This article was downloaded by: [Carnegie Mellon University]

On: 02 February 2015, At: 09:55

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Research in Nondestructive Evaluation

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urnd20

Residual Stress Measurement in Steel

Plates and Welds Using Critically
Refracted Longitudinal (LCR) Waves
a b a
T. Leon-Salamanca & D. F. Bray
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering , Texas A&M University ,
College Station, Texas, 77843-3123, USA
b
Reinhart & Associates , Austin, Texas, 78766
Published online: 21 Apr 2009.

To cite this article: T. Leon-Salamanca & D. F. Bray (1996) Residual Stress Measurement in Steel
Plates and Welds Using Critically Refracted Longitudinal (LCR) Waves, Research in Nondestructive
Evaluation, 7:4, 169-184, DOI: 10.1080/09349849609409576

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09349849609409576

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 Res Nondestr Eva1 (1996) 7:169-184
0 1996 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

Residual Stress Measurement in Steel Plates and Welds

Using Critically Refracted Longitudinal (LCR)Waves
T. Leon-Salamanca* a n d D.F. Bray
Department of hlechanical Engineering. Texas A&hl University. College Station. Texas
77833-3123, USA
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

Abstract. The application of acoustoelasticity using critically refracted longitudinal

(LCR) waves is described for measuring residual stress in welded steel plates. Residual
stresses are self-equilibrating and may exist in a material that has been deformed in a
nonhomogeneous manner. When unknown residual stress is present in a structure, the
true stress may become significantly greater than the working stress. In a corrosive
environment, highly stressed areas that have not been properly stress relieved are prone
to stress corrosion cracking. Areas near welds are particularly susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking.
Two welded plates were investigated for the present work: one hot-rolled and the
other cold-rolled. Residual stresses are usually greatest after welding. Further. longitu-
dinal stress (i.e., stress parallel to the weld bead) is typically greater than the component
transverse to the weld bead. Since the acoustoelastic behavior of the LcK wave is largest
when propagated parallel to a uniaxial stress, the LcKwave traveling parallel to the weld
bead was used to investigate the stress changes after stress relieving of the welded
plates. Both I hlHz and 2.25 hlHz probe frequencies were used in this study. The stress
changes in the welds and in the cold-rolled plate were clearly indicated by thc LcKdata.
Two verification methods were used: hole drilling (HD) and neutron diffraction
(ND). The stress relief was verified by the hole-drilling technique. While the HD tech-
nique showed about the same stress magnitude as found by the LCKresults, the orienta-
tion was reversed. The stress orientation was probably caused by the grinding process
used to flatten the weld bead. Texture was also investigated using a neutron diffraction
(ND) technique on the (OOl)[ I101 texture. The through-the-thickness technique yields an
average of the orientation distribution of the ( I 10) planes. At locations in the parent
metal and in the weld, the distribution was found to be very similar, indicating uniform
texture throughout the weld and parent metal zones.

Introduction

Residual stresses, sometimes called internal stresses, refer to a system of self-

equilibrating stresses that exist in a body free of a n y restraint or external force

* Presetif nddrcssr Reinhart & Associates, Austin, Texas 78766

 170 Leon-Salamanca and Bray

[ I ] . Processes like thermal expansion or contraction, diffusion, phase changes,

rolling, drawing, forging, and welding introduce residual stresses in a part.
Residual stress is superimposed on external o r working stress, thus its effects
can be either useful o r detrimental, depending on the design or final use of a
structure or part. Common detrimental effects of residual stress include warp-
ing of machined parts, cracking of drawn products, quenching cracks, prema-
ture failure caused by fatigue, and stress corrosion cracking. Techniques for
introducing beneficial residual stresses under controlled conditions acting op-
posite to the service o r working stresses include autofrettage, shrinking. shot
peening, and surface rolling [2].
To control, reduce, or beneficially redistribute residual stress, the initial
stress distribution must be known. Typical residual stress patterns caused by
the processes mentioned above are reported elsewhere 13, 41. Knowing the
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

