained by

Ic = Ico '1 Ico :5-268x l0- A .

15. The emitterefficiencycanbe obtainedby

I
y' - tn - 526'83xlo{- = 0.99998.
IE 526.839x l0-

The base transport factor is

*'-
fl _
I"-
\rt
2 6 ^ 8x 3l0*
- 5526.83 *lo-u-''
h

Therefore,the common-base
currentgain is obtainedby

do -- Tdr = I x 0.99998= 0.99998 .

The valueis very closeto unigz.

The common-emittercurrentsain is
 oo - 0'99998
B^= = 5oooo.
l-a" l-0.99998

16. (a) Thetotalnumberof impuritiesin theneutralbaseregionis

% = fr Nnoe-,/tdx=
wnol(l-r-*/,)
= 2 x l 0 r 8 . 3 x l 0 - 5( - e - ' " ' o ' / ' . ' o - ' ) = 5 . 5 8 3x l 0 t 3 c m - 2

(b) Averageimpurity concentrationis

9c _5.583x10'3
W 8x10-5
=6.979x 1017
cm-3

L7. For N, = 6.979x10tt"*-t, D, =7.77cm3/s,and

-3
L, = ,tD^r, = tll.ll . l0{ = 2.787x 10 cm

_l , w2 , (srlo-'I
-I --
Ar = ---------==l--r = 0.999588
2Ln' zQ1u " to- ' f

I - = 0.99287
,, Dt Qo I .5.583x10'3
l+
D, N ELE 7 . 7 7 l O t e. 1 0 - 4,

Therefore,

ao=wr=0.99246

B o= : u : 1 3 1 . 6 .
l-C/o

18. The mobility of an averageimpurity concentrationof e .glg x l0r7 cm-3 is about

300 cm'/Vs. The averagebaseresistivity pu is given by

 Therefore"

Ru--5x to1(p-
uI w) = 5x l0' -(o.ozes
ltx 10r) = 1.869
o .

Fora voltagedropof kr f q ,

,, = o.ol3e
A.
#=
Therefore.

I c = F o I a = 1 3 1 . 6 . 0 . 0 1 3=9 1 . 8 3A .

19. FromFig. 100and Eq. 35,we obtain

1"(r,A) 1.(mA) e,=#

0 0.20

5 0.95 150

l0 2.00 210

l5 3.10 220

20 4.00 180

25 4.70 140

Bo is not a constant.At low 1, , becauseof generation-recombination

current, Fo

increaseswith increasing1, . At high I B, vEBincreases

with l, , this in turn causes

a reductionof lzr. since Vru+Vur=Ytc=sV. The reductionof Vu, causesa

wideningof the neutralbaseregion,thereforepo decreases.

The following chart shows Bo as function of I B. lt is obvious that Fo is not a

constant.
 /
,1 \
/
/ \ t
o
/ \
/ \ .

5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0

ls (trA)

20. Comparingthe equationswith Eq. 32 gives

Iro=art, a^Ioo=a,

d rI ro = ar, artd I no = dzz

Hence,

azt
*d -' -:
or- tZ.%."*
LE De p,o

crr. I
- - n- : -
er, ,r J, _W
. - . _
Dc flco
Lc Dp pno

21. In the collectorregion,

Lc : ^[Dc%= Jr.tou =1.414 .3

x lo cm

f t c o= f t , 2l N , = ( e . O"sr c t l f s x l 0 r 5= 1 . g 6x3l 0 ac m - i.

FromProblem20,we have
 I
"
. 14/ D, npn 9.31
l+-.-.: ,*0.5x104.1.
LE D, P,O lo-3 lo 9.31x lo-2
= 0.99995

d R - 1
,' -, W Dc ftco
* " x- l0{
t - *0.5 2 1.863x lOa
+ ,, ,- m 93r.ro-
= 0.876

rro=ctr,=n4+.ry:)
. ( r c . 9 . 3 1 x 1 0 21 . 9 . 3 1 )
1.6x10-te.5xl0-a.l . *-l
| 0.5x l0* t0* )
: I . 4 9 x 1 0 - t oA

rno=ozz=r4+.T)
')
= 1.6xl0-re.5 xl0+ .(!2'tt"to' 2'l'863x 104
-
\ 0.5"10-t lAA"ll-t )
= 1 . 7x 1 0 - r 4
A .

The emitter and collector currents are

I .. ,.- \
I, = I ro\ea,ett*t - 1)+ u^l ^o

= 1 . 7 1 5 x 1 0A
r

L . , . - \
I c = dr I rope'utr' - l)+ I *o
= 1 . 7 1 5 x 1A
0 {.

Note that thesecurrentsare almostthe same(no basecurrent) for WfLo <kl .

22. Refening Eq. 11,the field-freesteady-state

continuity equationin the collectorregion is

_ o.
D-ld'",y)l_n,(,')-,0"
"L
dtz t, )

The solutionis given by ( L, = ^lD{, )

"r(r\ = gr"''/r' *Cre-''lLc .

Applying the boundaryconditionat x'="o yields

 Cre4r,+Cre-41.=0 .

Hence Cr = 0 . In addition,for the boundaryconditionat x'= 0 ,

Cre-oltt :C, =nc(o)

n.(o) = nroQ*'"ln -|]1.

The solutionis

ulw - tp-'l t"

n, &) = nro (eav"

The collectorcurrentcan be expressedas

,,=n(-no,*|.=.J.,no,#1.
=,)
[-
=qAL#(*il mt*r- t- r^(2"t-. "f) rr
Qtrc,r- r)
(f+vcnltr-
ar, (dr* lkr - l) - ou 1) .

23. Using E,q.44,the basetransittime is given by

tu=w'/2D,
=$ji# =t.25xro-ro
s.

We can obtainthe cutoff frequency:

f, =lf2m u:l'27 Grrz

From Eq. 41, the common-base

cutoff frequencyis given by:

.f" =.f,I ao=# =1.27

SGHz
.

The common-emittercutoff frequencyis

,fp =(t- a)f" =(t - o.f8)" 1.275x10e=2.55MHz .

Note that "fp can be expressed by

f B = (t - uo)f" =(t - aoYoo * .f, =* f, .

Po
24. Neglectthetimedelaysof emitterandcollector,thebasetransittime is givenby

t ,"= - J - = 3 1 . 8 31x0 - " s .

24, 2nx5 xl}"

FromEq. 44,l/'canbeexpressed
by

w=^lr4r, .
Therefore,

w=ffi
=2.52x 10-5cm
= 0.2521"rn
.

The neutralbasewidth shouldbe 0.252 pm.

25. L,E, :9.8Yoxl .I2 = 110 npV.

( tn-\
D,-.wl^"il
\ , .,

(ttomev ll0mev)
. . .B , ( t , o o " ?
: ,) - :0.2g.
7F-q-exp[ 373r mk )

26 ffi="*(!o#"J="*L
0.02s9
Eru(x) -1.424

where

E rr@) =1.424+ 1.247

x, x < 0.45
= 1 . 9+ 0 . 1 2 5 x+ 0 . 1 4 3 x 0
, . 4 5< x < l .

The plot of B,(HBT)/F, (Bni is shownin the following graph.

 t.e.o.tesx*d.r/t3*

Note that B'(IST) increasesexponentiallywhen x increases.

27. The impurity concenhationof the nl region is t0racm-3. The avalanche

breakdownvoltage(for w rW^) is largerthan 1500V (ry^>l00pm). For a

reverseblock vottageof 120V, we can choosea width suchthat punch-through

occurs,i.e.,

v
, D T
- qNoW'
- -
-

28,

Thus,

*-(#l=r.nuxro-3cm.

Whenswitchingoccurs,

a,r+a,r=l

That is,

o,=osp'(*)
= t - 0 . 4= 0.6

. t J l
url - | = 0.6
- 25x70-a
t r I
\"0,/ 0.5 39.6x l0-u
=1.51
 Therefore.

J = 4.5J0= 2.25x l0-5 A/cm2

-/ '
Area: = "l x" "l 0 - l - = 4 4 . 4 c m t
J 2.25xlo-5

28. In the nl -p2 - n2 trarsistor,the basedrive currentrequiredto maintaincurrent conduction

is

1,'= (l - u")I* .
In addition,the basedrive currentavailableto the nl - p2 - n2 transistorwith a
reversegate currert is
I, = qI n - I r.
Therefore,when use a reversegate current,the condition to obtain tum-off of the thyristor
is given by
Ir 1I,
or qIn-Is<G-ur)I*.
Using Kirchhoffs law, we have
I*=Iu-Is.
Thus, the condition for hrm-on of the thyristor is
, q+4-1 ,
/ - t A
t s
- o q '

Note that if we define the ratio of llto 1" as tum-off gain, then the maximum tum-off
gatnh* is
%
F * = oc,+ , .
a" _l
 CHAPTER 6

1.

Ec
Ep
Ei
\ Ev
...-.................-.
- - -

METAL OXIDE n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

2.

Ec
Ei
Ee Er
Ec
Ei Ev
Ev

3.
n- POLYSILICON OXIDE p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Ec
Ei
Er
Ev

-l
a",l
v

n- POLYSILICON OXIDE p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

4.

(a)

E (x)

(b)

v6)
5. W, =2

_
J "n * 8 8 5 x rxoo' o 2\ 6
39 .h
+6 xf5l I 0 ' ,
- ' .| ,J1
lixtorv"*r;"
: 1 . 5x l 0 - sc m : 0 . 1 5I m .

tot
6. C-,"
d +(e,, /e")W^
W^ =o.l5p m FromProb.5
-ra
3.9x 8.85x l0
i'C^in : = 6.03x l0{ F/cm2.
3'9
8 x l 0 - 7* *1.5x10-5
I1.9

to"
7. Vn =t!n!o:o.o26h = =0.42y
q ni 9.65x l0'

,"=4atintrinsic v"=vn
e"

= 0 . 7 4 x1 0 - 5 c m

_ l . 6 x l 0 - r ex l 0 r 7x 0 . 7 4 x 1 0 - 5
EJ l ' 1 1x l o ' v / c m
1 1 . 9 x8 . 8 5 " 1 0 F =
. 1 " ' t' o : 3 . 3 8
E o : E r € " : 1 . 1 1x l 0 5 x xl05 V/cm
€o* 3.9

V: Vo+yr,: Eod + y " :(r rt x lo5x 5 x to-?)+0.+2.

:0.59 V.

8. At the onsetof stronginversion,V ":2V n ) V6:V7

thus,
v6=$*r, u
co

F r o mPr o b5. ,W* :0 .t5 fg m,y u :0 .0261n[- t,!to' lr ]:O.O

u
[9.65x 10'J
L o :--------:- : 3.45x I 0-7F lcm2
10*
. r / - 1 . 6x 1 0 - t ex 5 x 1 0 1 x6 l . 5 x l 0 - 5
. . v c - +{.8:0.35+0.8:1.15V.
3.45x l0-?
s. Q.,=: [:,- yq(rl,,
>0, =ryfft)* rc',x ( 1 0 - u) ' l
:8x10-eC/cr*
QO' - 8 x l o - e- = 2 . 3 z x l o - '
A,V.. = v.
co 3.45xl0-'

l r a
10. Q* =i lo rp",Q)dy
(
/ = 5xl0-7
po,=e x5x10tt{x), w h e r e6 ( _ r =) 1l @ '
10, y * 5xl0-7
I
.'.O^,- " 5 x 1 0 " x 5 x 1 0 - ' x. l6x 1 O r n
10'
:4x10-8C/cnf
4x10-8-
:'LV'o-Qo'- = 0 ' 1 2V
C, 3.45x10-'

:+ x 1 . 6x t O - 'xnl " S " 1 0 " 1 1 0 * ; , .

10-" 3

I rlo{
I 1. Q",:; y ( q x 5 x L o 2 x3 y ) d y
l,
:2.67x10'8Clcn?

