Models from Burgess and Hoyt

Burgess

Explanation:

Having made in depth studies of the morphology of Chicago in the 1920's, Burgess concluded that city land-use could be identified as a
series of concentric rings around the CBD.

The CBD will contain all the major shops and offices and be a centre of entertainment.

Surrounding this CBD will be the oldest housing, which is in a state of deterioration. Industry will also feature in this area. This is the area
often referred to as the inner city or 'zone of transition'.

Then, we get three rings of housing. The first will be high density, poor quality that traditionally houses the workers for the factories.

Next, is slightly lower density, middle class housing. These will be semi-detached with gardens.

Finally, there is a ring of high class housing for those who can afford to commute.

Evaluation:

For: Against:
If taken as a very broad pattern, then a large It does not take any physical features into account. Burgess' own case study - Chicago -
number of towns and cities follow the pattern does not follow the pattern because it is on the coast! The growth of any city will be
identified by Burgess. influenced by the physical geography of the area.
Transport is much more readily available allowing more people to commute. This has
It is good model because it is simple and easy
meant that commuter villages have developed some distance from the edge of the
to understand. Hopefully!
urban area. Burgess could not have foreseen this.
Burgess could not have foreseen the changes Urban regeneration and gentrification has meant that some of the most expensive
in transport routes or society yet his model is property can now be found in traditional 'low class' areas. Whilst council estates have
still relevant when identifying the reasons built up on the edges of many large cities - these are now some of the most depressed
behind the urban morphology of a city. areas in British cities.
It helps us to understand the process involved The decentralisation of shops, manufacturing industry and entertainment does not
in the growth of a city. follow his model.
Hoyt

Explanation:

Hoyt's model came nearly twenty years after Burgess'.

He suggested that the city grew in a series of sectors or 'wedges'. These would grow along traditional communication routes. The land-
use within a sector would remain the same as like attracts like. For example, a 'high class' sector would remain high class as it would be
the most desirable area to live, so only the wealthiest could afford it. An industrial sector would remain industrial as the zone would
have a common advantage - perhaps a railway line or river.

Note how the low quality housing is next to the industrial zone, middle class next to low class and high class as far as possible from
industry and low class.

Evaluation:

For: Against:
Some cities seem to follow Hoyt's sectors. Bristol, for
example, has a very clear industrial sector following a Like Burgess' there is little reference to the physical environment.
main rail line and the River Avon.
The growth of sector can be stopped as land-use leapfrogs out of the old
It provides us with an alternative set of explanations to
inner city. For example, out of town council estates have prevented large
Burgess.
high-class sector developing in other areas of Bristol.
Communication routes (Rivers, roads, railways) do often
Again, like Burgess, there is no reference to out of town developments.
provide a very definite boundary to a sector/land-use.

In addition, the division between land-uses in both models is far to clear-cut. Firstly, you would not suddenly walk from lower to middle
to higher class housing. Also, all zones will have a mixture of land-uses. Residential zones will have shops and industry in amongst them.

They do, however, give us a bench mark for comparison and allow us to have a basic understanding of the complex set of processes that
determine the distribution of land-use within a city.
Models for the developing world

Explanation:

This model attempts to explain the complex growth patterns of cities in the
developing world.

The CBD is similar to that in the developed world and is an area of high-rise
offices and shops. However, the similarities stop here. The CBD is surrounded
by high-class apartments and older middle class housing, which has been built
during colonial times.

You should not forget that there is great wealth in the cities of the developing
world and that one of the features of the developing world cities is the great
contrast in living standards.

In a ring around the high class housing you find well established 'shanty towns'. These will be the oldest shanty towns in the city and are
located here so that residents could find work in the CBD or in the homes of the higher-class residents.

These are not like the shanty towns in the outer circle as they have been steadily improved by the residents. Many will have electricity,
water supplies, even schools and clinics. The buildings will have been improved so that corrugated iron is replaced with brick and
concrete. This could have been via a redevelopment scheme as outlined in the problems and solutions scheme. Many will now be
officially recognised settlements.

This zone is referred to as 'periferia' or periphery.

Surrounding this (and infilling any gaps) will be the shanty towns that would be resident to the most recent migrants and would typically
have the poorest standards of living as outlined in the urban problems section.

In addition, there are sectors of industrial use (as factories locate along main roads especially those that lead directly to a port) and
residential as the high classes choose to leave the polluted and over-crowded inner city.