residual stress pattern in a recently manufactured part, or one that has been in
service for a long time, will be advantageous in estimating more accurately the
safety factors o r remaining useful life, respectively.
Residual stresses are usually classified as macroresidual and micrpresidual.
Macroresidual stress, o r residual stress of the first kind, extends over a region
of several grains. This is the common engineering stress (bulk stress). Microre-
sidual stress, o r residual stress of the second kind, varies from one grain to
another, or from one part of a grain to another part, on a microscopic scale [ 5 ] .
Quantitative measurement of residual stress has been accomplished with
different degrees of success. Typically, residual stress has been determined by
indirect measurement of strain residing in a residual stressed body. Among the
most common techniques used for stress measurement are: mechanical meth-
ods, Moire and associated techniques, X-ray techniques, ultrasonic wave prop-
agation, neutron diffraction, magneto-elastic effect, analytical methods, and
cracking techniques [6, 71. Mechanical relaxation methods requiring material
removal are obviously destructive. Moire and associated techniques measure
displacements and distortions by placing fine grids on a specimen surface.
However, when applied to measuring residual stress, the experimental proce-
dure is destructive. X-ray and ultrasonic techniques are nondestructive. X-ray
methods measure surface stress by detecting changes in the interplanar spacing
of a predetermined atomic plane. Ultrasonic techniques are based on the effect
of strain on the acoustic wave velocities. This is called the acoustoelastic
effect. Neutron diffraction is nondestructive and more penetrating than x-rays;
thus, it measures bulk stress, and surface preparation is minimum. Magnetic
methods are nondestructive and are based on the magnetoelastic effect; they
measure bulk stress in magnetic materials. Analytical methods involve the use
of theoretical solutions to calculate residual stress magnitude and pattern, com-
bining material properties, finite element analysis, thermal transients, and any
other pertinent parameters. Finally, cracking methods help develop cracks by
the action and distribution of residual stress present in a part combined with the
effect of chemical attack, such as in stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen
attack. The crack patterns developed qualitatively reveal the residual stress
pattern present in a test part.
 Residual Stress hleasurement 171

y=o

Slress dislributlon aflef welding

-
uI= LOnQilUdhalSlress
q Trasnvorse Stress

Y
-.-.__
..
x-0
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

-a

_.
_-_ - - r e
a1

Fig. 1. Residual stress distribution after Melding a plate.

Residual Stresses in Welds

Residual stresses in welds are induced by the summation of effects due to

shrinkage, different cooling rates through the thickness of the weld, and phase
transformations [S]. In a butt weld. shown in Fig. I , the typical stress distribu-
tion is influenced more by shrinkage than by any other effect. Figure I shows a
biaxial state of stress featuring a stress component oriented parallel to the weld
axis (longitudinal stress) and perpendicular to the weld axis (transverse stress).
The longitudinal residual stress component is maximum at the center of the
weld and vanishes at the edges of the plate. It is also larger in magnitude than
the transverse stress. Different cases of cracking patterns in welded plates
often prove the presence of high longitudinal residual stresses [9].
For ductile materials, strains present in a residual stress system are thought
to be of secondary importance as compared to those produced by working or
applied stress. However, where brittle fracture may occur, all strains need to
be considered because fracture strain is small in the presence of a crack.

Residual Stress and Texture in Rolled Steel Plates

Both cold and hot rolling may generate residual stresses in steel plates [2]. The
action of the rollers forces material to flow mostly longitudinally, in the direc-
tion of rolling, since the friction along the contact region between the roll and
the plate restricts lateral material flow. A stress profile exists across the thick-
 I72 Leon-Salamanca and Bray

ness of the plate. During rolling, the longitudinal material flow creates compres-
sive stresses in the deformed region. At the surface, which is in contact with
the roller, there is no material flow during the rolling process due to friction
between the roller and the plate. As the materials leave the roll, however, this
constraint no longer exists and the compressive stresses in the interior expand,
generating a tensile stress on the surfaces. Additionally, the plate thickness
expands elastically upon leaving the roll, increasing the tensile stresses on the
surface. Stress distribution through the thickness is affected by the amount of
rolling in each pass. For large area reductions, the material flow is mostly at the
center, resulting in a pattern of simple compressive stresses at the midplane
countered by tensile stresses at the surfaces. For lighter passes through the
roll, however, the material flow is confined to a region near to the plate surface.
A cold-rolled plate, therefore, manufactured with first a large reduction fol-
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

lowed by a light reduction, would have compressive stresses both at the center
and also in a region near the surface. Surface stresses would still be tensile. The
magnitude of the stresses is affected by whether the plate is cold-rolled or hot-
rolled. Since the hot-rolled plates are deformed at elevated temperatures, the
forces between the rollers are less than for cold-rolled plates. The result is a
lower friction force between the rollers and the plate surfaces for the hot-rolled
plates and hence, lower stresses.
Crystallographic texture (preferred orientation) is developed in the plates
as a result of the rolling operation. The more common texture for steel is
(100)[01 I], but a number of others may exist [lo]. Textures in steels will affect
all of the elastic constants, including the wave speeds. Very high percentages of
texture may affect the wave speeds in excess of the amount caused by stress
[ I 11.