: ' L V " - Q o ' - 2 ' 6 7 x 1 0 - B= 7 ' 7 4 x 1 0 - 'V '

C 3 . 4 5x 1 0 - '

12. LVr,
fD
=% = +"4x NM
^,where
) N, is theareadensityof'e*.
C C d

0 ' 3 - x J ' + } 1 0?
- lt{,-!'vou*c"- = 6 . 4 7 x 1 0 ' c, r n 2 .
q 1.6x10

13. Since Z, << (Vo -Vr) , the first termin Eq. 33 canbe approximated
as
7
lt,C"(vo -ht/ u )Vo.
I
PerformingTaylor'sexpansionon the 2ndtermin Eq. 33, we obtain
( v o + 2 t y u) t , , - ( 2 V u ) t , , = ( 2 V u ) t , , + ) { z w u ) r , ' v o - ( 2 V u ) r , , = } f r w , l , r v o

Equation33 can now be re-writtenas

 - zT 'l ' tn' '{'"
= t ' l - -l*" .E 'n\'*'1I'^
L Lo rl
=(|)p,c"(vG -vr)vD

v,=ayu.JO'tTy
where

14. Whenthe drain and gateareconnectedtogether,Vo =Vo andthe MOSFET is

operatedin saturation(Vo > Vo"*) . I o canbe obtainedby substituting
V, =V^* in Eq.33

= n, "{W 2v,u)v^",
I ol,o*o
1 -rfv)'''l
+2vru)'''
{ry)[,""^
where Vo,o,is givenby Eq. 38. Insertingthe condition Q,(y = L)=0 into Eq.
27 yields
*2Vr) +Attu-Vc =0
VD"o,= ^l2e"Own(Vo,*
.L ,
For Vo,o,<<2eu, the aboveequatiohreducesto

vo=vo
"
-J'4@J
c o =v, .
+2tyu
Thereforea linearextrapolationfrom the low currentregionto I o =0 will yield
the thresholdvoltagevalue.

"
I s to'u--l=o.oo
kT. .N,
| ). V =-ln(-) = o.o26rn u
q n i
1 9 . 6x5l 0 - ' J
/-------:-;-
Y:''lt'QNn -
C 3.45x l0-7

:s-0.8 +(0.27)' Ir-l 1 +' - --

I
,l^ (o.zt),'
:3.42V
=zt!:l' vo
r D"o, \ U
-vr) _ 1 0 x 8 0 0 x 3 . 4 5 x 1 (s
0 --?
0.7)'
2 L 2xl
:2.55x10-2A.
 16. The deviceis operatedin linearregion,since V o = 0 . 1 Y < ( V o- V r ) = 0 . 5 V
a l t T
r, :
Therefore, =f F,C"(vo- v r )
frl n=*^,
:5 * 5 0 0 x 3 . 4 5 x 1x 00 -. 5'
0.25
: 1 .7 2 x10- S.3

oln I
17. g. = = z c,vo
frlvpuo,"t Tlt
- 5
x500x3.45x10-'x0.l
0.25
:3.45x10-4
S.

lol?
1 8 . V, =Vru + Ay u , V n- = 0 . 0 2 6 t { - - : i - - )
9 . 6 5x 1 0 " -

V,o=6 -:!-=
o " - 7E"- u n - 1 . 6 x 1 O - xt e5 x 1 O t o
c" 3.45 x10-7
= - 0 . 5 6- 0 . 4 2 - 0 . 0 2 : - l V
2 . l l l . 9x 8 . 8 5 xl 0 - ' ox 1 0 " x 0 . 4 2 x 1 . 6 x 1 0 - ' n
"'Vr = -1+ 0.84
3 . 4 5x l 0 - ?
: - 1 +0 .8 4+0 .4 9
: 0 . 3 3V
(Q., canalsobeobtained fromFig.8 to be- 0.9SV).

nF
t9. 0.7= 0 . 3 3 + a'B
3 . 4 5x l 0 - ?
0.37x 3.45x 10-?
FB _ =8xlOttcrn2
1 . 6x 1 0 - ' e

20. f., = -ti*U/a =-0.56+0.42=-0.14V

v,=e., - 2.[€JN
2rru "W
? (-

= -0.14- 0.02- 0.84- h?;,:.lIl.9

x 8.85x10*'axl.6x 10-'t xl0t7 x0.42
3.45 xl0-7
: - 1 . 4 9V
21. -0J : -1.4g* nFu
=
3.45xl0-'
, ," - o ' 7 9 x 3 ' 4 5 x l o r = l . 7 x l o ' ' c r n 2 .
l . 6 xl 0 - ' '

22. The bandgapin degeneratelydopedSi is aroundleV dueto bandgap-

narrowingeffect.Therefore,

Q ^ "= - 0 . 1 4 + 1 = 0 . 8 6V
. ' . V , = 0 . 8 6 - 0 . 0 2 - 0 . 8 4- 0 . 4 9 = - 0 . 4 9 V .
 to'' -]:0.0,
z). v. :o.o26r[ u
[ 9 . 6 5x l 0 ' /

Vr=Q^"
?+2ryu+'ry
= - 0 . 9 g- l ' 6 x 1 0 - t ex l 0 t t * 0 . * O ,v
co co
l 5 ' 2x l 0 - 8
= 4.14*
co

3 . 9x 8 . 8 5x l 0 - ' o 3 . 4d5x 1 0 - ' 3

- d -

v r> 2 0 =d . l l t l t 9 , ' > 2 0 . 1 4

3 . 4 5x 1 0 - ' '
.'.d > 4.57x l0-5cm : 0.457prn

24. Vr =0.5Y at Io = 0.lfg{

iJ-
9.1= ---
-7 -logI
olr.=o
= -12 .'.I olro* = I x 10-''A.
bg 1rl vo=o
25.

^vr=a*utp;-lv;)
' c o

V n = o ' 0 2 6 n' (9=. -6t5- o ' '^-. )' = 0 . 4 2 Y

x 10"
3'9x 8'85x-l0-ro
a" - 6.9x ro-?Frcrfi
5x 1 0 ' '
AY, = 0.I V if we want to reduceIp at V6: 0 by one orderof magnitude,

sincethe subthresholdswins is 100mV/decade.

r / 2 x l . 6 x l 0' ' x 4 . 9 x 8 . 8 5 x r 0x-r'0o1 7

0.,_ ( r o r a . r r __ J o 8 4 )
6 . 9x 1 0 - '
i.Vu,=0.83V.

26. Scalingfactor r :10

Switchingenergy= . A)v'
*,a
 C'-t* -tC
d
A
A,-
{

V'=L
If

.'. scalingfactorfor switchingenergy: 1 1 1 1

n.--.---.-=----:.=-
t< t( i 1000
A reductionof one thousandtimes.

27. From Fig. 24 wehave

(r, + L)2 : (r, +[ry^\' -W.'
.'.A2+ 2Lr, -2lf/.r . = 0
L=-rj+\l;;zw*
L'= L-2A,

L + - 2 1 - 2 ^ = r - A= t - 2 (
2 L 2 L L L I
From Eq. 17we have
_ al regio! - spacechargein tre rectangular region)
(spacechargein tre toapezaid
[no. -
/ r
' c o

_QN nW^,L + L', QNnW, qN nW,r, ( f W ,')

---:-
r ,rT--r !.
Co 2L' Co C,L rj
[1 I

28. Pros:
l . Higher operationspeed.
2 . High devicedensity
Cons:
l . More complicatedfabricationflow.
2 . High manufacturingcost.
29. The maximum width of the surface depletion region for bulk MOS

,nml _
- L"1 l - l e , k T l n ( N n / n , )

Y Q,Nn

=-1/
r.
1.6;m
= 4.9xl0* cm
= 49 rnn
F o r F D - S O Id, , i 1 W ^ = 4 9 r w r .
3 0 . v-t =v-^
rD
+2tu-
t D
*4Nnd"'
C.

v,u =-+ -+^(+)=-f -o026tnt##)

=e^" =-,o,u
=z*!!n(L)
2uru =0.92Y
q n i

3 . 9 x8 . 8 5 x1 0 - ' a
Co= = 8.63x10-t F/cm'
4xl}-'
-1.02+0.92+ x 5 x 1 0 t tx 3 x l 0 - u
l . 6 x1 0 - t e
".V, =
8 . 6 3 x1 0 - i
= -0.1+0.28
= 0 . 1 8V .

qNnLd
3 1 . l\l/A t ,.7' =
C o
ri

1 . 6 x1 0 - t nx 5 x l 0 t t x 5 x 1 0 - 7
8 . 6 3x 1 0 - ?
= 46mV
Thus, the range of 27"is from (0.18-0.046): 0.134 V to (0.18+0.046) : 0.226 V .

32. The planar capacitor

. F , z_ ----a.lo*
^
c: A'"/a = ( 1 x 1 0 r ) ' 3 . 9 x 8 . 8 6 x1 0 - 1 4= 3 . 4 5 x 1 0 _ r F,

Forthetrenchcapacitor

A:4x 7 prfr+I pm2: 29 pn?

C :29 x3.45 x10-1s
F : 100 x l0-1sF.

''t
33. I = C d V = 5 x 1 0 - t*a -=3.1x10-"A
d 4x10-'

7
34. f" =;!-tpci(V, -Vr)

4x l0-5:A(-5-Vr) ' V r= 7 V
I'10-5:A(-5+2)
LY =7 -(-2)=9Y.

35. V, =Vru +2r,ltu

 8 . 8 5 4 xl 0 - ' o
Co=3'9 x =3.45x 10-' Flcm2
l0-'
( r'-o ' i )
V" =0.0261n1 = l =0 .4 2 Y
( 9 . 6 5x l 0 ' /

=Q^,
vou = ,- ; - vEu
- tO -o
=-0.56 -0.42 = -{.98 V
2
V -= 4 . 9 8 + 0 . 4 2 +
3.45x 10-8
=-0.98+0.42+4.9
= 4 . 3 4Y
Q, 5x10" xl.6xlO-'e
LV-- =
co 3.45x 10-8
= - 2 . 3 2V
Vr = 4 . 3 4- 2 . 3 2
=2.02Y.
 CHAPTER 7

1. FromEq.l, the theoreticalbanierheightis

Qa,: Q. - X= 4.55- 4.01:0.54 eV

We can calculateZ, as

x 1o''
v," =!! yr5= g.g259
*2'86 , = 0.r88v
q ND 2xl0r6

Therefore,the built-in potentialis

V o , = Q r-,V n = 0 . 5 4 - 0 . 1 8 =
8 0.352V.

2. (a) FromEq.l1

de I C,) _ (6.2- L6):I0',

= _2.3x10,0(cm,/F),/V
dv -2-0
-l
)- f _t
N "^ = | l=4.7x10'ucm-'
qe" Ld(l /C') I dV )

lk- =
" =t!n
v- ^( +: * to".l=o.* u
s.6259
q ND \4.7 x l0'" /

From Fig.6,the interceptof the GaAs contactis the built-in potentialV6i,

which is equalta 0.7 V. Then,the barrierheightis

Q u ,= V o ,* V n = 0 . 7 6 V

(b) J" =5x10'7Ncmt

Ar = 8 NK2-cr* for n- type GaAs

tkr
J, = A.T'e-qQBt1

r (1ggJ'
={'{I\, =0.025erf
eu. q /" I
5xl0-'
I =o.rr.,,
| J
Thebarrierheightfromcapacitance
is 0.04V or 5Yolarger.
 (c) For V: -l Y

=2.22x 10-t cm=0.222tm

4N'w =1.43x105
v/cm
es

C =L=5.22x10-8F/cm2
W

3. The barrierheightis

Qu,= Q^- x= 4.65- 4.01=0.64V

v," =L! yr{s-=6.6259

*vr(2.8orlo'n
l=0.,r, u
q ND [ 3xlo'u )

The built-in potentialis

V o=
, Q r , - V , = 0 . 6 4 - 0 . 1 7 7= 0 . 4 6 3 V

The depletionwidth is

2e,(Vo,-V) 2 x l l . 9 x 8 . 8 5x l 0 - ' o
= 0.142hn
4No 1.6x10-tex3x10t6

The maximumelectricfield is

= ( 1 . 6x 1 0 ' ' )x ( 3x 1 0 1 ux)( 1 . 4 2 xt 0 r )

n y4t
l..l=1.(r= o)l=QN
q 11 . 9x ( 8 . 8 5x 1 0 - ' n
=6.54 x 100V/cm.
)

4. The unit of C needsto be changedfrom pF to F/c#, so

1rc2-- t.74xl01s-2.r2xl}ts 4 1crfinf

Therefore,we obtainthe built-inpotentialat IlC2 :0

l'57xlotj-
, ^" ' - = 0.74y
2.12x10"
 From the given relationshipbetweenC and Vo,we obtain

d(J-)
\ c ' ) : -Z.l2xl}ts
1cn?ny2V
dn
FromEq.t 1

2f -1 I
Nr= _t _ |

q e , l a g t c ' )d/ vl
2 _ [ r ' )
ffil.rlr.ro"j
= 5 . 6 x1 0 " c m - '

r0''
" ={1n &- =0.025e*[z.so*]=0.,u,u
v-
q ND I S . 0 x l 0 ' "J

We can obtain the barrier height

Q u n= V o ,* V n = 0 . 7 4 + 0 . 1 6=10 . 9 0 1 V .

