MS5019 – FEM 1

3.1. Definition of the Stiffness Matrix

 We will consider now the derivation of the stiffness matrix for the
linear-elastic, constant-cross-sectional area (prismatic) bar element
shown in Figure 33-1.
1.

y
xˆ , uˆ
T
ŷ 2
dˆ2 x , fˆ2 x
L

1
T 
dˆ1x , fˆ1x
x
Figure 3-1 Bar subjected to tensile forces T; positive nodal displacements and forces

MS5019 – FEM 2

1
 The bar element is assumed to have constant cross-sectional area A,
modulus elasticity E, and initial length L. The nodal d.o.f are local axial
displacements (longitudinal displacements directed along the length of
the bar).
From Hooke' s law and the strain/displacement relationship, we have
  E (a)
duˆ
 (b)
dx
From force equilibrium, we have
A x  T  constant (c )
for no distributed load acting on the bar. Using Eq. (b) in (a ) and then
(a ) in (c) and differentiating with respect to xˆ , we obtain
d  duˆ 
 AE   0 (d )
dxˆ  dxˆ 

MS5019 – FEM 3

 The following assumptions are used in deriving the bar elements

stiffness matrix:
1. The bar cannot sustain shear force; that is fˆ  0 and fˆ  0.
1y 2y

22. Any effect of transverse displacement is ignored.

ignored
3. Hooke' s law applies; that is, axial stress  x is related to axial strain
 x by  x  E x .
The steps previously outlined in Chapter 1 are now used to derive the
stiffness matrix for bar element.

MS5019 – FEM 4

2
 Step 1 Select Element Type
Represent the bar by labeling nodes at each end and in general by
labeling the element number (see Figure 3-1).

 Step 2 Select a Displacement Functions

Assume a linear displacement variation along the local axis of the bar
because a linear function with specified endpointshas a unique path.
uˆ  a1  a2 xˆ (3.1.1)
with the total number of coefficients ai always equal to the total
number of d.o.f associated with the element. Using the same procedure
as in Section 2.2 for the spring element, we express Eq. (3.1.1) as
 dˆ  dˆ 
uˆ   2 x 1x  xˆ  dˆ1x (3.1.2)
 L 
MS5019 – FEM 5

or in matrix form, Eq. (3.1.2) becomes

 dˆ 
uˆ  N1 N 2  1x  (3.1.3)
dˆ2 x 
with shape functions given by
xˆ xˆ
N1  1  and N 2  (3.1.4)
L L
The linear displacement function plotted over the length of the bar
element os shown in Figure 3-2. The bar is shown with the same
orientation as in Figure 3-1.

MS5019 – FEM 6

3
 dˆ2 x

y
û
x̂
2

L
dˆ1x
1
T 

Figure 3-2 Linear displacement plotted over the length of the element

MS5019 – FEM 7

 Step 3 Define the Strain-displacement and Stress-strain

Relationships

The strain-displacement relationship is.

duˆ dˆ2 x  dˆ1x
x   (3.1.5)
dxˆ L
where, Eqs. (3.1.3) and (3.1.4) have been used to obtain Eq. (3.1.5),
and the stress/strain relationship is

 x  E x (3.1.6)

MS5019 – FEM 8

4
  Step 4 Derive the Element Matrix and Equations
From elementary mechanics, we have
T  A x (3.1.7)
Using Eqs. (3.1.5) and (3.1.6) in Eq. (3.1.7), we obtain
 dˆ  dˆ 
T  AE  2 x 1x  (3.1.8)
 L 
Also, by the nodal force sign convention of Figure 3 - 1,
fˆ  T1x (3.1.9)
or, by using Eq. (3.1.8), Eq. (3.1.9) becomes

fˆ1x 
AE ˆ
L

d1x  dˆ2 x  (3.1.10)

MS5019 – FEM 9

Similarly, fˆ2 x  T (3.1.11)

or, by using Eq. (3.1.8), Eq. (3.1.11) becomes


fˆ2 x 
AE ˆ
L

d 2 x  dˆ1x (3.1.12)
Expressing Eqs. (3.1.10) and (3.1.12) together in matrix form, we have
 fˆ1x  AE  1  1  dˆ1x 
ˆ     (3.1.13)
 f 2 x  L  1 1  dˆ2 x 
Now, because fˆ  kˆ dˆ , we have, from Eq. (3.1.3)
AE  1  1
kˆ 
L  1 1 
(3.1.14)

Eq. (3.1.14) represents the stiffness matrix for a truss or bar element.
In Eq. (3.1.14), AE L for a bar element is analogous to the spring
constant k for a spring element.
MS5019 – FEM 10