The LCR Ultrasonic Technique for Stress Rleasiirenient

The choice of technique to quantitatively measure residual stress should de-

pend on the kind of residual stress to be monitored, either surface or bulk
stress. The LCRultrasonic technique used for the present study measures stress
in the subsurface or bulk areas of the plates.
Ultrasonic stress measurement depends on the linear relationship of stress
and velocity of ultrasonic waves, i.e., the acoustoelastic effect. Based on the
acoustoelastic theory, and after the theory of finite deformations postulated by
Murnaghan [12], Hughes and Kelly [I31 derived wave velocity equations for a
stressed body. The velocity of the longitudinal wave increases in a compressive
stress field, and decreases in a tensile field. The acoustoelastic constant relates
the stress and velocity. Those results also showed that the longitudinal wave
propagating parallel to the applied stress axis is the one most sensitive to stress.
Egle and Bray [ 141 measured the acoustoelastic constants of five different types
of ultrasonic waves in steel rail samples. This material is similar to a 1080 steel.
For longitudinal waves propagating parallel to the stress axis, the acoustoelas-
tic constant was found to be 0.44 ns/MPa (3 ndksi). Thus, for a welded plate
where the longitudinal residual stress parallel to the weld is the critical compo-
 Residual Stress hleasurement I73

nent, velocity changes for a LCR wave propagating parallel to the weld will
measure the corresponding residual stress field.
The LcR waves are excited when an incident ultrasonic longitudinal wave,
traveling in a slow speed wedge material (e.g., PMMA), strikes the boundary
with the higher speed steel. Based on Snell's law, an incident beam angle of
approximately 28" from the perpendicular to the boundary surface is required
to excite the LCRwave. The beam profile of the LcR probe in the steel shows a
pressure peak at approximately 68" up from the surface normal. A large lobe at
approximately 83" to the normal contains the LcR component which travels
critically refracted, just under the surface layer. The pressure amplitude of the
LCRcomponent is about 52% of the peak seen at 68" [15-18].
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

Experimental Techniques

Two types of welded steel plates were used in the present study, namely, hot-
rolled and cold-rolled plates. These plates were in the as-rece-ived condition
with an undocumented residual stress field. Unwelded plate dimensions were
762 mm (30 in) x 254 mm (10 in) with a thickness of 19.05 mm (0.75 in). They
were made of 1018 steel with a reported composition of 0.16% C, 0.97% Mn,
0.009% P, 0.013% S, and 0.24% Si. Reported mechanical properties were: yield
strength, 364 MPa (53 ksi), and tensile strength, 510 MPa (74 ksi). The plates
were joined by an Argon welding process which used spoorlac (AWS class
E70S-6) weld material. This process was selected to induce a longitudinal resid-
ual stress field symmetric about the plate thickness and width, as shown in Fig.
1. After welding, the weld bead was ground flat to facilitate positioning of the
LCRprobe and the strain gauges near and on the weld. The rolling direction of
the plates was aligned parallel to the weld. LCR, hole drilling, and neutron
diffraction data were obtained from the plates before and after stress relief
anneal. The annealing process was selected from standard industrial procedure
[4]. The plates were placed in a furnace and heated for 3 hours until the temper-
ature reached 593°C ( I 100°F). That temperature was maintained for one hour,
and the plates were then furnace cooled. This process should eliminate or lower
the magnitude of the residual stress field without inducing any phase transfor-
mation.

LCR IVrrve Velocity Merrsr~l-enictitTechnique

The probe used to measure the travel-time of the LCRwaves has one transmit-
ting transducer (T) and two receiving transducers (RI and R2), as shown in the
experimental setup (Fig. 2). Two probe sets were manufactured, one each for
exciting 1 .O MHz and 2.25 MHz waves, respectively. Air backed, 25.4 mm (1
inch) square piezoelectric plates were bonded directly to the PMMA wedges
used to excite and receive the LCRwave. The transducers are joined by an
aluminum frame with the two receivers in line with the transmitter and sepa-
rated by a constant distance of 215.9 mm (8.5 in).
Electronic instrumentation for the experiments utilized a Panametrics
 174 Leon-Salamanca and Bray

Fulrcrhtcicvcr Rtamplifier
Panametrics 5052-UR

Sync I

Weld

Fig. 2. Schematic of electronic setup used for travel-time measurements for steel welded plates.
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