5. The built-in potentialis

vt,=Qan_T"
*O
" ro"]
=0.8- o.o25gr[z'se
I t . s > < l o ")
= 0.8- 0.195
= 0.605V

Then, the work function is

Q^ =Qr^ * X
:0.8 + 4.01
= 4.81V.

6. The saturationcunent densityis

 qQu")
J. = ArT2 "*o(-
\rr )
>("*ol,,-,9', )
= I lox (3oo),
\0.025e
/
:3.81 x l0*1 Alcm2

The injectedhole currentdensityis

J,* -=Q D o n , ' - 1 . 6 x 1 0 - 'xn1 2 x ( 9 . 6 5 x 1 0 '=) 'rl.lex

, ^ . . l0-"Ncm'
i:t= ffi
Hole cunent J ,"1eqn'k' -11
Electroncurrent J"(etvlkr -l)

= J r o_ t . l g x l o - r r= 3 x l o _ 5 .
J" 3 . 8 1 x1 0 - '

7. The differencebetweenthe conductionbandand the Fermi level is given by

( dt 'to" \
t"l :*
V^=0.0259 l:0.04V.
\ 1 x 1 0 ")

The built-in potentialbarrieris then

Vt, =0.9- 0.04= 0.86V

For a depletionmodeoperation,VTis negative.Therefore,From Eq.38a

V r = 0 . 8 6 - V ,< 0

qa'N^ l.6xlO-'na'xlO't
rr=-zE:=m>0'86

1 . 6x 1 0 - 2
----------------a" >0.86
2 . 1 9x l 0 - ' '

a > 1.08x 10-5cfir= 0. 108 i m.

 8. From 8q.33we obtain

Q N o a ' _ 1 . 6 x 1 O - t xe 7 x l 0 t 6 x ( 3 x 1 0 - s ) 2 _ A A . ,
VP _
2e. 2 x 1 2 . 4x 8 . 8 5x l 0 - ' o

' o = x 10-'a Es2

5 x 10-ox 4500x12.4x8.85
" 6 m
0.3x10-o
x1.5x10-a il*o.t
: 1 . 2 8 x 1 0 - 3S : 1 . 2 8m S .

9 . (a) The built-in voltageis

v o=, Q u-nv , = 0 . 9- 0 . 0 2 5 h1I o1 , t 0l':' 0 . 8 V

6
[ 10" /

At zerobias,the width of the depletionlayer is

2 x 1 . 0 9 x 1 0 - "x 0 . 8 6
[.6x10-tnx10t7

: 1 . 0 7 x 1 0 - cs m

: 0 . 1 0 7p m

SinceI/ is smallerthan0.2 pm, it is a depletion-modedevice.

(b) The pinch-off voltageis

l . 6 x l 0 - ' nx 1 0 t t ( 2 lx0 r ) : 2 . 9 2 y
v'" _ e N o a ' _
2e" 2 x 1 2 . 4 x 8 . 8 5l x0 - ' o

and the thresholdvoltageis

Vr : Vri- Vp : 0.86- 2.92: -2.06V.

10. From Eq.3lb, the pinch-offvoltageis

 ' nx l o ' t ( 2 x l o
,, _QNoa' _l.6xlo
, - - - 7 - - l): o.ruo
u
2t, 2 x l 2 - 4x 8 . 8 5 xl 0 - ' o

The thresholdvoltageis

Vr : Vni- Vo: 0.8- 0.364: 0.436Y

and the saturationcurrentis given by Eq. 39

:t44v"
I r"o, -Vr)'
2 a L \ s

50x 1:0r;+2'1:j':851t0: 4s00 - : 4.7x10*A.

" ) x ( l x l 0: -io ) (0 0.436),
2x(0.5x10

)
ll' 0 ' 8 5 - o ' o z s g h ( 4 ' 7 " 1l0- -" l u x l ' - r e x N ^
. a- : 0
\ N , ) 2 * 1 2 . 4 ,
8 J 5 l 0 - "

For No : 4.7 x 1016crn3

_ , t ,
( xl}" (3'7xr}')
- | 0.85-0.0259^4'7
a: )"
t ND ) ^lN"
: 1 . 5 2 x l 0 - sc m : 0 . 1 5 2p m

ForNl : 4.7 x 1017

crn3

a : 0 . 4 9 6 " 1 0 - sc m : 0 . 0 4 9 6p m .

12. From Eq.48the pinch-off voltageis

v , = Q. n n- - 'M - v ,
q

:0.89 -0.23 - (-{.5)

:0.62V

andthen,

" "
y' . = -e:N n d , ' 1 . 6 x l 0 - t xe 3 x 1 0 t t' a ' : 0 . 6 2 V
2e. 2 x 1 2 . 3x 8 . 8 5x 1 0 - ' o
 d r : 1 . 6 8 ' 1 0 6c m

dt: 16.8nnr

Therefore,this thicknessof the dopedAlGaAs layer is 16.8nm.

13. The pinch-offvoltageis

l . 6 x l O - r nx l 0 ' sx ( 5 0 xl 0 - 7 )
v , - _Q N o d l - : l . g 4v
2e" 2 x 1 2 . 3x 8 . 8 5x l 0 - o

The thresholdvoltageis

AE,
V,=Qu,-" _ r./
r,
q

: 0 . 8 9 - 0 . 2 3- 1 . 8 4

: - 1 . 1 8V

Whennr:1.25x 1012
crn2,weobtain

1 2 . 3x 8 . 8 5x l O - t o r- i
'" : x[o - (-l'18)]=r'25xrot2
ffi
and then

do+58.5: 64.3

d o : 5 . 8n m

The thicknessof the undopedspaceris 5.8 nm.

14. The pinch-offvoltageis

rl r -
q' NUr d |l l . 6\ x l- 0 -- ' e -x 5' x l -0 x' 7
_ 1
( 5 o0 x' 1 0| ' ) \' . '
'
28" 2 x 1 2 . 3 x 8 . 8x51 0 - ' o

The barrierheightis

*AF
c
Q u n= V , + * V , = - 1 . 3+ 0 . 2 5 +1 . 8 4= 0 . 7 9 V
q
 The 2DEG concentrationis

12.3x8.85x10-'o - 1-t.:yf = |.zgx t o, cm-2

frr= * [o
l . 6 x l 0 r nx ( 5 0 + l 0 + 8 ) x l 0 - ?

15. The pinch-off voltage is

, , - Q N o d l- r < - l . 6 x l o - t nx l x l o t 8 x d f
'
2e 2 x 1 2 . 3 x 8 . 8x51 0 *

The thicknessof the dopedAlGaAs is

1 . 5x 2 x 1 2 . 3x 8 . 8 5x I n - r +
dr=
ffi:4.45x10-8cm:44.5nm
*_=S_
AF
vr = QB, _ _ Vp =0.9 _ 0.23_ 1.5= _0.93V.

t6. The pinch-off voltage is

aN^
v' ^ 2- ' e" d :

1 . 6 x 1 0 -x' t3 x 1 O t t
(rs* to' )': z.tv
2x12.3x8.85x10-to

the threshold voltage is

Atr
*c
V, = Qr, - -V,
q

: 0 .8 9-0 .2 4-2 .7

: -2.05Y

Therefore, electrongasis
thetwo-dimensional

12.3x8.85x10*'o
flr= 3.zx1o" crn2
* [o- 1-z.os)]=
l.6x 10-'nx (35 + 8) x 10-7
 CHAPTER8

l. Zo:
r
L = C: . 2 t o= 2 * 1 0 - 1 2x 7 5 2= 1 1 . 2 5n H .

2.

:{ro)'.0;GI
3 x 108m/s r:==
"a x { l 1 6= 1 . 6 1 6G t l z .

3. Vo,= (E, / q) +V^ *Vo : 1.42+0.03+0.03

: 1.48V

'=^W 1 /q I N , N , )
={
t-r-'' \lo"xro''/'
= 1.89x 10-6cm
= 18.9nm

c =k-r'l6xlo-t2 = 6 . 1 3x l o ' F / c m z.
W 1 . 8 9x 1 0 - '

4r="(t)"*?
t).,,*o(#)
From Fig. 4, We note that the largestnegativedifferentialresistanceoccursbetween Vp<V<Vq

The conespondingvoltagecan be obtainedfrom the condition &ttdV: 0. By neglectingthe

secondterm in Eq. 5, we obtain

 #=(+-T)"*l
t)
-+)=,
#=(+.#).*['
. ' . V- 2 V p= 2 x 0 . 1 = 0 . 2 V

#|"'.=ifr-
%#]"4' #)=-00367
-27.2,,.
^=(#1,,")-'=

5(a)
*":l ( n a*=+t:&d-=#*
| ,\2
_ (l2xl0-,1
= 1 3 7{ l
2 ( 5 x l } - a ) 1 . 0 5x 1 0 - ' ' x l 0 '

(b) The breakdownvoltagefor Np: 101scrn3and W: 12 pm is 250V (Referto Chapter4).

The voltagedue to {sc is

1 R r .= ( t O '* Sx t 0 ' ) x 1 3 7= 6 8 . 5V

The totalappliedvoltageis then250+ 68.5:318.5 V.

6. (a) The dc input power is l00V(10-'a1: tOW.For 25Yoefficiency,the power dissipatedas

heatis I0W(l-25%):7.5 W.

L T - - 7 . 5 Wx ( 1 0 ' C / W =) 7 5 ' C

( b ) A V B= ( 6 0 m V / " C ) x 7 5C
' = 4 . 5V

The breakdown
voltageat roomtemperature
is (100-4.5):95.5V.

7. (a) For a uniform breakdownin the avalancheregion,the maximumelectricfield is

E^:4.4 xld V/cm. The total voltageat breakdownacrossthe diodeis

 4 =E,xu.[--f), w-xn)

= 4Axtd(0.+xt on)*(+.+. rO- 1.6xl0-'ex 1.5x1d2

3-0.a)x
10*
1.09x10-" )r
=17.6+57.2=748V

(b) The averagefield in the drift regionis

572
=Z.2xl05V/cm
( 3 0 . 4 ) xl 0 - "
-

This field is high enoughto maintainvelocity saturationin the drift region.

u' lot.
(c)f =, ,= , , =l9GHz.
2ltr-xn) 2(3-0.4)10-4

8. (a) In thep layer

s r ( x ) :r ^ - q y ' t o<x<b:31tm
E"

E2(x)+.^-W b< x< Il: t21tm

q

E2(-r)shouldbe largerthan 105V/cm for velocity saturation

" ' E ^- Q N ' b ' 1 g '

ts

qN'b
o r E m > 1 0 5+ = 1 0 5+ 4 . 6 6 x 1 0 - " N 1 .
q

This equationcoupledthe plot of E, versusN in Chapter3 gives

Nt :7 t 1015
cm3for E^: 4.2 x lOsV/cm

-er)b x3xl0{
. . . vo *= ( e . +E2w:(4.2-l)x105 +' -l ' "s x g x l 0 "
2 z
 :138V

W-b _(12-3)x10-:
(b) Transittimet : Qxlg-rs: 90 ps .
;=ffi

9. (a) For transit-timemode,we requiren6L > l0rz cni2.

no xl}tz / L =lotz /1x lor - lorucm-'

(b) r: L/v: I}a / 107- l0-rrs: 10ps

(c) The thresholdfield for InP is 10.5kV/cm; the correspondingappliedvoltageis

v =(to's:to')(,',0-')=o.52sv
[ 2 ) "

The current is

I = JA= (qnry, )a =(t.A" I 0-tex 4600xl016x 5.25x 10,)x 10{ : 3.g6A

The power dissipatedin the deviceis then

P=IV=2.02W.