Evaluation:

For: Against:
The model effectively simplifies and explains the complex
processes responsible for the urban morphology of the No reference to physical landscape.
developing world city.
It highlights the great differences in living standards that exist in The change between land-uses would not be clearly defined especially
these cities. as shanty-towns tend to infill any available space.
Most cities in the developing world are located in coastal locations so
It highlights the importance of the export market to the
industrial growth would be located around the ports not on the roads
developing world city.
to the port.
 Problems and solutions: more developed countries

Problems

Any city in the developed world will face considerable problems. These could include:

1. Inequality. Inequalities exist in all cities in the developed world. The most deprived groups can often be found in old inner city areas.
These areas are often typified by:
2. High levels of unemployment and a lack of employment opportunities:
3. Poor household amenities.
4. Large areas of derelict land.
5. Air, water and land pollution.
6. High social problems such as alcoholism, drug abuse and crime.
7. Greater frequency of health problems.

The problem is that the inner cities are often caught in a cycle of decline.

The positive:

The above paints a very depressing picture of the inner cities. This is not always the case. The inner cities of many British cities are
improving rapidly and people are once again choosing to live in them. This is, in part as a consequence of gentrification and urban
regeneration.

1. Traffic congestion. The cities of the UK are often choked with the pollution from cars. There is a well-known statistic about the
average speed of a car in London being slower than the old horse and cart.

You must remember that the cities of the UK were built before the invention of the car!

2. Death of the CBD. The CBD of many major cities is in trouble. Increasingly more of the functions associated with the CBD can be found
on the outskirts of town. In Bristol, for example, there are now four cinema multiplexes outside the city. Whilst these are thriving, those
cinemas left in the city are either closing or face a great struggle for survival. Many UK towns no longer have a cinema. The opening of
'The Mall' (a large shopping and entertainment complex outside Bristol) meant that John Lewis closed its city department store and
relocated. This has meant that a lot of shoppers no longer come into the city centre. Since 'The Mall' opened, shops and entertainment
in the CBD have had a constant struggle for survival.

If people do not go into the centre for their shopping or entertainment, then what is the future of the CBD?

Solutions

There have been a number of policies and initiatives that have had the overall objective of regenerating urban areas. In the past twenty
years, these have changed frequently, but have included Urban Development Corporations and more recently, schemes where councils
have to bid for various sources of money. One of those sources is lottery money.
Problems and solutions: less developed countries

The developing world cities are suffering many very serious problems. These are a consequence of the rapid population growth, a lack of
capital to invest and a non-existent, very poor and/or outdated infrastructure.

Problems

1. Collapsing infrastructure. Many cities in the developing world do not have an infrastructure that is capable of dealing with the
massive increases in population. In addition, the governments do not have sufficient funds available to maintain the facilities, let alone
improve them. Particular problems arise because of the inadequacy of the road and sewerage networks - see next point.

2. Increasing levels of pollution. Pollution of air, land and water is a major problem in most developing world cities. The drive to
industrialisation brings with it inevitable problems, especially as legislation to protect the environment is often non-existent or rarely
enforced. Furthermore, the hidden economy can add to the levels of pollution as small, unlicensed industries are set up in peoples
homes or on rooftops. These industries release their pollutants into the air, land and water.

3. Increased volume of traffic on poorly maintained roads. The water supply can also become polluted as inadequate sewerage
facilities allow the spread of harmful bacteria. Indeed, death from water-borne disease is one of the biggest causes of high infant
mortality rates.

4. Inadequate housing and services. Shanty towns display most problems typical of developing world cities. On arrival at the city, it is
most likely that the migrant will find him having to create his own shelter, live on the streets or rent a single room. In Calcutta, "Hotbed
Hotels" rent rooms on an eight hour basis, whilst in Mexico City, over ten million live in shanty towns.

5. The shanty town is likely to be found on inappropriate land. Maybe it is prone to flooding or is very steeply sloping, increasing the
chances of a landslip. It could be on a piece of land that has been badly polluted by a neighbouring industry. The shelters made of wood
and high population densities increase the risk of fire.

6. The services will be non-existent or incapable of maintaining a basic standard of living. The lack of basic services like a clean water
supply, rubbish collection and sewerage disposal mean that the risks of disease are very high.