5
  Step 5 Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Total/
Global Equations
Assemble the global stiffness and forces vectors and global equations
using the direct stiffness method described in Chapter 2 can still be
adopted in this case.The method applies for structures composedd of
more than one element such that
N N
K  K    k ( e ) and F  F    f ( e ) (3.1.15)
e 1 e 1

where now all local element stiffness matrices kˆ must be transformed

to global element stiffness matrices k before the ditrect method is
applied as indicated by Eq. (3.1.15). (This concept of coordinate
and stiffness matrix transformations is described in Sections 3.3
and 3.4).
MS5019 – FEM 11

 Step 6 Solve for the Nodal Displacements

Determine the displacement by imposing boundary conditions and
simultaneously solving a system of equations, F = K d.

 Step 7 Solve for the Element Forces

Finaly, determine the strains and stress in each element by back-
substitution of the displacement into equations similar to Eqs. (3.1.5)
and (3.1.6).

Example 3.1

MS5019 – FEM 12

6
3.2. Selecting Approximation Functions for Displacement

Consider the following guidelines, as they relate to the one-dimensional

bar element, when selecting a displacement function. Further discussion
will be provided in Chapter 4 (for the beam element).
k
1. Common approximation functions (AF) are usually polynomials 2

such as that given by Eq. (3.1.1) or equivalently by Eq. (3.1.3),

where the function is expressed in terms of the shape functions.
2. The AF should be continuous within the bar element. The simple
linear function of Eq.
q ((3.1.1)) certainlyy is continuous within the
element.
3. The AF should provide interelement continuity for all d.o.f at
each node for discrete line elements, and along common boundary
lines and surfaces for two- and three-dimensional elements.

MS5019 – FEM 13

For the bar element, we must ensure that nodes common to two or
more elements remain common to the these elements upon
deformation and thus prevent overlaps or voids between elements.
For the two-bar structure ((Figure
g 3-3),
) the linear function for
displacement within each element will ensure that elements 1 and 2
remain connected; that is, the displacement at node 2 for element 1
will equal the displacement at the same node 2 for element 2. The
linear function is then called a conforming (or compatible) function
for the bar element because it ensure both the satisfaction of
continuity between adjacent elements and of continuity within the
element.

1 1 2 2 3
L L
Figure 3-3 Interelement continuity of a two-bar structure
MS5019 – FEM 14

7
 4. The approximation function should allow for rigid-body motion
displacement and for a state of constant strain within the element. The
1D displacement function, Eq. (3.1.1), satisfies these criteria because
a1 term allows for rigid-body
g y motion and the a2 x term allows for
constant strain since  x  duˆ dxˆ  a2 is a constant. (This state of
constant strain in the element can, if fact, occur if elements are chosen
small enough).
The simple polynomial Eq. (3.1.1) satisfying this fourth guidelines is
said to be complete for the bar element. The completeness of a
function is a necessary condition for convergence to the exact answer,
for instant, for displacement and stresses.
The idea that the interpolation (approximation) function must allow for a
rigid-body displacement means that the function must be capable of
yielding a constant value (say, a1), because such a value can, in fact, occur.

MS5019 – FEM 15

Therefore, we must consider the case

uˆ  a1 (3.2.1)
or a  dˆ  dˆ
1 1x 2x (3.2.2)
Using
g Eq.
q ((3.2.2)) in Eq.
q ((3.1.3),
), we have
uˆ  N1dˆ1x  N 2 dˆ2 x  ( N1  N 2 )a1 (3.2.3)
From Eqs. (3.2.1) and (3.2.3), we then have
uˆ  a1  ( N1  N 2 )a1 (3.2.4)
Therefore, by Eq. (3.2.4), we obtain
N1  N 2  1 (3.2.5)
Thus, Eq. (3.2.5) shows that the displacement interpolation functions must add
to unity at every point within the element so that uˆ will yield a constant value
when a rigid - body displacement occurs.
MS5019 – FEM 16