10. (a) Refeningto Chapter2, we have

Ncu:r(ry\, =*,,(;),
= 4 . 7 x 1 g , r (t ' z * o ) ' = o . r x 1 0 r 7x 7 l = 3 . 3 3 xl 0 , , c m - .
\0I7m0 )

(b) For T":300 K

NCU lev ) - t, _ 0'3

lkq): ztxexn[ffiff (- 1r.e7)
o u n , . - AE t L , r , \ - ? r . , ^ - . ^ (
Ncz-exp(-aE )=rtxexp
:4.4x104

(c)ForL:1500K
 Ncu -0'3iev )
o-^(-,rt]It k
exP(-Ar:
.rr/.r- T) --r.,
L.r\ = 7| . ^-,J
"*pl 7| " "*p (- n94)
'oxlpoo l :oo))=
= 6.5

Therefore,at T" : 300 K most electronsare in the lower valley. However,at T" : 1500 K
,
87Yo,i.e.,6.5/(6.5+D,of the electrons
arein the uppervalley.

I l. The energyE" for infinitely deepquantumwell is

h"
En= n'
8 m't
:+
l*:1#e'x',)l
LE,=4*
L
.'. LEt = 3 meV, LE2= 11meV .

12. From Fig. 14 we find that the first excitedenergyis at 280 meV and the width is 0.8 meV. For

sameenergybut a width of 8 meV, we usethe samewell thicknessof 6.78 nm for GaAs, but

the barrierthicknessmustbe reducedto 1.25nm for AlAs.

The resonant-tunneling
currentis relatedto the integratedflux of electronswhoseenergyis in

the rangewherethe transmissioncoefficientis large. Therefore,the currentis proportionalto

the width A,En,andsufficientlythin baniersarerequiredto achievea high currentdensity.

 CHAPTER 9

= I .24/ 0.G 2.07eY (F romEq.9)

1. fw (0.6gtllrr)

oc(0.6pm):3xlOa crnr
The net incidentpoweron the sampleis the total incidentpowerminus the reflected

power,or 10 mW
I , \
10"[ _ e - 3 , 1 0 ' t {=J 5 x t O r

W:0.231 urn

The portion of eachphoton'senergythat is convertedto heatis

hv - E, _2.07-1.42
=3l.4yo
hv 2.07

The amountof thermalenergydissipatedto the latticeper secondis

3 l . 4 Y o x 5 : 1 . 5 7m W .

2. For l": 0.898pm, the conesponding

photonenergyis

l'24 =
E = 1.38 eV
h
FromFig. 18,we obtain"r 1arc.fCa0.7As):3.38
-+
sinQ = =+= 0.2958
) o"= 17"12'
.
fiz 3.38
4n'n'(r- c?:o")- + x t x g'ls[t- c9!(lz' t z')]
Efficiency-
@,*fi,)' (1+3.38f

= 0 . 0 3 1=53 . I S Y.o

3. FromEq. 15

/ \ 2
_ f3.39-ll=0.294
R=l-l
\ 3 . 3 9+ 1 /

(a) The mirror loss

 fill)= t, h,,f-l-')=40.58cm-,.
L \R/ 300x10-" \0.296)

(b) The thresholdcurrentreductionis

J,o(R= 0.296)- J,o(R,= 0.296,R,= 0.9)

lo*!r l,f1)l-l o*rr[--r-)l

2r
_L \R/J L [R,R,/j
o*!"fr')
L \Ri
t t
40.58- ,hf )
_ 2 . 3 0 0x l 0 - - \ 0 . 2 9 6 ' 0 . 9 0 /
l 0 + 40.58
=36.6%o.

4. From Eq. 10

s i n @= \ - i r = i r . s i n O .
n2

From Eq. l4

r = I - exp(- c Li d)= t - ""p(- 8 x r0' . 3.6(1- sine"). 1x 10 * )

F o r4 : 8 4 o n r : 3 . 5 8n : 0 . 7 9 4

Q : 7 8 on z : 3 . 5 2 r ; : 0 . g g S.

5. From Eq. 16we have

mL=2iL.

Differentiatingthe aboveequationwith respectto), we obtain

ndm ^,dn
/1e-+m-zL_-
dL d^
 SubstitutingZitll" for m andlettingdmldJ,: - Lm/L2,yield

{-}!\*z! 1 =2LE
il"
\^2)
:. a,).= fttm
znrlr-(1\(g\l
| \n )\dL))

and

6. From Eq.22

r:!I..|'(fl andEq
15R=(=)'
Rr : 0.317,R2: 0.31I

g(a+"
)=#a["'.#'(#)] =270
g(zs'
)=#*['*. **o"'(#)] =zt.
t rnf ' )= ' hfl)
2L' (R.0.99l t00xl0-a (R/

For Rr :0.317

---1-_-'(#), L,-50
pn
*^Gi "*l
F o rR 2: 0 . 3 1 1

=-*-'(#) >Li=50431t' t
#'["#-)

7. FromEq.23a
 ForR :0.317

J,o=ro. * ' r
, h( )l= ,oooNcm',
'
ftoo 2 x l 0 0 x [ 0 ' \ 0 . 3 1 7 x 0 . 9 9 ) )
andso I,n : 1000x100
xl0-o x5x 10+ = 5 nrA

F o rR : 0 . 3 1 1

FnI]> Fz: 0.1x0.998/0.7

64 : 0.I 3

J,o=7.66,.[roo |
h( )'l = ,uu Alcm-,
'
L 2xl00xl0-* \0.311x0.99))

andso I,a =766 x 100x 10* x 5 x 10-o= 3.83rnA .

8. From the equation,we have for m:0:

4 t 4 n L 4 + 4 n L L= o (2sa)

which can be solved as

(25b)

There are severalvariationsof + in this solutions.Take the solution which is the only

practicalone,i.e.,fuBg fuo,givesl"s :1.3296 or 1.3304pm.

1'33 =0.196
d- rrn
2x3.4

9. The thresholdcurrentin Fig. 26b is given by

I*: Io exp(Zl 10).

Therefore

,o- I =
' - = J-dI
E r (, c)-',
o.oo9
I,o dT llo

If To:50 oC,thetemperature
coefficientbecomes
 1
t-= ! =50 . 002 ( ,\C ) '/.

which is largerthanthat for To: 110oC.Thereforethe laserwith To: 50 oC is worse

for high-temperature
operation.

10. (a)Atr: QQt"+ 1:n\enA

M
-'-Ln =electron-holeoairs=, .
oltt,+ prb,a
-
2 . 8 3 xl 0 - '
=tu cill
l.6x l0-''(3600+t700{10/0.0)(zx
tx l0-' ,f
xlo 3
0) ? - 2'83 =l2ous
23.6
(c) nn(t)=^n
exp(-tlc)=r0""*n[-#h] =2.5x10e
cm-3.

l l . F r o mE q . 3 3

.o" ro-''.sooo
to* rooo
rP_=n(
' \ 'o.ss. ).I )
3"q)\ t0xlO-o )
= 2 . 5 5 x 1 0 - u= 2 . 5 5 1 t A

andfrom Eq.35

3000.6 x l0-'o .5000

(raln= tt-E =--- =t '
r 1o; r-,

12. FromEq. 36

( qL\('--l'
,' :( )\nvl =fglP\=of41)
lP.o,)\q) \q)

The wavelength2"of light is relatedto its frequencyv by v = c/L wherec is the velocity of

light in vacuum.Thereforehv /q: hc I 2q andh: 6.625x10-34

J-s,c : 3.0xl0l0 cmls,q :

coul.I eV : 1.6xl0-reJ.
1.6x10-re
 Therefore,
hv/q:1.24 / ),fum)

Thus,4: (Rx1.24)
/ LandR: (rZU/ 1.24.

13. The electricfield in the p-layeris givenby

r , ( x ) = u ^ - T ' N tot< x < b ,

€"

whereE,nis the maximumfield. In the p layer,the field is essentiallya constantgiven by

r, (x)=,^ -9!t!- b <x <w

ts

The electricfield requiredto maintainvelocity saturationof holesis - lOs V/cm.

Therefore

qN'b
E- -JI-J" > 16s
€r

or

E . > 1 0 5* 4 1 ! ' b = 1 0 ' + 4 . 6 6 x 1 0 - , , N r .

q

From the plot of the critical field versusdoping,the correspondingEm areobtained:

N1 :7xl01s cm-3

E^:4.2x105V/cm

The biasingvoltageis given by

,, =fui& *E2w
=":,q*-lo*) +ro,(rxro-o)
= 138 V.

The transittime is

-
, - (w u)_n1lg* =exro-,,=eops.
vs 107
14. (a) For a photodiode,only a naffow wavelengthrangecenteredat the optical signal

wavelengthis important;whereasfor a solarcell, high spectralresponseover a broad

solarwavelengthrangeare required.

(b) Photodiodeare small to minimizejunction capacitance,

while solarcells are large-area

device.

(c) An importantfigure of merit for photodiodesis the quantumeffrciency(numberof

electron-holepairs generatedby incidentphoton),whereasthe main concernfor solar

cells is the power conversionefficiency(powerdeliveredto the load per incidentsolar

energy).

15 (a)1"=AqN,N,(+^E.!^T-)"-",u
'[N, Nolto 1C )

= zft.sxto-'n[z.soxto'nfu..66x
10'n
)x
(= = t * . 8 *, =^ E ) , s - ,-, , " , 1 r ,
I t . z * 1 9 t e ! 1 9 -5sx r o '1es * t o - 'J
= 2.43x to2o(s.al * 1g+p-+t z

= 2 . 2 8 xl 0 - ' ' A
I:1,Q*lr')- t,

lll=tr-1"(etvtr' -r1

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.65 0.7

2.5x10-1.1x10-0.55 26.8179 1520 (mA)
/ 1

95 95 94.5 68.2 -84

nt" 'o'.-)= o.u,u

(b)v^.=u^( !-\= 0.025e*[
q [1" , \.2.28x10-")

(c) P= I,VQevrw-t)-trrt
 dP
o = 1"(rev/t'- t) * t, - I,
dV #enrlr,
I,etvlkr (l + tt) - t,

IL
.'. eon/o' -
1" (1 + v )

Vm
= 0.64 V

r
I
P^ = I,V^ = I t l v o , _t!n(r.sL\_tr1
L q \. kr) q)
= 9sx 10-3 - 0.025e
[0.68 n(t + z+.t)- 0.}zssl
=52 mW

1 5 0

16. From Eq.38 and 39

I = I,("0,0, -t)- t,
and

y_ -_nl
t r . ( r ", + l. l)= _rl rr l .l ( r-, \|
q \1" ) q 1.1"1
I, = It€-qvlkr - = 2.493 x 1 0 - t 0 A
3. e-o6fao7ss5

I = 3 - 2.493 xlO-ro . evloo2sssand P : I V

 V I P
0 3.000.00 2.00
0 . 1 3 . 0 0 0 . 30
0.2 3.000.60 a
1.50
€
I

0.3 3.000.90
0.4 3 . 0 0 20 B 1.00
0.5 2.94 .47 0.50
0.512.91 48
0 . 5 22 . 8 6 4 9 0.00
0 . 53 2 . 8 0 4 8 0.5
0 . 54 2 . 71 46
0 . 55 2 . 5 7 4l V (volts)
0.6 0.00 0.00
.'.Maximumpoweroutput: 1.49W
Fill Factor

pp:I^V^ = P- = t.4 9
IrV* I,V* 0.6x3
= 0.83.

17. FromFig. 40

The outputpowersfor &: 0 and &: 5 C)canbe obtainedfrom the area

Pr(&:0):95 m A x 0 . 3 7 5 V : 3 5 . 6m W ,

Pz(&: 5 C)): 50mAx0.l8v:9.0 mW

.'.For4,:6 Pr/ Pt : L00%o

F o r & : 5 O P z lP t : 9 / 3 5 . 6 : 2 5 . 3 Y o .

18. Theefficiencies
are14.2o/o
(1 sun),16.2%(1O-sun),
17.g%(100-sun),
and 18.5%

(1000-sun).