7. A lack of employment means that people have to look for other ways of earning money. In Manila, children scavenge on refuse sites
collecting cans for recycling. As well as being unpleasant, the risk of injury is high and any cuts will become infected. Hospital waste is
also dumped on the site with hypodermic needles adding to the dangers of serious infection.

Drugs have also taken a grip in many shanty towns. In Rio's favellas, there are often gun battles between rival gangs.

Solutions

Solutions to any problem are made more difficult by the lack of available resources and the sheer scale of the problems faced. Below
are some examples of different policies attempted:

Attempts to solve housing problems:

1. Site and service schemes: Popular in India and Brazil. This is a scheme whereby the government will provide a site (a small concrete
'hut') and basic amenities such as water and sewer facilities. The migrant is given rights of ownership and then expected to complete the
work at his or her expense. This is often done as a cooperative between groups of migrants. In other situations, the authorities just
provide the plot and building materials for the migrants to construct their own homes.

These schemes are relatively cheap and give the migrants a sense of control over their future. They also encourage community spirit.
2. Rehabilitation: An alternative to this scheme is to provide the residents of shanty towns with the materials to improve their existing
shelters. Residents are also encouraged to set up community schemes to improve education and medical services. Residents may also
be given rights of ownership whilst local authorities come in and provide electricity, water and sewerage disposal. This has been tried in
Bolivia and Pakistan.

It is a cheaper option than the site and service schemes but simply hides the real problems. The germs may not have been removed, the
land still unsuitable and the water/sewer system still not adequate.

3. Housing developments: Some countries,such as Singapore, have embarked upon massive re-housing programmes, resultingin high-
rise estates.

Large areas of shanty towns were cleared, tower blocks built and the shanty town residents re-housed.

Early apartment blocks were very similar to those found in the UK and faced many similar problems. One such problem was people
using the lifts as toilets - this was stopped when lifts were made sensitive to urine and locked on the offenders. They then had to wait to
be released, facing much embarrassment and a very heavy fine! Today, blocks are designed by architects and have management teams
that keep them graffiti and litter free. This is helped by the strict rules enforced in Singapore, where dropping litter or selling chewing
gum will result in a very heavy fine.

Each housing development is designed to be self sufficient, with shops and services and employment in light industry, such as clothing.
They are also located close to Singapore's highly efficient rail system - the MRT or Mass Rapid Transport. This helps reduce traffic
congestion, which is further reduced by strict quotas on the number of licensed cars and regular tolls on all major roads.

The housing and development board aims to provide every person with a home and has continued its building programme for the last
40 years.

4. Sewage rehabilitation: Several cities have taken on major projects to try and repair damaged water and sewerage pipes. This
improves the safety and quality of the water in the city and would reduce mortality rates. The rehabilitation also goes some way to
reducing the unemployment problems.
 Urban rural interdependence

Counter-urbanisation

Counter-urbanisation: The process by which people and businesses are leaving the urban areas to relocate in smaller towns or rural
villages.

It was first noted in the USA. Similar patterns were detected in London, initially as a result of slum clearance and relocation to new
towns, but then as a 'voluntary' movement. This pattern has since been identified in nearly all UK cities.

Reasons for counter-urbanisation:

1. Environmental and social problems with inner cities pushed people away from urban areas. At the same time, more rural areas were
seen as peaceful, unpolluted, offering greater space and the community spirit that was lacking in inner city areas.
2. The growing popularity of the 'out-of-town' industrial and businesses parks as industry also became unsatisfied with inner city areas (see
'Inner Cities').
3. Improvements in rural transport infrastructures and increased car ownership allowed a greater freedom of choice when choosing where
to live.
4. The growth in Information Communication Technology (E-mail, Fax, Video-conferencing) has allowed further freedom as people can
work from home and are not so tied to urban areas.
5. For social reasons, as people re-acquaint with family or friends, retire to a quiet place, believe the countryside to be more suitable for
families or decide the climate/environment is better for their health.

Counter urbanisation has had a major impact on rural villages and communities. Amongst these impacts are

1. House prices can be pushed up as migrants sell expensive city properties and earn higher city wages. This can force young people to
leave the village because they cannot afford a house.
2. Public transport goes into decline because the new residents are car owners. This can be a major problem for village residents without
their own transport, particularly the elderly. This problem is compounded by:

 Traditional rural services start to close as the new population will be reliant on the services of the urban environment such as the
supermarket. The closures of village stores and post offices have caused major problems in many rural areas.
 Those shops and services that survive often find that they have to change to meet the needs of the new population. So the pub becomes
a restaurant, the blacksmith now makes garden furniture and the butcher a delicatessen.
 As a large percentage of the migrants will be commuting to work traffic congestion increases. The problem is accentuated by the fact
that they will be driving on narrow country roads.
NATURAL HAZZARDS

Earth's Structure

Consists of a thin outer layer, the crust.