8
 3.3 Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimension
 In many problem it is convenient to introduce both local and global
coordinates. Local coordinates are always chosen to conveniently
represent the individual element. Global coordinates are chosen to be
convenient for the whole structures.
structures
 Given the nodal displacement of an element, represented by the
vector d in Figure 3-4, we want to relate the components of this
vector in one coordinate system to components in another.
y
d
ŷ dy
xx̂

d̂ y d̂ x
j
Figure 3-4
ĵ î
 General displacement vector d
x
i dx
MS5019 – FEM 17

 For general purposes, we will assume that d is not coincident with

neither the local nor the global axes. In this case, we want to relate
global displacement components to local ones.
 In doing that, we will develop a transformation matrix that will
subsequently be used to develop the global stiffness matrix for a bar
element.
From figure 3 - 4, we have the following relation
d  d i  d j  dˆ ˆi  dˆ ˆj
x y x y (3.3.1)
where i and j are unit vectors in the x and y directions; ˆi and ˆj are unit
vectors in xˆ and yˆ directions. And can be found that

d x   C S  d x 
     ; C  cos  ; S  sin  (3.3.2)
d y   S C  d y 
MS5019 – FEM 18

9
 Eq. (3.3.2) relates the global displacement d to the local displacement dˆ . The matrix
 C S
 S C  (3.3.3)
 
is called the transformation or rotation matrix.

It can be derived that d x  C d x  S d y ; hence
 d1x 
  
 d1x  C S 0 0   d1 y 
      (3.3.4)
d 2 x   0 0 C S  d 2 x 
d 2 y 

or d  T*d (3.3.5)

C S 0 0
where T*  
S 
(3.3.6)
0 0 C

MS5019 – FEM 19

Similarly, because forces transform in the same manner as displacement, we can write
 f1x 
  
 f1x  C S 0 0   f1 y 
   
S   f 2 x 
(3.3.7)
 f2x   0 0 C
 f 2 y 

or f  T*f (3.3.8)

MS5019 – FEM 20

10
3.4. Element Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinates
We will now use the transformation relationship Eq. (3.3.16) to obtain
the global stiffness matrix for a bar element. We need the global
stiffness matrix of each element to assemble the global stiffness matrix
of the structure. We have shown in Eq. (3.1.13) that for a bar element in
the local coordinate system,
 fˆ1x  AE  1  1  dˆ1x 
ˆ     (3.4.1)
 f 2 x  L  1 1  dˆ2 x 
or
fˆ  kˆ dˆ (3.4.2)
We now want to relate the global element nodal forces f to the global
nodal displacement d for a bar element arbitrarily oriented with respect
to the global axes as was shown in Figure 3-1.
MS5019 – FEM 21

The relationship between f and d will yield the global stiffness matrix k
of the element such that
 f1x   d1x 
f  d 
 1y   1y 
   k   (3.4.3)
 f2x  d 2 x 
 f 2 y  d 2 y 
or
f  kd (3.4.4)

We observe from Eq. (3.4.3) that a total of four components of force

and four of displacement arise when global coordinates are used (see
figure 3.5).

MS5019 – FEM 22

11
 y d2 y , f2 y
x̂
ŷ

2 d2x , f2x
A, E , L
d1 y , f1 y


1 x
d1x , f1x

Figure 3-5 Bar element in global coordintase

MS5019 – FEM 23

Using Eq. (3.3.4)


 d1x   C S 0 0   d1x 
  
  
 d1 y   S C 0 0   d1 y 
    (3.4.5)
 d2 x   0 0 C S  d 2 x 
d 2 y   0 0 
 S C  d 2 y 
 

or d  Td (3.4.6)
C S 0 0
 S C 0 0 
where T   (3.4.7)
 0 0 C S
 
 0 0  S C


Similarly, we can write f  Tf (3.4.8)

MS5019 – FEM 24

12
 
Now let us expand k to 4  4 matriks using Eq. (3.3.4)
 
 f1x   1 0  1 0  d1x 
     
 f1 y  AE  0 0 0 0  d1 y 
    (3.4.9)
 f2 x  L  1 0 1 0 d2 x 
   
 f2 y   0 0 0 0 d 2 y 
Subsituting Eq. (3.4.6) and (3.4.8) into (3.4.2), we obtain

Tf  kTd (3.4.10)
Premultiplying Eq. (3.4.10) by T 1 , we obtain

f  T 1kTd (3.4.11)
where T 1 is inverse of T. It can be shown that

T 1  TT (3.4.12)
where TT is the transpose of T.
MS5019 – FEM 25

Substituting Eq. (3.4.12) into Eq. (3.4.11), we obtain.

f  T T kˆ Td (3.4.13)
Equating Eqs. (3.4.4) and Eq. (3.4.13), we obtain the global stiffness matrix
for 2D truss element as
k  T T kˆ T (3.4.14)
which gives k in explisit form as
 C2 CS  C2  CS 
 