Solarcellsneeded
underl-suncondition
 ion) x P,,(concennation)
4(concentrat
rfi - sun)* P,,(l - sun)
-16 ' 2 Yo x l o= 1 1 .4 ce l l s fo r1 o -su n
xl
14.2Yo

=ll,Y|19 =ns cellsfor loo-sun

14.2o/o xl
- l8'5% x 10= 1300 cells for 1000- sun.
1 4 . 2 Yxol
 CHAPTER 1O

l . C o : 1 0 1 7c r n 3
/.g(Asin Si):0.3

Cs ftoCo(l - 1,11M0)*-t

x)-oz: 3x 101641- il50)0.7

: 0.3x1017(1-

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.9

/(cm) l0 30 45

Cs(cm-3) 3 . 5 x1 0 4.28x10 5 . 6 8 xl 0

16
14

o 10
- b 8

2
0

2. (a) The radiusof a silicon atomcan be expressedas

f =-g
It
8
t;
VJ
so r =-x5.43=1.175A
8

(b) The numbersof Si atom in its diamondstructureare 8.

So the densityof silicon atomsis

8 o 3
n =---==---+ = 5.0x 1022
atomVcm
o' (5.434)3

(c) The densityof Si is

 " 22
M / 6.02x10
O = -ff = -ffi
28.09x5x l0
gl cm3:2.33g/ ctlf.

3. ltu:0.8 for boronin silicon

M /N4o:0.5

The densityof Si is 2.33g / ctrl.

for p : 0.01Clcm is 9x 1018crn3.
The acceptorconcentration
The dopingconcentrationCs is given by

Ilf
C =k^C^(l--' 1&-t
M^'

Therefore

C" 9x10"
-o ------------7--
k"Q-!)a' 0 ' 8 ( 1 -0 ' 5 ) - o '

: 9 . 8x l 0 t t c m - '

The amountof boronrequiredfor a 10 kg chargeis

10'000
x 9.8x l0'' = 4.2x|0" boronatoms
2.338

So that

'A#ffi,=o.7sg
ro.8g/more boron
.

4. (a) The molecularweightof boronis 10.81.

The boronconcenhationcan be siven as

numberof boronaioms
/ I"^ = -
volumeof siliconwa fer
_ 5 . 4 1x 1 0 - g
3 / 1 0 . 8 1 96x . 0 2 x1 0 ' 3
1 0 . 0x23 . 1 4 x 0 . 1
= 9.78x l0r8atomVcm 3

(b) The averageoccupiedvolumeof everyoneboronatomsin the wafer is

 tt =L =---l -cm3
nb 9 . 7 8x l 0 ' "

We assumethe volumeis a sphere,so the radiusof the sphere( r ) is the

averagedistancebetweentwo boron atoms.Then

tv
r =^l-' =2.9xI0-tcm.
\4n

5. The cross-sectional
areaof the seedis

7d
/ o.ss
- ' - - )'
| =0.24cm2
( 2 )

The maximumweight that can be supportedby the seedequalsthe productof the

critical yield strengthand the seed'scross-sectionalarea:

( 2 x 1 0 6 ) x0 . 2 4= 4 . 8 x1 0 5g = 4 8 0k g

The correspondingweight of a 2O0-mm-diameter

ingot with length/ is

),{ry)' / : 48oooo
(2.33!cm' s
a l
\ z /

I = 6 5 6 c m= 6 . 5 6 m .

6. We have

c,/co=^(-#)^'
Fractional 0 0.2 0.8 1.
solidified
cslc0 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.t2 0.23
 rjl
E
I

ru.

tm_
! m - m q _ m _
lJ-Sflo"mm

7 . The segregation
coefficientof boronin siliconis 0.72.It is smallerthanunity, so the solubility

of B in Si undersolid phaseis smallerthanthat of the melt. Therefore,the excessB atomswill

be thrown-off into the melt, then the concentrationof B in the melt will be increased.The tail-

end of the crystal is the last to solidify. Therefore,the concentrationof B in the tail-end of

grown crystalwill be higherthan that of seed-end.

The reason is that the solubility in the melt is proportional to the temperature,and the

temperatureis higher in the centerpart than at the perimeter. Therefore,the solubility is higher

in the centerpart,causinga higher impurity concentrationthere.

9 . The segregationcoefficientof Ga in Si is 8 x10-3

FromEq. 18

C" / Co = 1- (1- k)"-o't

We have

= 2501n(1.102)
=24cm.

10. We havefrom Eq.18

Cs = Co[ -(l - k") exP(krxI L)]

Sothe ratio Cs/C0 =[1-(1- k")exp(4rx/Q]
: 1- (1- 0.3). exp(-0.3x 1)= 6.52 atxlL=l
: 0.38 at x/L:2.
11. For the conventionally-doped
silicon,the resistivityvariesfrom 120C)-cmto 155f)-cm. The

corresponding
dopingconcentration
variesfrom 2.5xl0t' to 4" 1013crn3.Thereforethe ranseof

breakdownvoltagesof p* - n junctions is given by

t E 2
v,=.t(il,) '

- 1 . 0 5 x 1 0 -x" ( 3 x 1 0 5 ) (2N r ) - , = 2 . 9 x 1 0 ,/,N B = 7 2 5 0t o l 1 6 0 0 V

2xl.6x 10-'t
LVB= 11600-7250 = 4350V

(n v ^ \
-. =+30%o
| ll7250
\ 2 )

For the neutronirradiatedsilicon,p: 148+ 1.5C)-cm.The doping concentrationis

3xl0l3 (tl%). The rangeof breakdownvoltageis

v B = 1 . 3x l 0 t 1/ N B = 2 . 9 x r 0 t 7/ 3 x 1 0 1(3t l % s
=9570to9762Y.

LVB-9762 -9570=192V

( tv"\
l-^a ll9570=*tyo.
\ 2 )

12. We have

M , _ w e i g hot f G a A s a t T o_ C ^ - C , _ s
Mr weight of liquid at To C, -C^ I

Therefore,the fractionof liquid remained/can be obtainedas following

- I = 3o =0.65.
"f = , M ,
M,+M, s+/ 16+30

13. From the Fig.ll, we find the vapor pressureof As is much higher than that of the Ga.

Therefore, the As content will be lost when the temperatureis increased.Thus the

compositionof liquid GaAsalwaysbecomesgallium rich.

 14. n": Nexp(-n" / kT)= 5 x1022er,p(2.3
ey / kz) = 5 x ro" "*p[- {'8--l
L(r/3oo)j
: 1.23xl0-t6cm-3x 0 at 27oC = 300K

:6.7x10''cm-3 a t 9 0 0 0 C= 1 1 7 3 K

: 6 . 7x l O ' u c m * ' a t 1 2 0 0C0= 1 4 7 3 K .

15. n, =JNi/ exp(-y, /zkT)

:W * " - r . t e v t 2 k r= 7 . 0 7 x l 1 t o x e - t 0 . 7 / ( r / 3 o o )

: 5 . 2 7x 1 0 - ' t a t 2 7 o C : 3 0 0K

:2.l4xl0ta at 90fC : 1173K.

1 6 . 3 7 x 4 : 1 4 8c h i p s

In termsof litho-stepperconsiderations,
there are 500 pm spacetolerancebetweenthe

mask boundary of two dice. We divide the wafer into four symmetrical parts for

convenientdicing, and discardthe perimeterpartsof the wafer. Usually the quality of the

perimeterpartsis the worst dueto the edgeeffects.

 300 nrn
Totot Dies, 148

I I rt
ll vf,dv tykr
=ji_- l_

\l781/t
ff f'o'

4 ( M \ ' ' ' " ( =ro,

n =Glfr)
where v'"*o[ M ! \
I
M: Molecularmass

k Boltzmannconstant:1.38x10-23
J/k

T: The absolutetemperature

v: Speedof molecular

So that

2 2 x 1 . 3 8 x 1 0 -x2330 0
'*= m/sec= 4.68xlOncm/sec.
J; 29xI.67 xl}-"
" 0.66
16. L=
P( in Pa)
 o'!u = 0'66-
;. P - 4.4xto-3pa.
L 150

19. For close-packing affange, there are 3 pie shapedsections in the equilateral triangle.

Each section correspondsto 1/6 of an atom. Therefore

. l
JX_
^. _ number of aloms contained intre tiangle - 6
=
'1Y."
areaof fire hiansle 1 d ,
- c l x -J1
2 2

=_-
2
Jia'- -Jlg.as"ro*)'
:5.27 xlOto atomVcmt.

at970C (:1243K)is 2.9x10-tPafor Gaand13pa for Asz-The

20. (a)Thepressure

arrivalrateis givenby theproductof theimpringement

rate andNnL2 :

Arrivatrate: 2.64xto2o(-LY4)
l"lvt )\'t' 1

:2.9x101sGa molecules/c#-s
The growth rate is determinedby the Ga arrival rate and is given by

(6xt0ta) : I 3.5 A./s: 8 I 0 A"imin.

(2.9xI 0rs)x2.81

(b) The pressure

at 700"Cfor tin is 2.66xl0-6Pa.The molecularweightis 118.69.

Thereforethe anival rate is

2.64xrc^( ]j54Y-ll art cm,.s

=2.zlxt0,0molecul
\ " / l 1 8 . 6 x9 9 7 3. / \n x 1 2 ' )

If sn atomsare fully incorporatedand activein the Ga sublatticeof GaAs, we have an

 electronconcentration
of

( z .ztx -to- 'o)(4" .4

' - "2 x^to
"" )
I t-t- ll | = 1 . 7 4 x 1 0 t tc m - ' .
(z.e"lo',J[ 2 )
21. The.r valueis about0.25,which is obtainedfrom Fig. 26.

22. The latticeconstants

for InAs, GaAs,Si and Ge are6.05,5.65,5.43, and.5.65
A,
respectively(AppendixF). Therefore,thef valuefor InAs-GaAssystemis

f = (5.65- 6.05)/6.05
= _0.066

And for Ge-Sisystemis

f = (s.43- s.65)15.65
= -0.39.
 CHAPTER11

l. FromEq. l1 (with [:0)

x"+Ax: Bt
From Figs.6 and 7, we obtain B/A :r.5 pm /hr, 8=0.47 pm2/hr,thereforel=
0.31pm. The time requiredto grow 0.45pmoxide is

t = * G ' + A x ) == l r =' 1 0 . 4 +
50t . 3 1 x0 . 4 5 ) = g . 7 2 t r : 4 4 m i n .
B' 0.47

2. After a window is openedin the oxide for a secondoxidation,the rate constantsare

B: 0.01 pmz/hr,A: 0.116pm (B/A:6 'I0'2 pm /hr).
If the initial oxide thicknessis 20 nm : 0.02 pm for dry oxidation, the value
oflcan be obtainedas followed:

Q.0D2+ 0.166(0.02):0.0r(0 +[)

or

J:0.372tu.
For an oxidation time of 20 min (:1/3 hr), the oxide thicknessin the window
areais

,t + 0.166x:0.01(0.333+
0.372\: 0.007
or
x :0.0350 pm:35 nm (gateoxide).

For the field oxide with an original thickness0.45 pm, the effective[is given by

p:11r, + Ax)=-J-10.+S,+ 0.166

x 0.45)=27.72ttr.
'
B' 0.01
,2+ 0.166x: 0.01(0.33
3+27.72):0.2g053
or x :0.4530 pm (an increase
of 0.003pmonly for the field oxide).

3. *+Ax:B(r+c)

' * !21 ' - 'A ' 4 - B ( t + r \

G
 s*!t' =tl#+tr+zl]
A'
w h e n f2 ) t t t r u .
48,
then,x2 :Bt
similarly,
At
w h e n /s ) r ; t u , .
48,

then.x: !-ft*c\
A '

4. At980 1:1253K)and I atm,,B:8.5x10-tlr^'/lo,B/A: 4xl0'2pm lfu (from Figs.6

and C, :
and7).SinceI r>2D/k, B/A: kColCr,Co:5.2x1016molecules/cm3
2.2xI022crn3 , the diffi.rsioncoefficientis given by

o = L2 = 4 (! . r ' ) = g [ - E - )
2\A Co) 2\c,)
8.5 x 10-3 2.2x1022
=-?;ffi1tm'tttr
=1.79xl03 1tm2/hr
=4.79xlO-ncm2
/s.

5. (a)ForSil{"It
si I ,^
- = - = r . !

N x

x :0.83
o/oH= looY =20
atomic
l+0.83+y

-v:0.46
Theempiricalformulais SiN6s3FI0
a6.