The mantle is composed mainly of silicate rocks, which contain a lot of magnesium and iron. This is a much thicker part of the earth.

The mantle contains many minerals, particularly iron and nickel.

In the temperatures can reach 5000 degrees Celsius, which generate convection currents.

The core is in the centre of the earth.

Natural Hazards

Physical hazards include events such as; earthquakes, volcanic explosions, flooding, drought, tropical storms and landslides.

Impacts of hazards

It is generally felt that that the less developed a country (LEDC) is the more damage, both economically and in terms of loss of life the
hazard causes. There are several reasons for this:

1. Population LEDC's have denser populations.

2. Finance LEDC's do not have the financial clout to demand strict building legislation codes, unlike places such as USA.
People in MEDC's such as Japan and the US are educated as to what to do in the event of a hazard, and where they can
3. Education
go, thus reducing the vulnerability of the population.
4. Insurance Closely linked to finance. Homes in MEDC's can be insured against damage from hazards Offsetting the cost of rebuilding.
Many LEDC's are dependant on a cash crop economy. If a hazard wipes out their entire crop, then their whole economy
5. Economy
will suffer.
6. Infra- MEDC's are highly organised regards emergency services, and communications to ensure the population in need of help
structure receives this as quickly as they possibly can reducing the spread of disease and death.

Remember that some of these may trigger other hazards such as tidal waves following earthquakes.

In order for a physical event or process, such as an earthquake to be hazardous there must be the potential for some loss of life.

It is generally felt that that the less developed a country (LEDC) is the more damage, both economically and in terms of loss of life the
hazard causes.

The impact of a hazard can be increased by human activity.

Areas vulnerable to tectonic activity are usually found on or near to plate boundaries

Tectonic Processes

The location of continents today of far removed from what it was millions of years ago, when it is believed that all continents were
joined to one land mass.

Plate movement is either towards, away, or alongside adjacent plates.

 Plate movement can be one of three types:

1. Convergent (destructive or collision) - Towards each other. For example: The Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate created the Himalayas.
2. Divergent - Away from each other. For example: North American plate moving away from the Eurasian plate resulting in the mid Atlantic
ridge.
3. Transform or transcurrent - Alongside each other. For example: Earthquakes such as those linked with the San Andreas Fault.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur because of a slow build up of pressure in the earth's rocks, which is quickly released.

Primary Hazards are hazards due directly to the earthquake itself, and consist of ground movement and shaking.

Earthquakes emit body waves (travel through the earth) and surface waves. It is surface waves that cause most damage as they impact
on what is on the surface of the earth

Secondary Hazards are indirect hazards that may result from an earthquake:

Soil Liquefaction - Solid material changed into a liquid state. Damages building foundations, resulting in them sinking.

Landslides - Often as a result of the ground shaking, even if a slope is gentle. Cause burial of people and overrun buildings.

Tsunami (tidal waves) - If the focus of the quake is beneath the sea, tsunami can occur. Ninety percent occur in the Pacific basin. The
more movement of the sea floor and the shallower the focus the larger the wave that is created.

Volcanoes

Formation of volcanoes

This occurs when magma from the earth's interior is able to make its way
to the surface, via a vent. This is usually associated with plate boundaries.
Volcanoes vary greatly in their shape, as does the type of material
emitted during an eruption. Volcanoes range from steep to gently sided

Volcanoes occur when magma from the earth's interior is able to make
its way to the surface, via a vent.

The shapes of volcanoes that you should be able to recall are:

1. Fissure: Very gentle slope, found at diverging ocean plates, basaltic lava, can flow over large distances.
2. Basic / Shield: Have gentle slopes, steeper than fissure due to repeated explosions and subsequent build up of basalt based lava.
(Mauna Loa Hawaii)
3. Cone: Symmetrical in shape, A acid where thick viscous lava, rapidly cools B) Ash / Cinder.
4. Composite: Very large old volcanoes. Both ash and lava are deposited (Mt. St. Helens)
5. Crater / Caldera: Form when a very violent eruption occurs after a build up of gas beneath the volcano. Can destroy the magma
chamber leaving a large crater.
 Types of lava Flow

This ranges from being extremely thick and viscous, to highly fluid. The amount of pyroclastic material also varies.The two types are:

Aa flow - This is a few metres thick, a mix of uneven shaped, sharp edged ash and cinder blocks. It is unstable.