AE  CS S 2
 CS  S2 
k (3.4.15)
L  C 2  CS C2 CS 
 
 CS  S2 CS S 2 
Finally, the equiation of the truss or bar element in global coordinate system
can be written as
 f1x   C2 CS  C2  CS   d1x 
f    
 1 y  AE  CS S2  CS  S 2   d1 y 
     (3.4.16)
 f2 x  L  C
2
 CS C2 CS  d 2 x 

 f 2 y   CS  S2 CS 2 d 
S   2 y 

MS5019 – FEM 26

13
 Now, since the trial displacement functiom Eq. (3.1.1) was assumed piecewise -
continuous element by element, the stiffness matrix for each element can be summed
using the direct stiffness method to obtain.
N
 k (e)  K (3.4.17)
e 1
where K is the total stiffness matrix and N is the total number of elements.
Similarly, each element global nodal force matrix can be summed such that
N
 f (e)  F (3.4.18)
e 1
K is now related the global nodal force F and the global nodal displacement d for
the whole structure by
F  Kd (3.4.19)

MS5019 – FEM 27

3.5. Computational of Stress for a Bar in x-y Plane

We will now consider the determination of the stress in a bar element.
For a bar, the local forces are related to the local displacement by Eq.
(3.1.13). This equation is repeated here for convenience.
 fˆ1x  AE  1  1  dˆ1x 
ˆ     (3.5.1)
 f 2 x  L  1 1  dˆ2 x 
The usual definition of axial tensile stress is
fˆ
  2x (3.5.2)
A
where fˆ2 x is used because it pulls on the bar as shown in Figure 3 - 7.
From Eq. 3.5.1 we have
ˆ 
fˆ2 x 
AE
 1 1 dˆ1x  (3.5.3)
L d 2 x 
MS5019 – FEM 28

14
 x̂
y
fˆ2 x
L

fˆ1x x

Figure 3-6 Basic bar element with positive nodal forces

Therefore, combining Eqs. (3.5.2) and (3.5.3) yields

σ   1 1dˆ
E
(3.5.4)
L
Now, using Eq. (3.4.7), we obtain

σ   1 1T*d
E
(3.5.5)
L
MS5019 – FEM 29

Equation (3.5.5) can be expressed in similar form as

σ  C' d (3.5.6)
where, using Eq. (3.4.8),
C S 0 0 
C'   1 1 
E
 (3.5.7)
L 0 0 C S
After multiplying the matrix in Eq. (3.5.7), we have

C'   C  S C S 
E
(3.5.8)
L

MS5019 – FEM 30

15
3.6. Solution of a Plane Truss
We will now illustrate the use of equations developed in Section 3.4 qnd
3.5, along with the direct stiffness method of assembling the total
matrix
t i andd equatons,
t to
t solve
l the
th following
f ll i plane
l truss
t example
l
problem.
A plane truss is a structure composed of bar elements all lying in a
common plane that connected together by frictionless pins. The plane
truss also must have loads acting only in common plane.

EXAMPLE 3.5

MS5019 – FEM 31

3.7. Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for

a Bar in Three-Dimensional Space
We will now derive the tranformation matrix for a bar element in 3-D
space as shown
s ow in Figure
gu e 33-7.
7.

Figure 3-7 Bar in 3-D space

MS5019 – FEM 32

16
 Let the node 1 and 2 have the coordinates ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) respectively.
Also, let  x ,  y , and  z be the angles measured from global x, y, and z axes,
respectively, to the local axis xˆ. Here xˆ directed along the element from node 1 to
node 2. We must determine T* such that dˆ  T*d. We begin the derivation of T*
by considering the vector dˆ  d expressed in 3 - D as
dˆ ˆi  dˆ ˆj  dˆ kˆ  d i  d j  d k
x y z x y z (3.7.1)
Taking the dot product of Eq. (3.7.1) with ˆi , we have
dˆ  0  0 d (ˆi  i )  d (ˆi  j)  d (ˆi  k )
x x y z (3.7.2)
and, by definition of the dot product,
ˆi  i  x2  x1  C
x
L
ˆi  j  y2  y1  C (3.7.3)
y
L
ˆi  k  z2  z1 C
z
L
MS5019 – FEM 33


where L  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z 2  z1 ) 2 
and C x  cos  x C y  cos  y C z  cos  z (3.7.4)
Here C , C , and C are the projections of ˆi on i, j, and k , respectively.
x y z

Therefore, using Eqs. (3.7.3) in Eq. (3.7.2), we have

dˆ  C d  C d  C d
x x x y y z z (3.7.5)
For a vector in space directed along the xˆ axis, Eq. (3.7.5) gives the
components of that vector in the global x, y, and z directions.
Now using Eq. (3.7.5), dˆ  T*d can be written in explicit form as
 d1x 
 
 d1 y 
 dˆ 1x  C x Cy Cz 0 0 0   d1z 
ˆ   
C z  d 2 x 
(3.7.6)
d 2 x   0 0 0 Cx Cy
d 2 y 
 
 d 2 z 
MS5019 – FEM 34

17
 where
C x C y C z 0 0 0
T 
0 C x C y C z 
(3.7.7)
0 0
is the transformation matrix, which enables the local displacement matrix dˆ to be
expressed in terms of displacement components in the global coordinate system.