5052-UR pulser/receiver operated in the dual probe, send/receive mode. Ultra-

sonic signals were displayed and analyzed on a Texas Instrument Personal
Computer fitted with a General Research Corporation analog to digital con-
verter board capable of sampling transients at a maximum speed of 20 hlHz.
The software (PCDAS) was capable of controlling the board to give an equiva-
lent sampling rate of 160 MHz. Travel-times were measured using the time
delay feature of the software at either the first or second zero crossing of the
LcR arrival. Considering the sampling rate and the screen resolution, a 25 ns
measurement uncertainty was assumed.
The experimental technique consists of measuring the travel-times of LcR
waves from the transmitter to each of the two receivers and subtracting these
values, yielding the travel-time between the two receivers. This process was
repeated over a range of +/- 150 mm on either side of the weld at increments
of approximately 25 mm, as shown by the probe motion arrow in Fig. 2. These
travel-times measured over a constant gage length of 215.9 mm (8.5 in) yield the
velocity of the LcR waves propagating parallel to the weld. the rolling direction,
and the longitudinal residual stress field. All experiments were conducted at
room temperature.
Using transducers of the same size but with lower frequencies will produce
LCRwaves that travel deeper in the steel plates. The effective depth of these
critically refracted longitudinal waves is estimated to be equal to one wave-
length [IS]. The wavelengths of the LcR waves for the I hlHz and 2.25 hlHz
probes are 5.9 mm (0.23 in) and 2.6 mm (0.10 in), respectively. Therefore, the I
M H z and 2.25 MHz probes will sample layers of approximately 31% and 14%
of the thickness, respectively, in the 19.05 mm (0.75 in.) thick steel plates.
A third plate was not welded but was annealed for use as a control, or
reference, plate. Travel times for the 1.0 and 2.25 MHz probes on this plate
were 37.0 p s and 36.5 p s , respectively. Travel-time deviation from the data,
resulting from probe positioning effects. repeatability. and very small texture
and residual stresses, did not exceed 25 ns.

Hole Diilliiig T d i n i q n e
The hole drilling technique is semidestructive and is used to measure surface
residual stress in metals. The technique measures relaxed strains in the vicinity
 Residual Stress hleasurement 175

( Sucl Wcldcd Plau

Fig. 3. Diagram of instrumental setup used in the measurement'of residual stress using the hole-
drilling technique.
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

of a hole drilled by milling or air abrasion. Typical sizes of drilled hole; are 1.59
mm (0.0625 in) and 3.18 mm (0.125 in) in diameter and depth. Strains are
measured by a specially designed strain gage rosette that provides three inde-
pendent strain components which in turn are converted to stress by using the
appropriate equations. The hole drilling technique is described in Refs. [ 191 and
[20]. Figure 3 shows the experimental setup used to measure residual stress in
the welded plates. The drilled hole size used was 1.59 mm (0.0625 in), and
incremental drilling steps of 0.127 mm (0.005 in) were used through a maximum
depth of 1.016 mm (0.040 in). A rosette-type strain gage (TEA-06-062RK-120)
was used along with an air turbindcarbide cutter assembly (RS-200) operated
at 300,000 rpm with a required pressure of 0.2758 MPa (40 psi). The strain gages
were installed toward one end of each plate, approximately 101.6 mm (4 in)
from the edge, r i r i d o w r ri rtirige of +I- 75 r i i r i i f i o r i i the ii*cltl, as shown in Fig.
3. After stress relieving of the plates, the second strain gage set was installed
approximately 25.4 mm ( I in) from the previous location.

Nciitrori Diff,.cic.tiori Tecliriiqiic

The neutron diffraction technique was used to evaluate the texture or preferred
orientation of the plate and the weld, in a method analogous to X-ray diffrac-
tion. The scattering of neutrons is caused by the alignment of a given crystallo-
graphic plane in a polycrystalline material. Preferred orientations may be
caused by deformation, as in a cold-rolled steel plate, o r thermal treatment, as
in some annealing methods for steel. From tests performed on low carbon steel
sheets using X-ray diffraction, it was found that the principal textural effects
caused by rolling and annealing was the partial alignment of the [ I 101 crystallo-
graphic direction along the rolling direction [lo, 211. Thus, for the present
study, the ( I 10) crystallographic planes need to be examined to characterize
their distribution and quantify their density.
The transmission diffraction technique used for these investigations utilizes
a monochromatic beam of thermal neutrons (wavelength = I A) generated in a
 176 Leon-Salamanca and Bray
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

smEmw I

Fig. 4. Schematic of the geometric arrangement used to design diffractometer apparatus for neu-
tron diffraction experiments (shown at I ) = 0).

nuclear reactor and traveling through the thickness of the welded plates. Dur-
ing the process, part of the incident neutron beam is diffracted by the (110)
planes at an angle equal to 2"0, as shown in Fig. 4. The angle 0 calculated by
Bragg's Law is 16" or 2*0 = 32" for the atomic interplanar spacing of the ( I 10)
planes. The rest of the beam is either scattered by other planes. absorbed, or
simply traverses the plate. A neutron detector is then placed at the specified
angular location with respect to the incident neutron beam axis. as shown in
Fig. 4. The intensity of the diffracted neutron beam is measured in number of
counts per minute as the plate is rotated about the diffractometer vertical axis
(a' scan) in 4" increments. The plate is also tilted with respect to the rolling
direction and incident beam of neutrons by an amount of where is
r$O, +
changed from 0 to 90" in 30" increments.
The intensity data collected from the plates is then normalized with respect
to the control plate (also called randomized) and corrected for geometric effects
to create a pole figure. A pole figure is a stereographic projection where the
plane of the plate is taken, for this case, as the (001) plane of a cubic crystal
(BCC for iron at room temperature) and the distribution of the ( I 10) plane is
plotted on the projection plane [ 5 , 10, 191.
 Residual Stress hleasurement 177

37.3 -
37.2 - A,fuSoutR~ p

z
C, 37.0-+

36.9 -
36.8 -
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

-200 -1 00 0 100 200

DinanccFrornWeld h a h (mm)
Fig. 5. LCKwaves travel-time for cold-rolled plate and I hlHz probe.

