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Understanding B.F. Skinner: Building Emotional Competence in Students

with Diverse Learning Needs

Article  in  Multicultural Learning and Teaching · January 2014

DOI: 10.1515/mlt-2013-0021

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 doi 10.1515/mlt-2013-0021 MLT 2014; 9(1): 53–66

Tachelle Banks*, Marty Sapp, and Festus E. Obiakor

Understanding B.F. Skinner: Building
Emotional Competence in Students with
Diverse Learning Needs

Abstract: Not all children and youth will respond the same way to scripted
interventions. Children and youth require intervention strategies that are
designed to meet their wide-ranging needs in order to be successful during
and after school years. Yet, educators and counselors apply behavior strategies
to promote prosocial behavior without exploring whether, and to what extent,
social thinking caused the behavior itself. This article provides a historical
overview on behavior- and emotion-based principles and discusses implications
for using strategies that are based on developmental and learning theories that
recognize human variance and facilitate emotional competence.

Keywords: emotional competence, diverse learners, affective curriculum

*Corresponding author: Tachelle Banks, College of Education & Human Services, Cleveland
State University, Cleveland, OH, USA, E-mail: t.i.banks@csuohio.edu
Marty Sapp, – Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA, E-mail: sapp@uwm.edu
Festus E. Obiakor, Department Head and Professor, Early Childhood and Special Education,
Dewar College of Education and Human Services, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia
31698, E-mail: feobiakor@valdosta.edu

Before a student can act socially, he or she must think socially. Educators and
counselors apply behavior strategies to promote prosocial behavior without
exploring whether, and to what extent, social thinking caused the behavior
itself. Emotionally healthy children and youth engage in positive behaviors,
develop mutual friendships, and are more likely to find acceptance from their
peers. School is a place where children and youth can learn academic social
norms and the ability to interact positively within personal and family relation-
ships, as well as the ability to demonstrate positive concern and consideration
for others. Yet, there is a need for a more systematic approach to certain skills
related to understanding emotions and the relationship between cognition,
behavior, and emotions. This article discusses implications for using strategies

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54 T. Banks et al.

that are based on developmental and learning theories that recognize human
variance. Arguably, interventions based on learning and developmental theory
will result in using preventative mental health strategies that are better suited to
meet diverse social and emotional learning needs of all children and youth. The
contention is that social–emotional competence includes critical skills that most
individuals need to be successful in life and, therefore, require explicit and
direct instruction to help diverse students build emotional literacy.

Skinner’s views on behavior and emotion

A popular American experimental psychologist, Skinner, is associated with
applied behavior analysis (ABA), which studies the relationship between beha-
vior and the environment (Sapp, 2009). For example, ABA suggests that events
have social importance, while behaviors are the things that we do. Unlike some
other behaviorists, Skinner endorsed a philosophy of science called radical
behaviorism, which is an attempt to account for behavior using only natural
contingencies that have survival, reinforcement, and social evolutionary links.
Moreover, radical behaviorism is a radical departure from other forms of beha-
viorism and methodological behaviorism. According to Skinner (1988), feelings
are the products of one’s experiences, and they are by-products of reinforce-
ment. He emphasized this point by stating that humans do not cry because we
are sad, but because something has happened. Moreover, unlike other beha-
viorists, Skinner did not embrace associationism, operationalism, positivism, or
environmental determinism (i.e. the notion that the environment totally deter-
mines behavior). Finally, radical behaviorism is an attempt to account for
behaviorism entirely in terms of natural contingencies – such as survival,
reinforcement, and social evolution.
Sapp (2009) argued that Skinner’s form of behavior therapy modifies ante-
cedents, consequences, or both. Skinner described an ABC model that described
a time sequence of antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. Not all antece-
dents and consequences are maintaining conditions, but only a small number of
antecedents and consequences influence behavior. An interesting area of
Skinner’s approach called operant conditioning is stimulus control. First, oper-
ant conditioning means that an organism operates in the environment; and
stimulus control is where cues set the stage for behaviors that will occur.
Prompts are used to guide behavior. For example, when one says “sit” to a
toddler and the toddler sits, the toddler is responding to cues that guide
behavior. Moreover, when a diverse learner is interested in studying, the setting