Pahoehoe flow - Is fluid rather than viscous, but does not move quickly. Often the surface layer is static whilst flow continues beneath.

Primary volcanic hazards

Lava flows: A greater threat to property than human life due to opportunity for evacuation. Lava flows are more dangerous when
released very quickly. They usually cause large but localised economic losses.

Pyroclastic flows: These are hot rock fragments, lava particles ash and hot gases. They are linked with subduction zone volcanoes, and
the flow moves very quickly from its source.

Ash and Tephra fall: Ash is material below two millimetres in diameter whilst tehpra is anything above this. It is usually formed when
magma is fragmented by explosions, and can stay in the atmosphere causing global variations in weather patterns. Ash fall do not cause
many deaths but can lead to breathing difficulties.

Volcanic gases: Gases emitted from volcanoes include, water vapour, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, helium and
carbon monoxide. They rarely cause death but can be problematic as many are heavier than air.

Secondary volcanic hazards

Lahars: Mud flows of volcanic material due to ash and debris mixing with water. On steep slopes speeds can reach 22 metres per
second.

Volcanic landslides: These are slides of rock and loose volcanic material, which are driven by gravity.

Tsunamis: A rare event, but the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, did create a 30m high tidal wave.

Tropical Cyclones

Called by a variety of names: Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones, Willy Willies

Tropical cyclones are generated over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and are most common in autumn when ocean temperatures are at
there highest. There is some evidence to suggest that their frequency and severity is increasing as a result of global warming.

Several basic conditions are necessary for hurricane formation:

1. Warm oceans with surface temperatures in excess of 27 degrees, and a deep layer of water to 60m
2. A location between 5degrees north and south of the equator. (Without this the coreolis force is not sufficient to create the spinning
motion characteristics of hurricanes.
3. Relatively stable and uniform atmospheric conditions of temperature, humidity and pressure. In the upper troposphere air drawn in at
lower altitudes must be able to escape.
4. Relative humidity of over 60% to provide sufficient energy to power the hurricane.
5. Little change of horizontal wind with height.
6. Existing cyclonic spinning of winds in the lower troposphere.
 Tornadoes

Most tornado activity (70%) is found in the Great Plains of the USA. They form as a result of intensive convective rainfall systems and are
highly unpredictable.

The two meeting air masses are conditionally unstable.

Low level air has a relative humidity of over 65%.

A low level southerly jet stream exists in the humid air.

Mass Movements:

This is where land movement at a range of speeds results in destruction of property and/or loss of life. It is often triggered by human
activity. In its broadest sense it is the movement down slope of any weathered material (regolith) under the influence of gravity.

The type of movement that occurs is influenced by:

1. Angle of slope (steeper is faster)

2. Nature of regolith
3. Amount and type of vegetation
4. Water
5. Type and structure of rock
6. Human activity
7. Climate

Managing Hazards

Despite their apparent unpredictable nature, attempts have been made to control and influence the amount of damage a hazard
causes. Success varies due to issues such as development, frequency and perception.

There is a general belief that often individuals do not perceive themselves to be living in a hazardous area (take Los Angeles, for
example), and that it takes experience of a hazard to appreciate the danger.

This then subsides as the time since the hazard increases. In some cases, the advantages of an area may far outweigh the potential
disadvantages of the hazard (good fertile soils, favourable climate) and in the case of technologically advanced countries the population
may believe they have the technology to manage the hazard.

Hazard Impact:

Obviously this varies depending on the scale, frequency and vulnerability of the population. It is closely tied to wealth, education,
health, population and technological advances. (See earlier work on impacts of hazards).

Hazard Prediction:

This is highly complicated and its usefulness is the subject of debate. The main areas covered include forecasting and warning in an
attempt to minimise the impact. In the USA hurricane warning systems exist, satellite monitoring equipment, as do posters TV and radio
broadcasts informing people of action to take in the event of a hurricane. Seismographs monitor tectonic activity in an attempt to find
clues to a large quake.
Hazard Prevention:

Most work regard reducing the impacts of hazards is concentrated in this area as it is considered the most direct and cost effective.