Results and Discussion

Results of travel-time versus distance from the weld centerline for tlic I i d d d
plates, before and after stress relieving. are shown in Figs. 5 . 6 , 7, and 8. Data
were obtained from both sides of the welded plates. These results were ob-

36.9-/ O M ~ = l l 4 M P a ( 1 7 t r i )
/

36.8 -
-

-
36.7

3 36.6:
Ei
36.5-'

36.4-
36.3-

-200 - 1 00 0 100 200

Distance From Wdd Canalice (m)

Fig. 6. LCKwaves travel-time for cold-rolled plate and 2.25 hlHz probe.
 I78 Leon-Salnmanca and Bray

#'
37.3 -

-
37.2 -

3 37.1:

36.9 -
36.8 -
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

-200 -100 0 100 200

Distance From Wc!d Caxaline (mm)

Fig. 7. LCKwaves travel-time for hot-rolled plate and I hlHz probe.

tained from the cold-rolled and hot-rolled plates using both the I M H z and 2.25
MHz probes. Velocity decrements (increased travel-times) indicate the exis-
tence of more tensile o r less compressive stress, and velocity increments (de-
creased travel-time) indicate the existence of more compressive or less tensile
stress. Observations of the LCRtravel-time results lead to several possible
conclusions about the residual stress in the welded plates.

-200 - 1 00 0 100 200

DistzmaFnrm We!d Centaline (m)
Fig. 8. LCKwaves travel-time for hot-rolled plate and 2 . 3 AlHz probe.
 Residual Stress hleasurement I79

First, consider the cold-rolled plate (Figs. 5 and 6 ) .The results in the parent
metal before stress relief for the 1.0 MHz probe indicate first ;i somewhat
nonuniform stress field along the plate. Secondly, the stress relief causes a
significant (100 ns) increase in the travel-time across the parent metal region.
Further, the travel-times (stresses) appear to be more uniform after the stress
relief. At the weld, the before stress relief travel-times indicate a peak tensile
stress which disappears after the stress relief. The 2.25 M H z results show the
same increase in travel-time across the plate after stress relief as seen for the
1 .O MHz probe. The magnitude of change is not as great, however, being barely
beyond the experimental uncertainty. Also, the travel-time patterns are not
uniform in either the before o r after stress relief situation. A peak exists for the
before stress relief conditions, although it is not as pronounced as that seen for
the 1.0 MHz.
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

The hot-rolled plate results (Figs. 7 and 8) show a unique pattern. In the
parent metal regions for both the 1.0 and 2.25 MHz probes, the difference in
travel-times before and after stress relief is again barely beyond the experimen-
tal uncertainty, if at all. In the weld region before stress relief, both the 1.0
MHz and 2.25 MHz probes show peak travel-times, the 2.25 MHz peak being
almost twice as large a s the 1.0 MHz data. After stress relief, both peaks
disappear.
Several typical stress conditions in the steel plates may explain the ob-
served travel-times. Different stress fields are found for the hot-rolled and cold-
rolled plates. Moreover, different effects of stress gradients on the low fre-
quency ( 1 .O MHz) and high frequency (2.25 MHz) waves appear to be revealed
by the data.
In the cold-rolled plate, the data indicate that an initial compressive, near
surface stress in the parent metal was introduced during the rolling process and
relieved by the stress relief. This is shown by the increase in travel-time away
from the weld as a result of the stress relieving for both the 1.0 and 2.25 MHz
data. More significantly, however, a comparison of the 1 .O MHz and 2.25 MHz
results in that region indicates some information about the stress gradient in the
plate. Since the 1 .O MHz wave is interrogating a layer approximately 5.9 mm
(0.23 in.) thick, compared to a 2.6 mm (0.10 in.) thick layer for the 2.25 MHz
wave, this velocity behavior could be caused by a double stress reversal in the
upper half of the plate. This stress field could be described a s tensile at the
surface and followed by a thin compressive layer. Next would follow a thicker
tensile layer and then the peak compressive stress at the midplane. The very
thin reverse stress field near to the surface, followed by a thicker tensile layer
at the midplane, could affect the lower frequency 1.0 MHz data more than the
high frequency data since the stress effect of the high frequency waves would
be averaged over the thin region near to the surface containing a stress rever-
sal. A deeper, larger tensile region, beneath the upper compressive region,
could then dominate the 1.0 MHz data. At the weld, the 2.25 MHz data show
negligible effect by the stress relief, indicating a generally unstressed near
surface region in that case.
The hot-rolled plate more dramatically shows the effect of the stress relief
on the weld. The thinner region interrogated by the 2.25 hlHz wave would be
 I80 Leon-Salamanca and Bray