3" '' :2,

(b) != 5x 1028e-33 10t' [-cm

As the SiA{ ratio increases,the resistivity decreasesexponentially.

6. SetTh2O5thickness: 3t, e1:25
SiOzthickness: t, ez: 3.9
SLN+thickness : t, E3:7.6, area: A
then
qqA
cToror:
3t
I t
= _+_+_
Co*o Er€oA ereoA er4A

co*o=ffi,
Ct"ro,
-er(er+Zer) _ z s ? . g + z x t .=
a5) .37.
Co*o 3Er€, 3 x 3 . 9x 7 . 6

7. Set
BST thickness: 3t, e1: 500,area: 41
SiOzthickness: t, a2:3.9, area: Az
Si:Nathickness: t, E3:7.6, area: Az
then

444, =
3t
o' =
o.oonr.
A2

8. Let
TazOsthickness :3t" e1:25
SiOzthickness: t, e2: 3.9
Si:Nqthickness: t, 4:7.6
area: A
then
qqA _4€oA

d =3t't =0.46gt.
q
9 . The depositionratecan be expressed
as
r: ro exp(-E^/kT)
whereE": 0.6 eV for silane-oxygenreaction. Thereforefor Tt : 698 K

r(r,)=2=€XDlo.{ t )I
' L L_
4r,) (k4 kr,))

, ' z : 0 6 [ f r y _ 3 o oI ]
o.o2s9 r,
L\6e8 ) )
_ Tz:1030K: 757
1 0 . We can use energy-enhanced
CVD methodssuch as using a focused energy
sourceor UV lamp. Another methodis to use boron doped P-glass which will
reflow at temperatures
lessthan 900 .

I 1. Moderatelylow temperaturesare usually used for polysilicon deposition,and

silane decompositionoccurs at lower temperaturesthan that for chloride
reactions. In addition, silane is used for better coverageover amorphous
materialssuchSiO-,.

12. There are two reasons.One is to minimize the thermal budget of the wafer,
reducingdopant diffusion and material degradation. In addition, fewer gas
phasereactionsoccur at lower temperatures,resulting in smootherand better
adheringfilrns. Anotherreasonis that the polysiliconwill havesmall grains.The
finer grains are easierto mask and etch to give smooth and uniform edges.
However,for temperatures lessthan 575"C the depositionrateis too low.

13. The flat-bandvoltaseshift is

QO,
LVFBD[l![[
co

3 ' 9 x 8 ' 8 5x l o - ' a

c ^" = t o ' - =6.9 xl0* F/cm-rI
d 500x10-o
- Numberof fixed oxide charseis
 0 . 5 C ,_ 0 . 5x 6 . 9x l 0 - 8
= 2 . 1 x l 0 r ,c m - ,
q 1 . 6x 1 0 - ' '

To removethese charges,a 450 heat treatmentin hydrogen for about 30

minutesis required.

14. 20/0.25: 80 sqs.

Therefore,the resistanceof the metalline is
5 x 5 0 : 4 0 0O .

15. For TiSiz

3 0x 2 . 3 7 : 7 l . l n m
For CoSio
30x 3.56: 106.8nm.

16. For TiSiz:

Advantage: lowresistivity
lt can reducenative-oxidelayers
TiSiu on the gate electrodeis more resistantto high-field-
inducedhot-electrondegradation.
Disadvantage:
bridging effectoccurs.
LargerSi consumptionduring formationof TiSiu
Lessthermalstabilifv
F o rC o S b :
Advantage: lowresistivity
High temperaturestability
No bridgingeffect
A selectivechemicaletchexits
Low shearforces
Disadvantage:not a goodcandidatefor polycides
 1 7(.a ) O = e + = 2 . 6 7 x t 0 6 x =3.2x103Q
0 . 2 8 x 1 0 -xa0 . 3 x l 0 - a

tA eTL 3 . 9x 8 . 8 5x l 0 - r ax 0 . 3x 1 0 + x l x l 0 a x 1 0 - 6
= 2.9 x l0 -r' F-
d s 0 . 3 6x l 0 - a

R C = 3 . 2 x 1 0 5x 2 . 9 x l } - t s= 0 . 9 3 n s

( b )R =p + = r . 7x 1 0 x- 6- . = + =2xI03C)
A 0 . 2 8x 1 0 - ax 0 . 3x 1 0 r

( _= -€A
=-:
{L 2.8x 8.85x l0-'o x 0.3x 10-ax 1 -
2 'I x 1 0 - ' 3F
d s 0 . 3 6x l 0 - o
R C = 2 x 1 0 tx 2 . 1 xl 0 - ' 3= 0 . 4 2 n s
o4)
theRC delayby 55%.Ratio:
(c) We candecrease :0.45.
,r;

18. (a) R = 'eAL = 2 . 6 7 x l 0 * = 3 . 2x l 0 ' C )

0.28xlOox0.3xl0o

3 . 9 x 8 . 8 51x 0 - ' a
x 0 . 3 x1 0 { x l x 3
C =4={L- =g.7xl0-,rF
d .S 0.36x l0o

RC: 3.2 x 103x8.7x 10-13

: 2.8ns.

T 1
( b ) R = 'OA: = l . 7 x 1 0 - 6x 4 = 2 x l0rC)
0.28xl0ox0.3xlOo

a4 {L 2 . 8 x 8 . 8 5 x 1 0 x- '0o. 3 x l 0 { x l x 3
= 6 ' 3x l 0 - t 3F
d s 0 . 3 6x 1 0 a
R C = 2 x 1 0 3x 8 . 7 x 1 0 - t=32 . 5 n s
R C = 3 . 2x 1 0 3x 8 . 7x l 0 - ' 3= 2 . 5n s .

19. (a) The aluminumrunnercan be consideredas two segmentsconnectedin series:

20%o(or 0.4 mm) of the length is half thickness(0.5 pm) and the remaining
1.6mm is full thickness(lpm). Thetotal resistance
is

-l
* =' Jl AL, . !A"r1) = g * r o -9u'f1 6 , * , o ' o o
[10-*xl0-*l0-ox(0.5x10-')l
:72U.
 The limiting current1 is given by the maximum allowed current density times
cross-sectional
areaofthe thinnerconductorsections:

. / : 5 x 1 0 sN c r * " ( 1 0 - a x 0 . 5 x 1 0 -2a5; :x 1 0 3A : 2 . 5 m A .
The voltagedrop acrossthe whole conductoris then

V : N = 7 2 Q x 2 . 5 xl 0 - ' A : 0 . 1 8 V .
20.
0 . 5p m

4 0n m

6 0n m

h:height, W;width, r: thickness,

assumethatthe
resistivities
of the cladding
layerand TiN aremuch largerthan p n, and pru
( I
R,,=D,,* =2.7
h xW -
( 0 . 5 0 . 1 )x 0 . 5
(
R . . .= p , . ., - J - =1.7
hxtr (0.5- 2t) x(0.5 -2t)
When Rn,= Rru

2.7 1.7
lnen =-
0.4x 0.5 (0.5-2t)'

= t : 0 . 0 7 3 p m : 7 3n m .
 CHAPTER 12

I . With referenceto Fig.2 for class100cleanroom we havea total of 3500 particlesinf with
particlesizes>0.5 pm
2L t 3596: 735 particles/r#with particlesizes> 1.0 pm
100

** 35OO: 157particles/# with particlesizes> 2.0 1tm

r00
Therefore,(a) 3500-735 : 2765particles/nfbetween0.5 and I pm
(b\ 735-157:578 particles/m3 befween1 and2 pm
(c) 157 particles/# above2 pm.

:. y = fr,r-o,n

A :50 mm2:0.5cm2
l r _ e 4 ( 0 . r x 0 . s*)" 4 ( o 2 s x o . s )* " - t { t x o . s ; = g - r . z = 3 0 . l y o .

I The availableexposureenergyin an hour is

0.3mW2/cmzx 3600s:1080 mJlcr*
For positiveresist,the throughputis
_1 0 8 0= 7 wafers/ty
140
For negativeresist,the throughputis
loSo -
120 wafervtrr.
9

1. (a) The resolutionof a projectionsystemis givenby

L u ' u^ 9:193fgt= o.r7g pm
t ^ = K t f r f . =9.6,1
0.65

DoF=k,-L= o,le,3f
'(NA)' o.sl(0.65)'l: o.r28
u*
L I
(b) We can increaseNA to improve the resolution.We can adopt resolutionenhancement
techniques(RET) such as optical proximity correction(OPC) and phase-shiftingMasks
(PSM). We can also developnew resiststhat provide lower h and higher k2 for better
resolutionand depthof focus.
(c) PSM techniquechangeskr to improveresolution.
j. (a) Using resistswith high y value can result in a more vertical profile but tkoughput
decreases.
(b) Conventionalresistscan not be usedin deepUV lithographyprocessbecausetheseresists
have high absorptionand require high dose to be exposedin deep [fV. This raisesthe
 concernof damageto stepperlens,lower exposurespeedand reducedthroughput.

6. (a) A shapedbeam system enablesthe size and shapeof the beam to be varied, thereby
minimizing the number of flashesrequired for exposing a given area to be patterned.
Therefore,a shapedbeamcan savetime and increasethroughputcomparedto a Gaussian
beam.
(b) We can makealignmentmarkson wafersusing e-beamand etchthe exposedmarks.We can
then usethem to do alignmentwith e-beamradiationand obtainthe signal from thesemarks
for wafer alignment.
X-ray lithographyis a proximity printing lithography.lts accuracyrequirementis very high,
thereforealignmentis difficult.
(c) X-ray lithographyusing synchrotronradiationhasa high exposureflux so X-ray has better
throughputthan e-beam.

7. (a) To avoid the mask damageproblem associatedwith shadowprinting, projection printing

exposuretools have been developedto project an image from the mask. With a 1:l
projectionprinting systemis much more difficult to producedefect-freemasksthan it is
with a 5:l reductionstep-and-repeat
system.
(b) It is not possible. The main reasonis that X-rays cannot be focusedby an optical lens.
When it is through the reticle. So we can not build a step-and-scanX-ray lithography
system.

8. As shown in the figure, the profile for eachcaseis a segmentof a circle with origin at the
initial mask-film edge. As overetchingproceedsthe radius of curvatureincreasesso that
the profile tendsto a verticalline.

9. (a) 20 sec

0.6 x 20/60:0.2 pm....(100)

plane

0.6/16x 20/60: 0.0125pm........(ll0) plane

0.6/100x 20/60: 0.002pm.......(tI 1)plane

wo= wo- .l-zt= 1.5- "li x0.z= 1.22pm

( b ) 40 sec

0.6x 40/60:0.4pm....(100)plane
 0.6/16x 40/60: 0.025pm....(l t0) ptane

0.6/100x 40/60: 0.004pm.....(lI l) plane

wu=wo-Jzt = 1.5-Ji xo.a:0.93

pm
( c ) 6 0s e c

0 . 6x l : 0 . 6 p m . . . . ( 1 0 0 ) p l a n e
xl: 0.0375
0.6/16 pm....(l l0) plane

x l: 0.006pm.....(lI l) plane
0.6/100

W o : W o - J z t = 1 . 5 -J 2 x 0 . 6 : 0 . 6 5p m .

[-singthedatain Prob.9, theetchedpattemprofileson <100>-Siareshownin below.

(at 20 sec I :0112 ltm,Wo= Wu= 1.5pm

(br -10sec l:0.025 ltm, Wo- l[t = 1.5 pm

( c t 6 0 s e c l : 0 . 0 3 7 5 1 t mW o- W u = 1 . 5p m .

lf u'e protectthe IC chip areas(e.g.with SfNa layer)and etchthe wafer from the top, the
ri idth of the bottomsurfaceis

r r ' = t T t + J z t = 1 0 0 0* J T * 6 2 5 = 1 8 8 4p m

l-he fractionof surfaceareathat is lost is

(r'' -t4/:)/w2 x 100%:(1g842-10002)

/t8842x100%:71.8%

In termsof the wafer area.we havelost

7 1.8% x tdl5 / 2)' :127 cr*

Another methodis to definemaskingareason the backsideand etch from the back. The width
trf eachsquaremaskcenteredwith respectof IC chip is given by

v [ = W r - ^ l - z t = 1 0 0 0J- i x 6 2 5 : 1 1 6 p m

[- sing this method,the fractionof the top surfaceareathat is lost can be negligibly small.