The aim is to reduce the potential impact of hazards by ensuring people are fully prepared should they occur. Hazard prevention exists
in a number of ways:

Cities in earthquake zones often use training and education, to ensure that all citizens know what to do in an earthquake situation.

Building Restrictions and Land Use planning - This is far more commonplace in MEDC's where there is a lower density of population and
the money available to enforce such codes.

Buildings can be restricted in height, have to conform to a certain design to ensure they have the greatest chance of remaing intact in
the event of a hazard.

Problems exist in LEDC's such as the Philippines where housing is vulnerable, due to material being salvaged from homes destroyed in a
typhoon in order to rebuild others. There is currently a move towards educating the public on low-cost typhoon resistant housing.

Aid - Often the most contentious issues regards preventing hazards. LEDC's are eager to limit short-term handouts, such as clothes,
money, food, and focus on long-term measures that they believe can help a country become more self-dependant and learn to cope
with the impacts of hazards for themselves.
 TOURISM

1. Where are the tourism growth regions?

The biggest tourist destinations are more developed countries. France and the USA the largest two. These have huge populations either
within their countries or in bordering countries. They also have established reputations and services.

Significantly the developing world is experiencing the greatest growth as long haul flights mean people can explore further a field and
Governments - See tourism as an essential source of foreign currency.

2. Why has there been such a growth?

 More holidays - paid holidays increased

 A smaller world - faster travel time increase tourism
 Development - Governments promote tourism as it can benefit their economy
 Elderly - Health care and pensions has meant that people are living longer
 Society - Holidays are a normal part of Western society
 Income - People are earning more than ever before and prices are relatively cheaper
 Communication - ICT makes booking holidays easier and cheaper

3. What are the costs and benefits of tourism?

Factor: Developed world: Developing world:

Environmental Positive - Listed buildings Positive - Operation

have been reclaimed on campfire in Zimbabwe has
Bristol's harbour-side and helped manage the
sympathetically restored. indigenous animals,
reducing soil erosion and
Negative - Snowdonia increasing land available
national park has serious for agriculture.
problems with soil erosion
due to tourist. Negative - In Goa mass
tourism has bought about
pollution of the beaches.

Economic Positive - Regeneration of Positive - Operation

Bristol's harbour-side Campfire has been very
provides jobs. successful in earning
foreign currency which it
Negative - There are some injects back into the local
doubts about how Bristol's economy
new developments would
 survive a recession. Negative - Mass tourism in
Goa has seen the closure
of traditional farming and
fishing industries.

Cultural Positive - Bristol's harbour- Positive - Operation

side provide a new and campfire has meant locals
varied cultural are once again earning
environment. their living from game.

Negative - Question marks Negative - Goans complain

about the number of bars that tourism has bought
involved in the with it an influx of drugs,
development at Bristol and prostitution and HIV.
the related problems with
alcohol.

4. How can tourism be used to regenerate a deprived region?

 Provides jobs for a broad cross-section.

 Stimulates other parts of the economy.
 Improves derelict areas.
 Provides facilities for locals and tourist alike.
 SOIL EROSION

Human impact on soils

The main issue is that soils take thousands of years to develop but are very quickly ruined by human actions. Natural loss occurs via
leaching, erosion and mass movements but today the natural balance of soil is being upset far more frequently. Human impact alters
nutrient content, leads to soil erosion, compaction and salinisation.

Soil erosion

The problem was first recognized in the UK in the 1970's when water erosion of upland peat and wind erosion on large open fields was
prevalent. A large quantity of soil was removed, much of which was the organic rich topsoil. The more topsoil that is removed the more
erosion that occurs, as there are fewer roots to bind the soil.

Causes of erosion
1. More intensive agriculture.
2. Larger and more powerful agricultural machinery.
3. Increase compaction of soil.
4. Inappropriate cultivation of steeper slopes.
5. Larger fields.
6. Year round agriculture.
7. Decrease in hedgerows.
8. Population pressure.
9. Development.

Soil erosion leads to a decline in productivity, a reduction in organic content of soils, and more minerals and silt in rivers. Once topsoil is
removed it is very difficult to replace.