most strongly influenced by a tensile stress on the surface, and the significant
travel-time reduction shown in Fig. 8 confirms that these near surface stresses
are relieved by the heat treatment. The lesser magnitude of the travel-time
difference for the 1.0 MHz data before and after stress relief. as compared to
that for the 2.25 MHz, indicates lower average tensile stresses within the
thicker region of influence of the 1.0 MHz waves. Away from the weld, in the
parent metal, the effects of the stress relief are small for both the 1.0 MHz and
2.2.5 MHz data, indicating that the stresses near to the surface are slight for the
hot-rolled plate.
An estimate of the stress levels in the welds may be made with an assump-
tion of a uniaxial stress field and using the acoustoelastic constant reported
earlier for rail steel. Figures 5 , 6, and 7 show in the upper left corner the 50 ns
scale approximating a I14 MPa (17ksi) stress change. From these results, the
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

1.0 MHz data for the hot-rolled plate indicates a tensile stress at the weld of
approximately 570 MPa or 83 ksi above the stresses in the region near the \veld.
The 2.25 MHz data indicate stresses well above the yield stress. While the
magnitude of the stress indicated by the 2.25 hlHz data is not realistic, the
orientation of the stress is consistent with the expected behavior. The disagree-
ment here could arise from a number of factors, most likely due to the com-
bined assumptions of a uniaxial stress field and the acoustoelastic constant.
After stress relieving, the tensile stress in the weld area decreases as expected.
Figure 9a shows the hole-drilling results for the longitudinal residual stress
versus distance from the weld centerline for the hot-rolled plate before stress
relieving. The peak longitudinal residual stress at the weld is approximately
- 1000 MPa (- 145 ksi) for the first incremental drilling. While these numerical
values exceeding the material yield stress are unrealistic, the effect of the stress
relief is well documented. After stress relieving, the longitudinal residual stress
for the hot-rolled plate at the weld is -200 MPa (-29 ksi) for the first incremen-
tal drilling (not shown in Fig. 9a). Before stress relieving the cold-rolled plate,
the longitudinal residual stress at the weld is -300 MPa (-44 ksi) for the first
incremental drilling (Fig. 9b). After stress relieving, the longitudinal residual
stress at the weld is almost zero (not shown). The compressive stress found at
the weld was probably introduced by the grinding process used to flatten the
weld beads. For the cold-rolled plate, Fig. 9b shows significant variations in the
parent metal stresses. While it is very difficult with this hole-drilling technique
to make accurate projections of stress levels in stress fields with depth gradient,
nonetheless the presence of significant near surface stress variations for the
cold-rolled plate are indicated. These variations are expected by the manner of
rolling of the plate, and are indicated by the LCRdata. The L c R data indicated
lower stresses at the weld for the cold-rolled plate. This is also seen in compar-
ing Figs. 9b and 9a.
A typical pole figure obtained from the weld area of the hot-rolled plate is
shown in Fig. 10. The horizontal axis represents the rolling direction, and the
vertical axis represents the transverse direction, as shown in Fig. 4. The lines
shown on the plot indicate the angular distribution of contours of equal random
unit intensities diffracted by the ( 1 10) planes; the random units are indicated by
the numbers next to the lines. The random units indicate quantitatively the
 Residual Stress hleasurement 181

200 -+

0-'

-200 -
-
HoleDepth (mm)
.127

400 - ..-.*...

-600 -
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

-.-.*-.-
-
V
-800 1.016
Hot Rolled Plate
After Welding
(Before Stress Relief)
-lo00
-100 -50 0 50 100

Distance From Weld Centerline (mm)

Fig. 9a. Longitudinal residual stress in hot-rolled plate after welding ( H D technique),

300-

200 - HoleDepth (m)

100 -
-
-
.127
254

.381
0-

--)- .635
-100 -

Cold Rolled Plate

-
---.o--.