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 Emotional Competence 55

events are important. These setting events are environmental conditions that
bring about a behavior. For example, a quiet room, free from distraction, is
conducive to studying. A Skinnerian behavior therapist would look for antece-
dents and consequences that cause a problem behavior. These are possible
maintaining conditions that are modified. In summary, Skinner emphasized
that behaviors are influenced by environmental events and consequences.
Skinner’s radical behaviorism is based on the idiographic approach and does
not insist on truth by agreement. It can consider private events, but without a
causal inference. In addition, what is radical about Skinner’s position is he
viewed feelings, thoughts, and private events as behaviors like other behaviors
that have environmental, evolutionary, and biological origins (Sapp, 2009).
Even though Skinner viewed himself as atheoretical, he developed the
theory of instrumental conditioning, following the work of experimental animal
psychologist, Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949). Skinner did not see the value
in giving causal emphasis to cognitions, emotions, or neuropsychology. He
emphasized the primacy of behavior, or the connection between the environ-
ment and behavior; he also believed cognitions and emotions are the by-pro-
ducts of behavior or responses to things that had happened within the
environment. In addition, Skinner accepted evolutionary theory and believed
many behaviors are part of the evolutionary process (Vandenbos, 2007). He
viewed the building of emotional competence as the ability of a diverse learner
to express his/her feelings based on antecedents and consequences. Basically,
the diverse learner shapes his/her behavior through operant and evolutionary
conditions. In contrast to emotive theorists, Skinner viewed the building of
emotional competence as a behavior. It would be seen as a by-product of the
reinforcement of complex behaviors. Clearly, approaches to behavior therapy,
based on Skinner’s theory, are more than stimulus response interactions.

Emotional competence: meaning and

conceptualizations
Emotional competence is a subset of emotional and social intelligence that is
highly correlated with academic success and can positively impact the quality of
life (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer, Salovey, &
Caruso, 2000, 2004; Obiakor, 1996, 2001; Saarni, 1997; Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
According to Saarni, emotional competence is a demonstration of self-efficacy in
emotion-eliciting social transactions, with self-efficacy being a person’s skill and
capacity to reach a desired outcome. Emotional competence examines how

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56 T. Banks et al.

people respond emotionally in their relationships with others and shows what
people need to engage inside of a changing environment. In addition, it takes
into consideration cultural context and moral character and further includes
building the ability to monitor feelings in self and others, as well as regulating
and using these feelings to inform decision-making skills to a certain level of
mastery (Halberstadt, Denham, & Dunsmore, 2001). In Table 1, Saarni (1997,
1999) summarizes the skills associated with emotional competence that are
considerate of cultural values.
It is apparent that emotional competence is a part of work, home, and
school; children and youth can improve their emotional skills through educa-
tion. Schools are required to teach literacy and academic skills and, according to
social and emotional learning theorists (e.g. Banks, 2011; Goleman, 1995),
schools should be intentional about providing instruction in social and emo-
tional skills. Some students receive good models from their teachers in order to

Table 1: Emotional competence skills and definitions

1. Awareness of one’s emotional state Ability to understand one’s emotional state,

2. Understanding other people’s emotions
based on their expressive cues
3. Using emotional vocabulary in order to
link cultural scripts with emotion
4. Developing capacity for sympathy and
empathy for other people’s emotions
5. Understanding that feelings on the inside
do not need to be shown on the outside or
should match the situation and context
6. Developing capability to adapt and use
coping strategies
7. Awareness of the structure of relationships Capability to know the importance of relating
through the quality of emotional
communication
8. Developing capacity for emotional
self-efficacy
marked by proficient problem-solving skills
resultant in adept interpersonal skills
Aptitude to empathize and conceptualize
causes of emotions of others
Capability to communicate emotions to other
people as well as elaborating emotional
experiences
Competently empathic perspective taking
creates and maintains strong interpersonal
relationships with peers and adults and
demonstrates prosocial behavior
Skill to know that feelings can be managed
and regulated to relate to specific event(s)
Ability to decide and select an approach to
manage emotions
to others and how communication facilitates
relationship building and maintenance
Emotional management skills, which are the
knowledge of when to show what type of
emotion