Managing soils

Soils vary naturally in their fertility, and their ability to produce high or low crop yields depends on nutrient content, structure, drainage,
local conditions of climate and relief, acidity and soil texture. Crop harvesting removes soil nutrients resulting in a poorer quality
soil. Soil management aims to reduce soil erosion and nutrient losses in a variety of ways:

Method: Actions:

Limitation of wind
Preserve moisture in the soil, plant windbreaks.
erosion.

Terrace slopes, apply humus, develop ditches that traverse hillslopes to intercept run-off, contour ploughing,
Control of slope run off.
limit field width.

Management of crops. Cover crops, introduce crop rotation.

Limit gulley
Plant trailing plants, construct dams.
enlargement.

Re-vegetate areas. Limit grazing to allow re-growth, deliberate planting of vegetation.

GLOBAL WARMING + OZONE DEPLETION

Causes and Effects of Global Warming

Global warming first emerged as a cause of global concern in the 1980's, a result of the apparent rise in global temperatures, believed
to be due to human activities, such as burning of fossil fuels and destruction of forests. There is debate as to whether global warming
exists, as it could merely be another example of changes in temperature the world has seen over millions of years.

It is important to distinguish global warming from the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon,
without which human life would not exist on the earth.

Causes of global warming

Many greenhouses gases exist naturally, and it is human actions that are increasing their concentrations within the lower atmosphere. It
is believed that as the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increases, the amount of long-wave (infra-red) radiation in the
lower atmosphere also increases, thus raising temperatures.

The table below outlines the major sources of greenhouses gases:

Gas: Source: Use: Way it increases global warming:

Water vapour and clouds are responsible
Water Oceans, lakes, rivers, reservoirs. Humans have little impact Absorbs limited
for nearly 98% of the natural greenhouse
vapour upon levels. outgoing radiation.
effect.
Carbon Burning of fossil fuels, and forests, breathing animals, less Absorption of long
Approximately 50%.
dioxide produced by southern hemisphere (less land). wave radiation.
Methane Much from break down of organic matter by bacteria (rice
As above. Approximately 18%.
(CH4) paddy fields) cows, swamps marshes.
Naturally from some oxygen atoms. Ozone in the
Filters short wave
Ozone troposphere is due to chemical reactions between sunlight Difficult to estimate.
UV radiation.
and agents of pollution.
25%, but increasing due to ability to survive
CFCs Fridges and aerosols.
within the atmosphere for 100 years.
Nitrous Nitrate fertilisers, transport and power stations Absorption of long
Approximately 6%.
oxide (combustion). wave radiation.

Positive and negative effects

It is important to remember that whilst most publicity concentrates on the negative side of global warming it will undoubtedly have
some positive consequences.

Impact on: Effect: Consequence (-): Consequence (+):

More money needed to fight disease,
Malaria and cholera increase, due to
Health strain on medical services, rise in
temperature increase.
death rate.
Vegetation Shifting flora and fauna to different Spread of pests and disease, Canadian Prairies could become major wheat
 areas. Extinction of some species. alteration in crop yields, may increase growing belt. Areas able to grow different
food shortages. crops, for example, citrus fruits in the UK.
More extreme climates in inland
Weather locations. More frequent and Unknown at present. Unknown at present.
devastating hurricanes.
Changes in number of fish stocks and
Sea temperatures increase, sea levels
Ocean their location will impact the fish Increase in fish stocks in certain areas.
rise, shift in ocean currents.
industry.
Extended summer season in some landscapes
Reduced snow cover in some areas.
Landscape Rise in sea levels. due to higher temperatures, increasing
Glaciers melt in Antarctica.
revenue.
Reduction of wetland areas, as Great pressure on water supplies.
Increased awareness of water conservation
Hydrology precipitation is reduced. In some Problems for HEP schemes and
measures, less water wastage.
places river flooding may increase. irrigation.
Reduction of areas suitable for human Increased population densities
Forced movement of population from densely
Population habitation, for example. lowland increase possibility of disease and
populated coastal areas, to interior locations.
Bangladesh. malnutrition.
Location of jet stream may alter. Better forecasting needed to warn
Climate Depressions may shift south, causing people of approaching storms. More accurate weather forecasting developed.
them to be more intense. Insurance premiums will increase.

Solutions to global warming

The most difficult task when creating agreements on reducing global warming is gaining international co-operation and agreement on
the best measures to take. LEDC's are keen to utilise their own reserves of fossil fuels, to gain valuable revenue, and do not have the
finances (or desire) to put into place expensive measures that may reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.