I Pa: 7.52mTon
PV: NRT

7.52/760, 10-3: n/V x0.082x 273

n/V: 4.42x l0-7mole/liter:4.42x l0-7x 6.02" 1023/1000

:2-7 ,l}ta cm3

mean-free-path

2 , = 5 x I 0 - 3/ P c m : 5 x l 0 - 3x 1 0 0 07/ . 5 2 : 0 . 6 6 4 9c m : 6 6 4 9 p m

l50Pa: ll28 m Torr

PV nRT
 ll28l 760 x 10-': n/V x 0.082x 273

n/V : 6.63x 10-smole/liter: 6.63x lQ-sxg.Q/x :-4 x 1016

1023/1000 crn3

mean-free-path

2": 5 xl}-' /Pcm : 5* 10-3x1000/1128

: 0.0044cm : 44 um.

l-1. Si EtchRate(nm/min):2.86 x 10-13

x n, x7/' ,r-tiA'

: 2 . 8 6 x l 0 - r 3x l x l S r s x (92t 1 / ,, r #

:224.7 nm/min.

*3" Iytsx(2Oq%^"#:
11. SiOzEtchRate(nm/min): Q.Sl{x 10-13 5.6nm/min

Etchselectivityof SiOz overSi : 0.025

#=

':u-)! - 0.025.
or etchrate(Sio2)/etchrate(Si)' : ""t-t'u*'ot/n'7x2e8
2.86

15. A three-stepprocessis requiredfor polysilicon gate etching. Step 1 is a nonselectiveetch

processthat is usedto removeany native oxide on the polysilicon surface.Step 2 is a high
polysilicon etch rateprocesswhich etchespolysiliconwith an anisotropicetch profile. Step3 is
a highly selectivepolysiliconto oxide processwhich usuallyhasa low polysilicon etch rate.

I 6. If the etch rate can be conholledto within l0 %o,thepolysilicon may be etched 10 o/olonger or
for an equivalentthicknessof 40 nm. The selectivityis therefore

40 nm/l nm:40.

17. Assuminga30Yooveretching,and that the selectivityof Al over the photoresistmaintains3.

The minimum photoresistthicknessrequiredis
 (l+ 30%)x I pm/3:0.433 pm:433.3 nm.

qB
t8. (I)" =-
me

[.6x10-'exB
2 n x 2 . 4 5x 1 0 e=
9.lx 10-31

B: 8.75x 10-2(tesla)
:875 (gauss).

l 9 Traditional RIE generateslow-densityplasma(10e crn3) with high ion energy.ECR and ICp
generatehigh-densityplasma(10rr to 1012crn3) with low ion energy.Advantagesof ECR and
ICP are low etch damage,low microloading,low aspect-ratiodependentetching effect, and
simple chemistry. However,ECR and ICP systemsare more complicatedthan traditional RIE
systems.

I ( J . The corrosionreactionrequiresthe presenceof moistureto proceed. Therefore,the first line of

defensein controlling corrosionis controlling humidity. Low humidity is essentiaf.especially
if coppercontainingalloys are being etched. Secondis to removeas much chlorineas possible
from the wafersbeforethe wafersare exposedto air. Finally, gasessuchas CF+and SF6can be
usedfor fluorine/chlorineexchangereactionsand polymericencapsulation.Thus, Al-Cl bonds
are replacedby Al-F bonds.WhereasAl-Cl bonds will react with ambient moistureand start
the corrosionprocess, Al-F bondsare very stableand do not react.Furthermore,fluorine will
not catzlyzeany corrosionreactions.
 CHAPTER 13

l. E"(boron):3.46 eV, D :0.76 cn?/sec

- F -3'46
From Eq. 6, D = D o e x ? ( # ) = o . l e r *. o ( 1o-"cm'ls
t g . 6 t 4 x l o _x1223
5 )=o't+zx

L = J D t = 4 . 1 4 2 x l 0 - "x 1 8 0 0= 2 . 7 3 x 1 0 ac m

FromEq. 9, c (x)= c,ertu

(fi)= 1.8x I 02oerfc
(17{6;)

I f x = 0 , C ( 0 ) = 1 . 8 x 1 0 2a
0 i o m s/ c m 3 ; x : 0 . 0 5 t 1 0 4 , C ( 5 * 1 0 5 ) : 3 . 6 x l 0 l e

atoms/cm3;x : 0.075 r I 0-4, C(7.5x 10-6) : g.4 x 1gls atoms/crrf;, :0. I " I 0-a,

C(10-s): 1.8 x l0r8 atoms/cm3;

x : 0 . 1 5 x 1 0 4 ,C 1 l . 5 x l 0 - 5 ) : l . g x l 0 1 6a t o m s / c # .

The x.,=ZJDI (efc 'gs!--) =o.l5Arn

Totalamountof dopantintroduced: Q(0

1
:#C,L = 5.54xlOtaatoms/c#.
4n

-3.46
2' D=Do*(#)=oz6exn( o' ' ux1o- ' ocm ' /s
8.614xl}-s x1323) =

FromEq. 15, Cs = C(Q,t)= + 3

=2.342x 10'natomVcm
Jtilt

"
C(x\ =C-"rf.[a)
" =2.342*to'nerrc[ )
\2L) \ 2 . 6 7 3 x r 0 -)'

Ifx :0, C(0): 2.342x 10leatoms/crrf

;*:0.lxl0-a, C(l0r) : l.4lxl0te atoms/cm3;

x : 0.2x104,C12xl0't): 6.7911018 nf ; * :0.3 x l6-a,C(3x lo-5;: 2.65x 10t8

atoms/c
 atoms/cm';

x : 0 . 4 x 1 0 4 , c 1 4 x 1 0 - s ;9: . 3 7 x 1 0 ta7t o m s / c m 3: ;0x. 5 x 1 0 - 4c, 1 5 x l O - s ) :1 . g 7 x 1 g t z

atoms/cm3;

x : 0.6x104,c(6x 10-t): 3.51*1016 t :0.7x10-a,c(7x l0-5): 7.03xl0r5

atoms/crrt;

atoms/cm3;

.r :0.8x104, C(8x10-s)
:5.62x101aatoms/cm3.

The x, = 4Dtht-- = 0.72qm.

CuJ tDr

l 0 -'
3 . 1 x 1 0 "= t * t O " " * p [ )
4 x 2 . 3 x 1 0 ' ')t

t : 1 5 7 3s : 2 6 m i n

diffusion case,Eq. 15 gives C, = -L

For the constant-total-dopant
*Dt

s = 1x lottm t.
= 3.4xlo*atomVcm

4. The processis calledthe rampingof a diffusionfumace.For the ramp-downsituation,the

furnacetemperatureT is given by

T:To-rt

where To is the initial temperatureand r is the linearramp rate.The effectiveDt product

duringa ramp-downtime of tr is given by

(Dt)"r= l^' ogyat

In a typical diffirsionprocess,rampingis carriedout until the diffirsivity is

negligibly small.Thusthe upperlimit t1 con be takenas infinity:

l l l r t
-=-* (l+-+...)
T T -rt T' T
0 0 0
 and

(-n -E-,. -rEt

D = D oe x p [ " /hr u/rr\l/= D-o " * pl 1
-r rt
l + A * ; * . . . ) . ll : O o ( " *3p" _X e x p - # . . . ) =D\( T
u / ; "Tr
-rEt
y #
\ LkIo Io klo kfo-
J kT^,

where D(To) is the diffusion coefficientat T6.Substitutingthe aboveequationinto the

expressionfor the effectiveDr productgives

=[i otr,\"*p-]#dt
(Dt)"n ' =D(r)+
'"''Eo
kTo'

Thus the ramp-downprocessresultsin an effbctiveadditionaltime equalto Kls2/rguat

the initial diffi.rsiontemperatureT6.

For phosphorus
difflrsionin siliconat 1000"C,we havefrom Fig. 4:

|{7d : D (1273K) : Zx 10-racm2ls

1273-773
r=-=0.417K/s
20x 60

E":3.66 eY

Therefore,the effectivediffusiontime for the ramp-downprocessis

oro'
_. l.3g xlo-r'(1273)' = 9ls = 1.5min.
,Eo 0 . 4 1 7 ( 3 . 6 61x. 6x 1 0 - ' n )

5. For low-concentrationdrive-in diffusion,the diffusion is given by Gaussiandistribution.

The surfaceconcentrationis then

,s
,s
C(0.t)=+=---exDl
( r-i" \
'\2kr) i
4d)t Jil;

{ =_L.,*l,&Y-r"'
'\2ftrl( ) =_0.5
*g
dt .|1il, 2 ) t
 dC dt
=-0.5x-
C t

which meanslYo changein diffusion time will induce0.5Yochangein surface

concentration.

dc
----:'s.vr-[-
,s (E-\(-E-) E_
'
dT Jrilo, \zkr )\2kT' ) zkT'

dc - E dT - 3.6x 1.6x lo-'' dT

nr ,.............._-
a 1L i..
dT
C 2kT T 2xl.38xl0-"x1273 T T

which meanslo/ochangein diffirsiontemperaturewill cause16.9%changein

surfaceconcentration.

6. At I 100oC,ni : 6x 1018crn3.Therefore,
the dopingprofile for a surfaceconcentration

of 4 x 1018crn3 is givenby the "intrinsic"diffi.rsionprocess:

c(x.t)=c"..r"[4]
\2''lDt )
whereC, : {x 1018crn3,t: 3 hr: 10800s, andD : 5x10-1a
cm2ls.The

diffusion length is then

J Dt = 2.32x10-5cm = 0.232tm

The distributionof arsenicis C(x) = 4 x 1018

"rf"[---:-)
[4.64 xl0-' )

Thejunction depthcan be obtainedas follows

t'
10"=4xl0"".frf -l
( 4 .6 4x 1 0 -'J

xi: I.2x 104cm: 1.2pm.

7. At 900oC,ni:2x 1018crn3. For a surfaceconcentrationof 4x10tt "-', given by

 the "extrinsic" diffusion process

-E, -4.05x1.6x10-le
" 2r*rl?l
D = Doe kr x =45.8et 38"10 "l# =3.77x10-'ucm2ls
ni

xt =1.6JDt = 1.6m = 3.23xl0*ucm= 32.3

nm.

8. lntrinsic diffusion is for dopant concentrationlower than the intrinsic carrier

concentrationni at the diffusion temperature.Extrinsic diffi.rsionis for dopant

concentrationhigher than n;.

9. For impurity in the oxidationprocessof silicon,

segregationcoefficein t =

3x10" 3
10. f=---..-=-:-=0.006.
5x 10'' 500

1 1 .[ 0 . 5 : [ 1 . 1 + q F p / C i

" * --€Z
r' " - 3.9x8.85x10-ra
10-u
=3.45x10-7

, ," - 3 ' 4 5 x l o r x o . 6 = 1 . 3x l o , c m - '

I.6 x l0-'"

10-t
; t = 1 . 3x 1 0 ' t x l . 6 x l 0 - t n
i4r0.16)'

the implanttime r :6.7 s.

12. The ion doseper unit areais

f t 1 0 x 1 0 {x 5 x 6 0
N = q = l . 6 x l Q - t e = 2 . 3 g x 1 0 1i 2
ons/cm2
A A ,I0.,
n "\T)-

From Eq. 25 andExample3, the peakion concentrationis at x : Ro.Figure.l7

indicatesthe oo is 20 nm.
 Therefore,the ion concentrationis

^9 2.38x 10'' -3
= -___-___-___-_
:. = 4.74 x l0'tCm .
oo42n 20x10-'42tr

13. FromFig. 17,the&:230 nm,andoo = 62 nm.

The peakconcentrationis

S 2x10'5
: ---------------- = l.29x l0'ocm-l
oo{2tt 62x10-'42n

FromEq. 25,

t.2ex,o"
"*[3:i{l
| 260- J

x;:0.53 pm.

14. Doseperunitarea: 9 =CoLVr - 3'9x8'85x 10*taxl = 8 ' 6x 1 0 " c m - 2

q q 2 5 0x 1 0 - sx l - 6x 1 0 - ' n

From Fig. 17 andExample3, the peakconcentrationoccursat 140nm from the

surface.Also, it is at (140-25): 115nm from the Si-SiOzinterface.