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 Emotional Competence 57

Table 2: Social–emotional competencies

1. Self-awareness One of the basic emotional skills involves being able to recognize feelings
and put a name on them. It is also important to be aware of the relationship
between thoughts, feelings, and actions. What thought sparked off that
feeling? What feeling was behind that action?
2. Managing Beliefs have a fundamental effect on the ability to act and on how things
emotions are done. Understanding what happens when emotions are difficult to
manage and making decisions that do not interfere with goal attainment is
a key aptitude.
3. Empathy Understanding situations and being able to act appropriately requires
understanding the feelings of the others involved and being able to assume
the perspectives of others. The ability to distinguish between what others
do or say and their personal reactions and judgments.
4. Communicating Developing quality relationships has a very positive effect on all involved.
What feelings are being communicated to others? Being able to express
personal concerns without anger or passivity is a key asset.
5. Cooperation Knowing how and when to take the lead and when to follow is essential for
effective cooperation. At the same time, there is a need to take
responsibilities and recognize the consequences of decisions.
6. Resolving In resolving conflicts, there is a need to understand the mechanisms at
conflicts work. Much of the resolution of conflicts calls on using emotional skills.

help improve their emotional ability skill set. As a result, emotional competence
should be integrated into the school curriculum. Goleman proposed that chil-
dren and youth’s emotional and social skills could be cultivated, so that they
will accrue both short-term and long-term advantages in regard to well being,
performance, and success in life. He outlined six crucial emotional competencies
basic to social and emotional learning (Table 2).
For children and youth identified as at-risk and those needing special
education services, it is important that general and special education profes-
sionals consider the characteristics of their students. These professionals
should utilize strategies that reinforce skills learned, teach students new
skills, and allow students opportunities to master and own the skills in
order to promote the use of these skills in various settings (Banks, 2011). If
social/emotional skills are not present, then students will be unable to deal
with the stressors that come with life. School-based programs should be
designed to help children and youth develop emotional and social skills by
improving emotional competence.

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58 T. Banks et al.

Theoretical underpinnings of emotional

competence
A variety of behavioral theories offer strategies that can facilitate emotional
competence. These theories include ABA, neobehaviorism, cognitive-behavior
therapy, social learning theories, and multimodal behavior therapy (Sapp,
2009). As previously mentioned, ABA is associated with Skinner, and there are
a variety of techniques that promote emotional competence based on instru-
mental or operant conditioning. Positive reinforcement is commonly used to
shape the behavior of culturally diverse learners. Specifically, reinforcers such
as praise, stars for good behavior, and encouragement can be used to booster
varying degrees of emotional competence. Likewise, variable reinforcement, or
providing reinforcement on a variable rate, in contrast to continuous reinforce-
ment, can result in the highest rate of responding and is extremely resistant to
extinction. Moreover, the method of successive approximation is a good method
to teach emotional competence to culturally diverse learners. Differential rein-
forcement of successive approximation reinforces emotional competence that is
similar to the one desired. Gradually, reinforcement can be withdrawn until the
desired emotional competent behaviors are performed.
Neobehaviorism popularized by Watson (1930) challenged the subjective
school of psychology called structuralism, which attempted to break the mind
into images, sensations, and feelings using a method called introspection.
The major goal of Watson was to make psychology more scientific and to free
its introspective past. Watson used a variety of strategies based on classical
conditioning, which is based on the temporal pairing of conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli. Systematic desensitization, a strategy based on classi-
cal conditioning, can be used with students with diverse learning needs to
reduce stress, anxiety, test anxiety, and anger. Sapp (2009) described five
steps of systematic desensitization for learners with diverse learning needs.
First, students could be taught muscular relaxation. The second step is the
construction of a hierarchy such as one for anger, stress, or anxiety. The third
step is teaching diverse learners to rate the level of emotions they feel. The
fourth step is the pairing of muscular relaxation with anxiety or stress scenes
using students’ imaginations. The final step of systematic desensitization is
for these culturally diverse learners to practice this skill in a real-life
situation.
Cognitive-behavior therapy is a collection of strategies that combine techni-
ques from cognitive and behavioral psychology. In 1955, Albert Ellis pioneered
cognitive-behavioral therapy within the area of clinical psychology, and in the