We have shown in Section 3.4 that the global stiffness matrix is given in general by
k  TT kˆ T. This equation will now be used to express the general form of the stiffness
matrix of a bar arbitrary oriented in space. In general, we must expand the transformation
matrix in a manner analogous to that done in expanding T* to T in Section 3.4. However,
the same result will be obtained here by simply using T* , defined by Eq. (3.7.7), in place
of T. Then k is obtained using the equation k  (T* ) T kˆ T* as follows :

MS5019 – FEM 35

where
C x 0
C 0 
 y
C 0  AE  1  1 C x C y C z 0 0 0
k z  0
  0 C x C y C z 
(3.7.8)
0 C x  L  1 1   0
0 Cy 
 
 0 C z 
Simplifying Eq. (3.7.8), we obtain the explicit form of k as
 C x2 C xC y C xC z  C x2  C xC y  C xC z 
 
 Cy 2
C y C z  C xC y  C y2  C yCz 
AE  C z2  C xC z  C yC z  C z2 
k   (3.7.9)
L  C x2 C xC y C xC z 
 C y2 C yCz 
 
Symetry C z2 
Equation (3.7.9) is the basic form of the stiffness matrix for a bar element in 3 - D space.
MS5019 – FEM 36

18
3.8. Potential Energy Approach
We now present the principle of minimum potential energy (POMPE) to
derive the bar element equations. Recall from Section 2.6 that the total
PE p was defined as the sum of the internal strain energy U and the
PE,
potential energy of the external forces  as
 p U  (3.8.1)
To evaluate the strain energy for a bar, we consider only the work done
by the internal forces during deformation. Because we are dealing with
a 1-D
1 D bar
bar, the internal force doing work is given in Figure 3-8
3 8 as
x(y)(z), due only to normal stress x. The displacement of the x face
of element is x(x); the displacement of x + x face is x(x + dx). The
change in displacement is then xdx, where dx is differential change in
strain occuring over element x.
MS5019 – FEM 37

Figure 3-8 Internal force in a 1-D bar

The differential internal work (or strain energy) dU is the internal force multiplied by
the displacement through which the force moves, given by
 F    dx
dU   x ( y )( z )( x )d x (3.8.2)
Rearranging and letting the volume of the element approach zero, we obtain, from
Eq. (3.8.2).
dU   x d x dV (3.8.3)
For the whole bar, we the have
 x 
U      x d x dV (3.8.4)
V  0 
MS5019 – FEM 38

19
 Now, for a linear-elastic (Hooke’s law) material as shown in Figure 3-9,
we see that x = Ex. Hence, substituting this relationship into Eq. (3.8.4),
integrating with respect to x, and then substituting x for Ex, we have
1
2 
U  x x dV (3.8.5)
V
as the expression for the strain energy for 1 - D stress.

Figure 3-9 Linear-elastic (Hooke’s law) material

MS5019 – FEM 39

The PE of the external forces, being opposite in sign from the external
work expression because the PE of external forces is lost when the work
is done by the external forces, is given by
M
    Xˆ buˆdV   Tˆx uˆdS   fˆix dˆix (3.8.6)
i
  1  
V    S1

body forec nodal force
surface loading

where the first, second, and third terms on the right side of Eq. (3.8.6)
represent the PE of (1) body force Xˆ (in units of force per unit
b

volume) (2) surface loading Tˆx (in units of force per unit surface area),
volume), area)
and (3) nodal concentrated forces fˆ . ix

The forces Xˆ b , Tˆx , and fˆix are considered to act in the local xˆ direction
of the bar as shown in Figure 3 - 11.
MS5019 – FEM 40

20
 In Eq. (3.8.5) and (3.8.6), V is the volume of the body
and S1 is the part of the surface S on which surface
loading acts. For a bar element with two nodes and one
d.o.f per node, M = 2.
We are now ready to describe the FE formulation of the
bar element equations using th POMPE.
The FE process seeks a minimum in the PE within the
constraint of an assumed displacement pattern within
each element. The greater the number of d.o.f.
associated
i d with
i h the
h element,
l the
h more closely
l l will ill the
h
solution approximate the true one and ensure complete
equilibrium. An approximate FE solution using the
Figure 3-10 stiffness method will always provide an approximation
General forces acting
on a 1-D bar value of PE greater than or equal to the correct one.
MS5019 – FEM 41