15. The total implanteddoseis integratedfrom Eq. 25

s-"*[-t*I{l*=l{r*fr- Re-,-l}=lo
-erfc(z. 's
ur - lo
e,= f errcl 3)l=r-xt'ee8e
@- | 2oo. J z L o,.lz l) z-
I

The totaldosein siliconis as follows(d:25 nm):

Q,,=I:;fu"*|#]*=i{'-['_",f"(*i,]}=;'-er|c(|.87)]={x

the ratioof dosein the silicon: Qs/Qr:99.6%.

16. The projectedrangeis 150nm (seeFig. 17).

The averagenuclearenergylossover the rangeis 60 eV/nm (Fig. 16).

60x 0.25: 15eV (energylossof boronion per eachlatticeplane)

thedamage
volume: Vo: n (2.5nm;21tSO
nm):3" 10-18
cm3

total damagelayer: 150/0.25: 600

displacedatomfor one layer: l5l15 : I

damagedensitY: 600/Vo : 2" l02ocm3

zxlo2o/ 5.02x102: 0.4%.

17. The higher the temperature,the fasterdefectsannealout. Also, the solubility of

electricallyactivedopantatomsincreaseswith temperature.

o
1 8 . L V' , = l V : = '
Cor

where p1 is the additionalchargeaddedjust below the oxide-semiconductor

surfaceby ion implantation.Cox is a parallel-platecapacitanceper unit area
givenby C"" =1
a
(d is the oxide thickness,€r is thepermittivity of the semiconductor)

1v x 3'9x 8'85x 10-'4F/cm

: g.63xr0-' c;
e, = LV,c".-
0 . 4x l 0 - 6 c m cm'

8'63x 1o-' :
5.4x1ol2ions/c#
1 . 6x 1 0 - t e

t'0,\!9" :1.2
Totalimplantdose: x 1013
ions/c#.
45%

19. The discussionshouldmentionmuchof Section13.6.Diffi.rsionfrom a surfacefilm

avoids problems of channeling. Tilted beams cannot be used because of
shadowing problems. If low energy implantation is used, perhaps with
preamorphizationby silicon, then to keep the junctions shallow, RTA is also
 necessary.

20. FromEq.35

& = 1"rp"[o
o-g)=
0.84
^s 2 [0.2J2)
The effectivenessof the photoresistmask is only 16%o.

s, = l.rr"ig) =0.023
.s 2 \0.2J2)
The effectivenessof the photoresistmaskis 97.7%.

21. r=]-{u - lo-,

24n u

. ' . u= 3 . 0 2

= 0.927pm.
op: 0.53+ 4.27x 0.093
d: &+ 4.27
 CIIAPTER 14

l. EachU-shapesection(referto the figure) hasan areaof 2500 pm x 8 pfft:2 x

thereare(250(|)2/2*104:312.5U-shaped
10apm2.Therefore, section.Each

sectioncontains2long lineswith 1248squareseach,4 cornersquares,1 bottom

square,and 2 halfsquaresat the top. Thereforethe resistancefor eachsectionis

l kO/il (1248x2+4x0.65+2):2599.6 kO

The maximumresistanceis then

3 r 2 . 5 x 2 5 0 0 . 6 : 7 . 8*t 1 0 8C ) : 7 8 1M O

2.5 mm

4Pm
(PITCH)

2. The arearequiredon the chip is

, co ( 3 0 x l o - ' X 5 x l 0 -=, , )
4.35x 10-5cm2
Eo, 3.9x 8.85x l0-tu

: 4 . 3 5 " 1 0 3p m z: 6 6 x 6 6 p m
Referto Fig.4aand usingnegativephotoresistof all levels

(a) Ion implantationmask(for p+ implantationand gateoxide)

(b)Contactwindows(2x10pm)

(c) Metallizationmask (using Al to form ohmic contact in the contact window

and form the MOS capacitor).

Becauseof the registrationerrors,an additional2 pm is incorporatedin all critical

dimensions.
 (o)

56 pm
I
II
{l+2Fm

Zli* (b)

73

1 If the spacebetweenlines is 2 p*, then there is 4 pm for eachturn (i.e., 2xn, for

one tum). Assumetherearen turns,from 8q.6, [, x 1tan2r* 1.2 x 10-6r?r,wherer

can be replacedby 2 x n. Then,we canobtainthat n is 13.

4. (a) Metal 1, (b) contacthole,(c) Metal2.

(a) Metal l,

(b) contacthole,

I
(c) Metal2.
I
5. The circuit diagramand devicecross-section
of a clampedtransistorare shown in

(a) and (b), respectively.

(o)

COLLECTOR EMITTER

Si02

(b)
oHilrc
P-SUBSTRATE CONTACT

6 . (a) The undopedpolysiliconis usedfor isolation.

(b) The polysilicon I is usedas a solid-phasediffusion sourceto form the

extrinsicbaseregionand the baseelectrode.

(c) The polysilicon2 is usedas a solid-phasediffusion sourceto form the emiffer region

and the emitterelectrode.

7. (a) For 30 keV boron,& : 100 nm and A,Ro: 34 nm. Assumingthat .Roand A,Ro

for boronarethe samein Si and SiOz the peakconcentrationis given by

J:19f- =9.4xro,u
cm-,
J-zntn, tl2nQa x l0-')
 The amountof boron ions in the silicon is

f;=rffiq"*lW
s [2 _ e rf,c (n"-d.tl
==1 l _ +_ ll
2L [^/2m,.,1-1
=-t
8xlo"[^ ^ ( -=:- 7 5 0 ) l
z-Eltvt I I
2 L \Jz*340)l
= 7 . 8 8x 1 0 " c m - '

Assumethat the implantedboron ions form a negativesheetchargenearthe Si-

SiO2interface,then

10-''x (7'88x 10")

' l q ) Co,=-J:6 1
LVr = re)/
3.e*8.8m=o'elv
(b) For 80 keV arsenicimplantation
, &:49 nm andA & : 1Snm. The peakarsenic

- - 10'u
concentration
i, J- = 2.21x102,cm-, .
42nA,R" r/ax(l8x l0-')
 Rp=49oi (As)

tu;\
\
\.o"r.*.
\
\
\
\
\
I
BORON \
(LOWER
ScaLsl 1

/ar\
Re-toooi (B)
{ol5 I
o d tooo -zm
-tso.r-zsoi
x(i) - FoRcHAls{ELRectfi

8. (a) Because(100)-orientedsilicon has lower (- one tenth) interface-trapped

chargeand

a lower fixed oxide charge.

(b) If the field oxide is too thin, it may not provide a large enoughthreshold
voltagefor adequateisolationbefweenneighboringMOSFETs.
(c) The typical sheetresistanceof heavily dopedpolysilicongate is 20 to

30 Q fl, which is adequatefor MOSFETswith gate lengthslargerthan 3 pm. For

shortergates,the sheetresistanceof polysilicon is too high and will causelarge

RC delays. We can use refractory metals (e.g., Mo) or silicides as the gate

materialto reducethe sheetresistanceto aboutI O /t1.

 (d) A self-alignedgatecanbe obtainedby first definingthe MOS gate structure,then

using the gate electrodeas a mask for the source/drainimplantation.The self-

aligned gate can minimize parasitic capacitancecaused by the source/drain

regions extending underneath the gate electrode (due to diffusion or

misalignment).

(e) P-glasscan be usedfor insulationbetweenconductinglayers,for diffi.rsionand

ion implantationmasks,and for passivationto protect devicesfrom impurities,

moisfure,and scratches.

9. The lower insulatorhas a dielectricconstantAlq: 4 anda thicknessdr l0 nm The

upperinsulatorhasa dielectricconstantA/q : 10 and a thicknessdz: 100 nm. Upon

applicationof a positivevoltage Vc to the extemalgate,electric field E 1 and E2 arc

establishedinthe dt and dz respectively.We have,from Gauss'law, that e1E1: e2E2

+Q andVc: Erdt *Ezdz

whereQ is the storedchargeon the floating gate.From theseabovetwo equations,we

obtain

"- vo -' Q
-l
+
d, d,(q ltr) g * er(a,tar)
a

r - , ^ - ,I loxlo? O
' | | 4 \ | /r^ t,l
.'tffiJ],.r.rsx
ro-'o
f
Iro+roolrJ
(a) If the storedchargedoesnot reduceE1by a significantamount(i.e.,0.2>> 2.26x10s

lQ l, *" can write

Q = foadf x 0.2Lt = o.zx (o.zsxtO-u)=5 x t0-sC

5xlo-8
L V' - : Q = , v
c2 (lo*8.s@=o'565
(b) when t -) a,J -+}we havelgl-+ 0.212.26x10s
= 8.84x10-7
C.

8 . 8 4 xl 0 - ?
T h e nL , V r = t = =9.98 V.
, ( t 0 x 8 . 8 5x 1 g - t 4 ) 7 1 6 - 5

10.

+ +

(o) p-TUB

+ +

(b) POLYSILICOT{GATE

+ +

(c) n-TYPE O|FFUSION

+ +
 +

{d) p-TypE DtFFUstoN

+ +
trn
(e) CONTACT
WINDows
trn

(f) METALLTZATIOTTI

11. The oxidecapacitance

per unit areais givenby

''7
€"rn
C^- = = 3.5x l0 t F/cm2
d

and the maximumcurrentsuppliedby the deviceis

-v,)' =::+3.5xt0r (vo-v,)'= 5mA

r", =!\ rc,,(vo
2 L- 20.5ttn
 and the maximum allowablewire resistanceis 0.1 V/5 mA. or 20Q. Then. the

lengthof the wire must be

- Rx Area 20Ox I0-tcm'

t - _ = 0.074cm
p 2 . 7x l } ' Q - c m

or 740 pm. This is a long distancecomparedto most device spacing. When

driving signalsbetweenwidely spacedlogic blocks however,minimum feature

sizedlineswould not be appropriate.

12.
 x x
si3N4
Ill,*f
(o)
v - EPITAXY

(bl

FIELDOXIDE
i tap*

(d)

RESIST

(e)
1 3 .To solvethe short-channeleffect ofdevices.

14 . The deviceperformancewill be degradedfrom the boron penetration. There are

methodsto reducethis effect: (1) using rapid thermal annealingto reducethe

time at high temperatures,

consequentlyreducesthe diffusion of boron,(2) using

nitrided oxide to suppressthe boron penetration,sinceboron can easily combine

with nitrogenand becomeslessmobile,(3) makinga multi-layerof polysilicon

to trap the boron atomsat the interfaceof eachlayer.

1 5 . Total capacitance
of the stackedgatestructureis :

c_q "z l(z.e-)

d, d,l d,
7
= -x-/
2s/(7 25\
l-+-l:2.12
0 . s l 0 l \ 0 . 5 t o)
\d, )

3 ' 9= 2 . 1 2
d

3'9 =1.84
.'.d = nm.
2.12

of LOCOS:(1) high temperatureand long oxidationtime causeV1

1 6 . Disadvantages

shift, (2) bird's beak,(3) not a planarsurface,(4) exhibits oxide thinning effect.

Advantages of shallow trench isolation: (l) planar surface, (2) no high

temperatureprocessingand long oxidationtime, (3) no oxide thinning effect, (4)

no bird'sbeak.

t 7 . For isolationbetweenthe metalandthe substrate.

1 8 .GaAs lacksof high-qualityinsulatingfilm.

 19. (a)

: 2000* (el.o: x l0-'o)= 1.38x 10-'s= 1.38ns.

(b) For a polysiliconrunner

( r.\( l)
RC = | R,ouo,"#ll t",- |
\ w)\ d)
( t \,
= 391--l- l(ol.or><
t0-'o)=2.07 xl0-7 s
\10-",/'
= 2 0 7n s

Thereforethe polysiliconrunner'sRC time constantis 150 times largerthan the

aluminumrunner.

20. Whenwe combinethe logic circuitsand memoryon the chip, we needmultiple

supplyvolrages.For reliability issue,differentoxide thicknessesare neededfor
different supplyvoltages.

21' (a) = *
/r^^, /cr^,o, /r,u,,o"

uo%'='%r* 1%=fi 3 A
hence

(b)Eor : 16.7
A.