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 Emotional Competence 59

1960s Aaron T. Beck, a psychiatrist, followed Ellis in the area of cognitive-

behavioral therapy with his brand of therapy called “cognitive therapy” (Beck,
1961; Ellis, 1955). Sapp (2009) provided two scales that were designed to assess
the aspects of Ellis’ and Beck’s theories. A relatively new form of cognitive-
behavioral therapy is mindfulness-based cognitive therapy; and, with this form
of therapy, students with diverse learning needs would be taught to process
their feelings and thoughts without judging their origins. Specifically, these
students could be taught meditation and other mindfulness strategies such as
yoga (Germer, 2005).
Social learning theories value the importance of environmental events and
cognitions and their influence on behaviors. Actually, these theories are a blend
of cognitive-behavioral theories and social learning theories. An important con-
cept from these theories is the notion of response expectancies that are fre-
quently reinforced by the larger society. Finally, an ultimate phase of negative
aspects of response expectancies with diverse learners is learned helplessness.
Here, response expectancy can act as a form of external locus of control (i.e. the
belief that these things are totally outside of one’s control).
Multimodal behavior therapy, developed by Lazarus (1976), is an eclectic
form of behaviorism where various theories are used without endorsing the
individual theories. Multimodal behavior therapy could be used with diverse
learners by first analyzing these behaviors in terms of eight interacting modal-
ities: behavior, affect, sensation, imagery, cognition, interpersonal relationships,
drugs, and physiology. By focusing on these, learners’ affective domains and
how these relate or connect to their behaviors could be used to teach emotional
competence.

Improving emotional competence: using

rational-emotive behavior therapy
Similar to the emotional competence mental ability model is rational-emotive
behavior therapy (REBT), a cognitive-behavior intervention. REBT states that
thinking, feeling, and behaving are interrelated constructs. Traditionally a clin-
ical approach, REBT has been applied in various educational contexts with
children and youth. REBT recognizes the influence that cognitions have on
behavior and emotions and suggests that all three must be regarded in order
to modify emotional disturbances (Walden, DiGiuseppe, & Dryden, 1992). A
logical extension is that mental health curriculum should be delivered in class-
room settings to address and remediate the socio-emotional needs of students

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60 T. Banks et al.