The method also results in a structure behavior that is predicted to be

physically stiffer than, or at best to have the same stiffness as, the actual
one. This is explained by the fact that structure model is allowed to
displaced only into shapes defined by the terms of the assumed
displacement field within each element of the structure.
structure The correct shape
is ussually only approximated by the assumed field, although the correct
shape can be the same as the assumed field. The assumed field effectively
constraints the structure from deforming in its natural manner, This
constraint effect stiffens the predicted behavior of the structure.
Apply the following steps when using the POMPE to derive the FE
equations.
ti
1. Formulate an expression for the total PE.
2. Assume the displacement pattern to vary with a finite set of
undetermined parameters (nodal displacements).
3. Obtain a set of simultaneous equations minimizing the total PE with
respect to these nodal displacements.
MS5019 – FEM 42

21
 The resulting equations are the approximate (or possibly exact)
equilibrium equations whose solution for the nodal parameters seeks to
minimize the PE when back-substitued into the PE expression. The
proceeding three steps will now followed to derive the bar element
equations and stiffness matrix.
Consider the bar element of length L, with constant cross-sectional area A,
shown in Figure 3-10. Using Eqs. (3.8.5) and (3.8.6), the total PE, Eq.
(3.8.1), becomes.
L
A
 p    x x dxˆ  fˆ1x dˆ1x  fˆ2 x dˆ2 x   uˆTˆx dS   uˆXˆ b dV (3.8.7)
20 S V
since A is contant and variables  x and  x at most vary with xˆ.

MS5019 – FEM 43

From Eqs. (3.1.3) and (3.1.4), we have the axial displacement function
expressed in terms of the shape functions and nodal displacement by
uˆ  N  dˆ  (3.8.8)
where

N   1 
xˆ xˆ 
(3.8.9)
 L L 
and

dˆ ddˆ
ˆ 

1x
(3.8.10)

 2x 
Then, using the strain/displacement relationship  x  duˆ dxˆ , the axial
strain can be written as

 x    1 1  dˆ
 L L
 (3.8.11)

MS5019 – FEM 44

22
 or
 x   B  dˆ (3.8.12)
where we define

B   1 1
(3.8.13)
 L L 
The axial stress/strain relationship is given by
 x   D  x  (3.8.14)
where
D  E  (3.8.15)
for the 1 - D stress/strain relationship and E is the modulus of elasticity.
Now, by Eq. (3.8.12), we can express Eq. (3.8.14) as
 x   DBdˆ (3.8.16)

MS5019 – FEM 45

Using Eq. (3.8.7) expressed in matrix notation form, we have the total
PE given by

    
L
 p    x T  x dxˆ  dˆ P  uˆT Tˆ x dS  uˆT Xˆ b dV (3.8.17)
A T

20 S V

where P now represents the concentrated nodal loads and where in general
both σ x and ε x are column matrices. For proper matrix multiplication we must
x 
place the transpose on  . Similarly,uˆ and Tˆ in general are column
x

matrices, so for proper matrix multiplication uˆis transposed in Eq. (3.8.17).

Using Eqs.
Eqs (3.8.11),
(3 8 11) (3.8.12),
(3 8 12) and (3.8.16)
(3 8 16) in Eq.
Eq (3.8.17),
(3 8 17) we obtain

  B D Bdˆdxˆ  dˆ P  d  N  Tˆ dS

L
A ˆ T T

2 0
p  d
T T T T
x
S

 d  N  Xˆ dV

T T
b (3.8.18)
V
MS5019 – FEM 46

23
In Eq. (3.8.18),  p is seen to be a function of {dˆ}; that is,  p   p (dˆ1x , dˆ2 x ).
However,[ B] adn [ D], Eqs. (3.8.13) and (3.8.15), and the nodal d.o.f dˆ and dˆ 1x 2x

are not functions of xˆ. Therefore, integrating Eq. (3.8.18) with respect to xˆ yields

p 
2

d B  D B  dˆ  dˆ fˆ
AL ˆ T T T T
  
(3.8.19)
where
 T
 
fˆ  P N  Tˆ dS  N  Xˆ dV
 x
T
  
(3.8.20)
b
S V

From Eq. (3.8.20), we observe three separate types of load contributions from
bodyy forces, surface tractions, and concentrated nodal forces. We define these
surface tractions and body - force vectors as
    
fˆ  N  Tˆ dS
s
T
x (3.8.20a)

fˆ  N  Xˆ dV

S
T
b b (3.8.20b)
V

MS5019 – FEM 47

Minimizing of  p with respect to each nodal displaceme nt requires that

 p  p
0 and 0 (3.8.21)
dˆ
1x dˆ
2x

Now we explicitly evaluate  p given by Eq.