-.-.*-.-
,889
1.016
After Welding
(Before Stress Relief)
-300 1
-100
I

-50
I 1 t
0 50 100

Distance From Weld Centerline (mm)

Fig. 9b. Longitudinal residual stress in cold-rolled plate after welding (HD technique).
 182 Leon-Salnmnnca and Bray

ND
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

a degrees
Fig. 10. Neutron diffraction pole figure at the weld from hot-rolled plate. before stress relief.

percentage of planes oriented in a preferred way or percentage of texture with

respect to the control plate used to normalize the data. In Fig. 10, the maximum
density of planes or maximum random unit intensity occurs at approximately
4 = 30" and a = 5". Pole figures were obtained before and after stress relieving
from the hot-rolled and cold-rolled plates at locations of 76.2 mm (3 in) from the
weld, 25.4 mm ( 1 in) from the weld, and at the weld. They showed that the
overall change in texture ((001)[ 1101) before and after stress relieving was 4%
for the hot-rolled plate and 20% for the cold-rolled plate, out of a maximum
uncertainty of 8%. The conclusion from the pole figure results is that the stress
relief did not significantly affect the texture of the hot-rolled plate. The effect of
the stress relief on texture for the cold-rolled plate appears to be more signifi-
cant, however.
Metallographic samples and hardness measurements were also obtained
during the study and it was found that the microstructure of the plates and weld
did not change after stress relieving. For the hot-rolled plate, weld hardness of
45 RA was obtained before and after stress relieving. For the cold-rolled plate,
the RA hardness value changed from 53 to 45 before and after stress relieving,
respectively.

Conclusion

The effects of a standard industrial stress relief on the residual stresses in

welded steel plates have been indicated by the LCRtechnique. The results are
compared to those obtained with the hole-drilling technique. Further, the
(001)[ 1101 plate texture was studied by means of neutron diffraction.
 Residual Stress hleasurement 183

The results show that the LcR technique was capable of measuring stress
changes resulting from stress relieving of the plates; the results were particu-
larly effective in the weld on the hot-rolled plate using the 2.25 MHz frequency.
The cold-rolled plate showed the presence of compressive residual stress near
the surface, probably caused by the rolling process. The hole-drilling technique
was used to verify the results obtained by the LCRwaves technique. While the
hole-drilling results near the weld were affected by the grinding of the weld to
allow for probe and strain gauge placement, the results did confirm a uniform
stress gradient near the surface for the hot-rolled plate. The hole-drilling results
for the cold-rolled plate, on the other hand, indicated significant variations near
the surface. These variations are expected due to the rolling practices for cold-
rolled plates, and were confirmed by the LcR results. Texture variation was
found to be negligible in the hot-rolled plate (4%) and significant in the cold-
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

rolled plate (20%) as compared to the estimated uncertainty of 8%. RA hardness

was unchanged by the stress relieving process in the hot-rolled plate and
changed about 8 points in the cold-rolled plate. For the hot-rolled plate, this
result clearly shows that the travel-time reduction experienced at the weld by
the LcRwave during the stress relief was due to the stress relief and not to any
effect on texture or other material properties.
Wider application of the LCRtechnique is possible in several areas. First,
an often asked question in steel construction is “Has this weld been properly
stress relieved?” It appears that comparisons of travel-times away and at the
weld in the same plate can answer that question. Confidence in the results will
be increased with a well-established data base for the materials being used. The
possibility of measuring stress gradients appears to be well demonstrated here.
This needs to be further investigated with a closer range of frequencies in
known stress fields. More research needs to be done in the case of cold-rolled
plates to account for the amount of texture and residual stress introduced
during the rolling process and their effect on the LCRwaves velocity.

ArX.rioi(’ledgr)ierits.We would like to thank the Texas A&hl University NDT Laboratory at the
hlechanical Engineering Department. Dr. John Reuscher at the Texas ABhl University Nuclear
Reactor Facility. and Reinhart B Associates. Inc. for their support and valuable effort and contri-
bution to make this report possible. hlaterial reported in this paper is derived from Leon-Sala-
manca [23]. Portions have been reported previously in Refs. 1241 and [75]. Figures are used here
with the permission of the Society for Experimental hlechanics and the American Society of
hlechanical Engineers.

References

I. K. Heindlhofer. Euirlrrirtiori ofResidrrirl Stress. First Edition. hlcGraw-Hill, New York (1918)
2. G.E. Dieter, Jr. Merlitrriicrrl Afetullrrrgy, Third Edition. h1cGraw-Hill. New York ( 1986)
3. W.hl. Baldwin, Jr. Residrml Stress, Aletiil Progress 68: (24) 89-96 (1955)
4. K. hlasubuchi. Rrsidiiirl Stresses mil Di.c.rortiiiri, IVelihg. Brtr~irigtrrrtl SoldivYrig. \’I. Ali~tirls
Hundbook, American Society for hletals. Ninth Edition, hletals Park, OH, pp. 856-895. (1983)
5. B.D. Cullity. EIernerits OfX-riry Dvfiirctiiiri, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.
Inc., Reading, hlassachusetts (1978)
 184 Leon-Salamanca and Bray