with and without disabilities and to support the need for creating safe learning
environments for all students, especially those who are culturally different.
REBT has been used with children and adolescents in schools and found to be
an effective intervention with many commonly occurring difficulties (Ellis &
Wilde, 2002). In preparing children to deal with life in an increasingly complex
society, it is important that schools devote attention to well organized and
theoretically sound programs employing a preventive approach to mental
health. More than two decades ago, Vernon (1989) stated that the goal of
affective programming is to create “learning experiences through which children
can gain knowledge about themselves and their feelings and can learn how to
apply this knowledge in solving problems and coping with situations through-
out life” (p. 9). Preventive mental health curricula should focus on developing in
children an awareness of self, of feelings, of self in relation to others, and of
decision-making and problem-solving skills (Trip, Vernon, & McMahon, 2007;
Vernon, 1989; Zionts, 1996).
REBT incorporates changes to thought processes and behaviors. It is a
cognitive–emotive–behavioral system of therapy based on the assumption that
emotional problems result from illogical and irrational patterns of thinking
about an event rather than from the event itself (Ellis & Harper, 1975). It is a
theory and strategy that can be used to help culturally diverse learners to
combat extremely negative feelings and behaviors. REBT has been implemented
successfully with adults and children to address problems such as anxiety,
depression, low frustration tolerance, perfectionism, obsessive compulsive dis-
orders, and post-traumatic stress disorders (Ellis, 2003); self-esteem, test anxi-
ety, and locus of control (Omizo, 1986); emotional disturbance (Banks, 2006);
and learning disabilities and academic performance (Ellis & Wilde, 2002; Hajzler
& Bernard, 1991). To a large measure, REBT helps people learn to deal with
serious emotional disturbances. It is based upon the premise that emotions and
behavioral reactions are a result of how an individual perceives a current
situation or event (Knaus, 2001). REBT attempts to reduce extreme levels of
anger, anxiety, and depression that may interfere with a student’s ability to
achieve goals and/or figure out how to overcome a specific problem (Bernard,
1990). In essence, the objective of REBT is to teach individuals to base thinking
on factual events and act on the basis of an objective outlook (i.e. “what would a
camera see if it were aimed at the situation?”), rather than on self-defeating
feelings about or perceptions of events. The tenets of REBT with children and
adolescents are similar to those developed for adults. Clearly, “goal-defeating
behaviors and emotional consequences result from and are mediated by an
individual’s faulty beliefs about activating events (also referred to as ‘triggering
events’ or ‘antecedents’)” (Gonzalez et al., 2004, p. 225).

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 Emotional Competence 61

Targeting students with diverse learning needs

REBT is a mental health and an educational intervention (Trip et al., 2007). As a

result, it attempts to teach students with diverse learning needs how to help
themselves by providing a structured method of processing extreme emotions.
REBT is not designed to help these students solve current problems, but rather to
reduce extreme levels of anger, anxiety, and depression which make it harder for
them to figure out how to overcome a specific problem (DiGiuseppe, 1990).
According to the tenets of REBT, external events do not cause emotional dis-
turbance. Rather, it is an individual’s perception and evaluations of the events
that create the disturbance (Wilde, 1999). His/her perception then results in
emotional responses that affect goal attainment positively or negatively.
Applied to students with diverse learning needs, the assertion is that extreme
emotions disrupt the thinking process and impair their ability to achieve goals.
Ellis (1991) stated that thinking affects, and in some ways creates, individuals’
feelings and behaviors. Put another way, individuals’ emotions have a very
important impact on their thoughts and actions, and their actions distinctly
influence their thoughts and feelings. It is imperative that general and special
educators understand their logical extensions, especially if they are interested in
maximizing the fullest potential of students with diverse learning needs.
Consequently, if one of these processes is somehow altered, the others are
influenced as well. Ellis developed a simple ABC model to address emotional
concerns. “A” was defined as an activating event, and “B” was defined as a
student’s belief system about “A.” “C” was defined as emotional and behavioral
consequences. It was indicated that “B” largely causes “C” (Walden et al., 1992).
As Gregas (2006) remarked, irrational beliefs are identified as absolute demands
that lead to negative effects.
Educational REBT programs have been implemented in various educational
settings, including traditional classroom environments where diverse learners
attend (Knaus, 2001; LaConte, Shaw, & Dunn, 1993; Rosenbaum, McMurray, &
Campbell, 1991; Sapp, 1994; Sapp, Farrell, & Durand, 1995; Wilde, 1996, 1999) and
non-traditional educational settings where diverse learners attend (Banks, 2006;
Morris, 1993; Patton, 1995; Rudish & Millice, 1997; Shannon & Allen, 1998; Wachelka
& Katz, 1999). Many studies have supported Ellis’ theory that cognitions can modify
behavior and are related to emotional disturbance (Flanagan, Povall, Dellino, &
Byrne, 1998; Knaus, 2001; Morris, 1993; Rosenbaum et al., 1991; Shannon & Allen,
1998; Wilde, 1996, 2008). From a REBT perspective, an effective mental health
program should increase rationality and thereby reduce emotional disturbance of
students with diverse learning needs. Educational REBT programs have been taught
to groups of children as young as eight who learned to accept responsibility for their