Eq (3.8.19)
(3 8 19) to apply Eq.
Eq (3.8.21).
(3 8 21)
We define the following for convenienc e :
U   dˆ B  D  B dˆ 
*
T T T
(3.8.22)
Using Eqs. (3.8.10), (3.8.13), and (3.8.15) in Eq. (3.8.22) yields

    1 
  dˆ 
U *  dˆ1 x dˆ2 x  1 L E  L1 L1  1 x  (3.8.23)
 L  dˆ2 x 
Simplifyin g Eq. (3.8.23), we obtain

  E

U *  2 dˆ12x  2 dˆ1 x dˆ2 x  dˆ22x
L

(3.8.24)

MS5019 – FEM 48

24
 Also, the explicit expression for dˆ   fˆ  is
T

dˆ fˆ  dˆ
T
f  dˆ2 x f 2 x
1x 1x (3.8.25)
Therefore, using Eqs. (3.8.24) and (3.8.25) in Eq. (3.8.19) and the applying
Eqs. (3.8.21), we obtain
 p AL  E ˆ
dˆ
 
2 L 2
 


2 d1 x  2 dˆ2 x   fˆ1x  0
1x

and (3.8.26)
 p AL  E
d 2 x
ˆ

2 
 L2
 
 2 dˆ1 x  2 dˆ2 x   fˆ2 x  0

In matrix form, we express Eq. (3.8.26) yields
 p AE  1 - 1  dˆ1 x   fˆ1 x  0 
      
 dˆ  L - 1 1  dˆ2 x   fˆ2 x  0 
(3.8.27 )

MS5019 – FEM 49

    dˆ, we have the stiffness matrix for the bar element as

or since fˆ  kˆ

kˆ  AEL -11 -11 (3.8.28)

 
Fi ll instead
Finally, i t d off the
th cumbersome
b process off explicitly l ti  p , we can
li itl evaluating
use the matrix differenti ation and apply it directly to Eq. (3.8.19) to obtain
 p
d 1 x
T
 
 ALB  D B  dˆ  fˆ  0 (3.8.29)

where D   D  has been used in writtin g Eq. (3.8.29). The result of the

evaluation of ALB  D B  is then equal to kˆ given by Eq. (3.2.28).
T

Throughout this text, we will use this matrix differenti ation concept, which
greatly simplifies the task of evaluating kˆ . 

MS5019 – FEM 50

25
3.9. Galerkin’s Residual Method
We have develop the bar FE equations by the direct method in Section
3.1 and by the PE method (one of number of variation methods) in
Section 3.8.
38
In fields other than structural/solids mechanics, it is quite probable that
a variational principle, analogous to the principle of minimum PE, for
instance, may not be known or even exist. In some flow problems in
fluid mechanics and in mass transport problems, we often have the
differential equations and BC available.
H
However, the
h FE methodh d can still
ill bbe applied.
li d
The weighted residual method (WRM) applied directly to the
differential equation can be used to develop the FE equations.
In this section, we describe Galerkin’s residual method (GRM) in
general and the apply it to the bar element.
MS5019 – FEM 51

This development provides the basis for later applications of GRM to the
beam element in Chapter 4 and to the non-structural problems.
There are a number of other WRM. Among these are collocation, sub-
domain method square, and least square collocation. (For more on
method, least square
these methods, see Reference [4]). However, since GRM is more well
known than the other WRM, it is the only one described in this text.
In WRM, a trial or approximate function is chosen to approximate the
independent variable, such as a displacement or a temperature, in a
problem defined by a differential equation. This trail function will not, in
general, satisfy the governing differential equation. Thus, the substitution
of the trail function into the differential equation result in a residual over
the whole region of the problem as follows


V
R dV  minimum (3.9.1)
MS5019 – FEM 52

26
 In the WRM, we require that a weighted value of the residual be a
minimum over the whole region. The weighting functions allow the
weighted integral of residuals to go to zero. Denoting the weighting
function byy W, the g
general form of the weighted
g residual integral
g is

WR dV  minimum (3.9.2)

V
Using GRM, we chose the interpolation function, such as Eq. (3.1.3), in
terms of Ni shape functions for the independent variable in the
differential equation. In general, this substitution yields the residual R0.
By the Galerkin criterion
criterion, the shape functions are chosen to play the role
of the weighting functions W. Thus, for each i we have.


V
RN i dV  0 (i  1,2,3,  , n) (3.9.3)

Eq. (3.9.3) results in total of n equations.