6. A.J.A. Parlane. The Deteriiiincrtiorr of Residrral Stresses: A Riwiew of Co~itcnrporaryhlectsrrre-

irieirt Techniqrres. Proceedings of the International Conference in Residual Stresses in Welded
Construction and Their Effects," London. U.K.. pp. 63-78 (November. 1977)
7. R.hl. James and 0. Buck. Qlrarititative Nondestructive hlcasrrrement of Residrrirl Stresses,
Critical Review in Solid Store niid hfaterial Scienccs 9: ( I ) 61-105 (1980)
8. E. hlacherauch et al. Difffreiit Sorrrces ofResidrrcrl Stress 11s11 Resrrlt of IVclJirig. Proceedirigs
of the Iiiteriirrtiorirrl Conference iii Residrial Strcsses in IVeldcvl C O I I S I ~ I I ~
errid
I ~ Their
O I I Effccts,
London, U.K., pp. 267-282 (November, 1977)
9. K. hlasubuchi. Ancrlysis of IVelded Strrrctrrres. First Edition. Pergamon Press. Oxford (1980)
10. C.S. Barrett and T.B. hlassalski. Strrrctrtre of hletals, Third Edition, hlcGnw-Hill, New York
( 1966)
I I . D.E. Bray, and R.K. Stanley. Nondestrirctiue Evalrrotion, hlcGraw-Hill. New York, pp. 152-
157 (1989)
12. T.D. hlurnaghan. Finite Deforriiatiou of an Elastic Solid, First Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York (1951)
13. D.S. Hughes and J.L. Kelly. Physical Review 92: (5) 1145-1 149 (1953)
Downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University] at 09:55 02 February 2015

14. D.hl. Egle and D.E. Bray. J . Acorrsr. Soc. Airier. 60: (3) 741-744 (1976)
15. P. Junghans and D. E. Bray. Beam Characteristics of High Angle Longitudinal Wave Probes.
NDE: Applications. Adveriicecl h1etlrod.s. ciird C1)de.smid Stci/rdirrils.PVP-Vol-216. ed. by R.N.
Pangborn el al. NDE Vol. 9, Proceedings 1991 AShlE Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference.
San Diego, California, June 23-27, 1991. pp. 39-44
16. K.J. Langenberg, P. Fellenger. and R. hlarklein. Rcs. Noriili~.ELW/.2: 59-81 (1990) .
17. L.hl. Brekhovskii. IViives iri L(ryercd hfeiliti, First Edition. Academic Press. New York (1960)
IS. L.V. Basatskaya and I.N. Ermolov. Tire Soviet Jorrriid of Noiidestrrrcriue Testbig (De-
fektoskopiyo) 6: (7) 524-530 (1980)
19. American Society for Testing and hlaterials. A-cptrr-iiig Qirciirtitcitive Pole Figrircs ofhfetrils.
ASThl Standard E-81-63, Part I I. Philadelphia. PA, pp. 137-154 (1975) American Society for
Testing and hlaterials, E-837-92
20. hleasurements Group, hfeasrrrelnent of Residrral Stresses by the Hole-Drilliiig Straiii-Gage
hfethod, hleasurements Group Tech Note, TN-503-3, Raleigh, North Carolina (1988)
21. H. Takechi et al. Transactions of the Anrericaii Institrite of hfining, hletcrllrtrgical cind Perm-
leitrii Engineers 242: ( I ) 56-65 (1968)
22. D.R. Allen and C.hl. Sayers. NDT Interiiational 4: (5) 263-269 (1981)
23. T. Leon-Salamanca. Ultrasonic hlecrsrrrernent of Residirul Strcss in Steels rrsitrg Critically
Refracted Lorigitrrdiriol IVirues (LcRJ, Texas A&hl University, Department of hlechanical
Engineering, Ph D. Dissertation (1988)
24. T. Leon-Salamanca and D.E. Bray. Ultr~rsoirichfetrsirrerrient qf Rcsiilrrtil Strcss iii Steels
Using Criticdlj Refrmted Loiigitrrilirid IViices (LcRj, Proceedings 1990 Spring Conference on
Experimental hlechanics, Society for Experimental hlechanics. June 3-6. 1990. Albuquerque,
Nhl, pp. 271-278
25. D.E. Bray, T. Leon-Salamanca. and P. Junghans. App1ictrriori.s of the LcH Ultrirsoiiic Tech-
iiiqrre for Eutrlri~rtiiigPost Weld lfiwt Trcrrtiiiort iii Stcd Pkitc. Nondestructive Evaluation
NDE Planning and Application, NDE-5. ed. by R. Streit, Proceedings 1989 Pressure Vessels
and Piping Conference, Honolulu. Hawaii. July 23-27. 1989. pp. 191-197