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62 T. Banks et al.

emotions and to use cognitive, behavioral, and affective techniques to reduce self-
defeating attitudes, feelings, and behaviors. Despite the associated difficulties in
measuring the impact of REBT, the literature is replete with suggestions on how to
implement it in various classroom settings with school-aged children and adoles-
cents with diverse learning needs (Banks, 2006; Banks & Zionts, 2008, 2009; Barnes-
Holmes, 2000; Knaus, 2001; Lamarine, 1990; Morris, 1993; Patton, 1995; Rudish &
Millice, 1997; Sapp & Farrell, 1994; Vernon, 1996; Wilde, 1996; Zionts & Zionts, 1997).
To a large measure, REBT consciously recognizes the wide individual differ-
ences observed in the way students in school (and elsewhere) react to the same
event (DiGiuseppe, 1990). Whether in teasing, academic failure, criticism, par-
ental rejection, unfair treatment, or frustrating and difficult tasks, children and
adolescents of the same age experience different degrees of adaptive and mala-
daptive emotions and behavior. The goals in the REBT treatment of school-aged
populations are similar to those in adult treatment, although the means vary
depending on the cognitive-developmental status and intelligence level of the
student (Bernard, 1990). Clearly, REBT can bring about a reduction in the
intensity of inappropriate, negative emotions of students with diverse learning
needs. The goals of REBT practitioners are to make these students increasingly
aware of their self-talk and internal dialog, so they think more rationally,
clearly, and logically (Ellis & Wilde, 2002). REBT practitioners can also help
students to evaluate the content of their beliefs in hopes of allowing them to
experience fewer disturbed emotions. Finally, these students can be helped to
gain skills using rational-emotive principles, so they will act in a more appro-
priate manner and be better able to achieve their goals in life (Wilde, 1996).
Though not all children and youth will respond the same way to scripted
interventions, they all require intervention strategies that are designed to meet
their wide-ranging diverse needs in order to be successful during and after
school years. It is critical that general and special educators prepare their
students to be successful in life – beyond the scope of the classroom. In
addition, educators would benefit from understanding the importance of emo-
tional competence and the role it plays in the greater development of all
students, especially those with diverse learning needs.

Conclusions
Students with diverse learning needs are expected to adapt and deal with a
multitude of challenges in traditional classroom settings resulting in poor post-
school outcomes. They require instruction that teaches emotional competency

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 Emotional Competence 63

skills designed to meet their wide-ranging diverse needs in order to be success-

ful during and after school years. In addition, there is a need to support both
special education and mainstream education teachers with interventions that
can be integrated with an academic curriculum, so that they can better help
these students. When teaching emotional competency in the classroom, teachers
and service providers must make sure they treat their diverse students as if they
are worthy, speak on their feelings, and respond to their emotional needs as well
as the needs of others in appropriate ways. These teachers and service providers
must direct their lessons to deal with emotional competence. They also must
grow emotionally along with their students through their lessons.
Finally, it is important that general and special educators go beyond Skinner
and appreciate other learning theories (e.g. REBT), as they work with students
with diverse learning needs. Not preparing these students in both the academic
and the affective domains influences every aspect of their school and commu-
nity culture. Clearly, educators cannot demand skill performance without first
teaching the skill. Punishing and excluding their students who do not possess
skills to logically consider how their emotions impact their thinking and con-
sequent behavior only exacerbates their students’ problems. In the end, educa-
tors have a duty to teach their students to manage their emotions, resolve
conflicts, and be responsible for their actions. In fact, they must recognize that
students who receive an exclusively academic education may be ill equipped for
future challenges, both as individuals and as members of society.

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