MS5019 – FEM 53

Equation (3.9.3) applies to points within the region of a body without

reference to BC such as specified applied loads or displacement.
To obtain BC, we apply integration by parts to Eq. (3.9.3), which yields
g
integrals applicable for the region
g and its boundary.
y

Bar Element Formulation

We now use GRM to formulate the bar element stiffness equations. We
begin with the basic element differential equation, without distributed
load,, derived in Section 3.1 ((Eq.
q ((d)) as
d duˆ
( AE )  0 (3.9.4)
dxˆ dxˆ

where constant A and E are now assumed.

MS5019 – FEM 54

27
 The residual R is now defined to be Eq. (3.9.4). Applying Galerkin’s
criterion, Eq. (3.9.3), to Eq. (3.9.4), we have
L
d duˆ
 dxˆ ( AE dxˆ ) N i dxˆ  0 (i  1,2) (3.9.5)
0
We now apply integration by parts to Eq. (3.9.5). Integration by parts
is given in general by
 u dv  uv   v du (3.9.6)
where u and v are simply variables in the general equation. Letting
dN i
u  Ni du  dxˆ
dxˆ (3.9.7)
d duˆ duˆ
dv  ( AE )dxˆ v  AE
dxˆ dxˆ dxˆ
in Eq. (3.9.5) and integrating by parts according to Eq. (3.9.6),
Eq. (3.9.5) becomes
MS5019 – FEM 55

L L
duˆ duˆ dN i
N i AE   AE dxˆ  0 (3.9.8)
dxˆ 0 0 dxˆ dxˆ
where the integration by parts introduces the boundary conditions.

Recall that, because uˆ  N  dˆ , we have
duˆ dN1 ˆ dN 2 ˆ
 d 1x  d2x (3.9.9)
dxˆ dxˆ dxˆ
or using Eqs. (3.1.4) for N1 and N 2 , we obtain
duˆ  1 1  dˆ 1x 
    (3.9.10)
dxˆ  L L  dˆ2 x 
Using Eq. (3.9.10) in Eq. (3.9.8), we then express Eq. (3.9.8) as
dN i  1 1  dˆ 1x  
L
duˆ 
L
AE   L L  dxˆ dˆ    N iAE dxˆ  (3.9.11)
0
dxˆ  2x  0
MS5019 – FEM 56

28
 Equation (3.9.11) is really 2 equations (one for N i  N 1 and one for N i  N 2 ).
First, using the weighting function N i  N 1 , we have

1   dˆ 1 x  
L
 1 d uˆ 
L
dN 1
AE    L d xˆ     N 1 AE  (3 .9 .12 )
0
d xˆ L   dˆ 2 x   d xˆ  0

dN 1
Substituti ng for , we obtain
d xˆ

 1  1 1   dˆ 1 x 
L
AE       d xˆ    fˆ1 x (3 .9 .13 )
0 
L  L L   dˆ 2 x 

where f1 x  AE d uˆ d xˆ because N 1  1 at x  0 and N 1  0 at x  L.

Evaluating Eq. (3.9.13) yields
AE ˆ
L
 
d 1 x  dˆ 2 x  fˆ1 x (3 .9 .14 )

MS5019 – FEM 57

Similarly, using N i  N 2 , we obtain

1  dˆ 1x  
L
 1  1 duˆ 
L
AE     d ˆ
x    N AE (3.9.15)
L  dˆ2 x   dxˆ  0
2
0  
L L
Simplifying Eq. (3.9.15) yields
AE ˆ
L
 
d 2 x  dˆ1x  fˆ2 x (3.9.16)

where f 2 x  AE (duˆ dxˆ ) because N 2  1 at x  L and N 2  0 at x  0.

Equations (3.9.14) and (3.9.16) can be written in matrix form as
 fˆ1x  AE  1  1  dˆ1x 
ˆ     (3.9.17)
 f 2 x  L  1 1  dˆ 2 x 
Eq. (3.9.17) then seen to be the same as Eqs. (3.1.13) and (3.8.27) derived,
respectively, by the direct and variational methods.
MS5019 – FEM 58

29
Reference:
1. Logan, D.L., 1992, A First Course in the Finite Element Method,
PWS-KENT Publishing Co., Boston.
2. Imbert, J.F.,1984, Analyse des Structures par Elements Finis, 2nd
Ed., Cepadues.
3. Zienkiewics, O.C., 1977, The Finite Eelement Method, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, London.
4. Finlayson, B.A., 1972, The Method of Weighted Residuals and
Variational Principles
Principles, Academic Press
Press, New York
York.

MS5019 – FEM 59

30