Ways of reducing greenhouse gas emissions

 Switch from use of fossil fuels to 'greener' sources of energy, for example, renewable energy such as wind power, nuclear power, HEP.
 Increase tariffs on industry for emitting greenhouses gases, or price fuels so that their cost reflects the impacts that they have on the
environment.
 Increase double-glazing and insulation in buildings to increase energy efficiency.
 Limit the amount and rate of deforestation by provision of relevant management strategies.
 Replant trees.
 Make greater use of gas rather than coal and oil due to its greater energy efficiency.
 Invest more money into public transport and increasing fuel efficiency of cars, for example.

Advantages of the approaches

1. Changing to nuclear power is one of the fastest ways of reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) output.
2. Difficult to enforce effectively. Fines often mean little to large industries.
3. In the UK government legislation already exists, and new buildings now have a minimum of 20% increase in their energy efficiency.
4. Can work well if advice is given in conjunction with indigenous populations.
5. Would reduce soil erosion, and absorb carbon dioxide.
6. In the UK the aim is to keep carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels and this depends on substitution of gas for coal and oil.
7. Fossil fuels would be the most expensive fuel, therefore reducing their use. Car companies are already investigating more energy
efficient fuels and energy sources.

Disadvantages of the approaches

1. Much concern exists over the safety of nuclear power, especially after the Chernobyl accident. Disposal of nuclear waste is problematic
and the construction of new power stations is highly expensive.
2. Encourages a more mindful approach to the environment.
3. Difficult to oversee on a large scale.
4. Implementation is difficult, especially when the destruction is widespread as in Amazonia.
5. Tree growth is very slow and it would take many decades to replace the trees lost through deforestation.
6. There would be a need to construct many more power stations.
7. Encouraging people to use public transport if highly problematic, especially for those living in rural areas.

In the widest sense there are a variety of approaches that can be taken to global warming, but without large scale international co-
operation the problem is likely to worsen before it improves.

The evidence that exists for global warming is far from conclusive and it is important to examine all the evidence before reaching a
conclusion.

Ozone depletion

Introduction

The ozone layer is found in the upper stratosphere and its primary function is to filter ultraviolet short-wave radiation that comes from
the sun. Ozone gas absorbs UV radiation. The 'hole' in the ozone layer was first noted in the 1980's, and is of concern as increased levels
of UV radiation can leads to increased levels of skin cancer and eye cataracts.

At first the ozone hole was only found over Antarctica, but it has been becoming larger at a rapid rate, and now affects parts of Chile
and Australia. Although some natural repair occurs each year, it is not sufficient to limit the damage. The problem is worsened as CFC's
are a primary cause of the damage and they remain in the stratosphere for up to 100 years.

Causes of ozone depletion

Source Impact
The increase in the size of the hole in the ozone layer is directly linked to increased production of CFC's since the 1950's in
CFC's aerosols, plastic foam, fast food packaging and fridges. Chlorine is produced by CFC'S and reacts strongly with ozone in the
stratosphere, breaking down the ozone layer.
Natural Volcanic eruptions, as they release carbon monoxide and decrease nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. Methane from rotting
causes vegetation.
Consequences of ozone depletion

Effect: Explanation:
Main concern is the increase in levels of UV radiation and the link to skin cancer. It is also connected to eye damage,
Health
where the cornea, retina and lens may be damaged. In severe cases, cataracts form.
Vegetation Inhibits photosynthesis in plants and increase likelihood of disease. Some evidence is contradictory.
Global Large amounts of UV radiation can kill plankton found in oceans, which absorbs carbon dioxide, thus increasing the rate
warming of global warming.
Other effects Places stress on marine ecosystems reduces strength of wood and plastic products.

Solutions to ozone depletion

Solution: Detail:
Pioneered in Australia, with the Sunsmart Campaign, advising people to cover up when out in the sunshine to
Education
reduce the damage caused by UV radiation.
Government Australia in 1989 'Ozone Protection Act' banning production of import and manufacture of all CFC's. Restriction of
legislation aerosol use.
Government legislation combines with development of alternatives to CFC's. Labelling of products as 'ozone
Removal of CFC's
friendly' to provide consumer choice. Pump action sprays instead of aerosols.
International Various, beginning with the Montreal Protocol in 1987, where measures have been taken to reduce CFC
agreements production. 1992 EU countries agree to halt CFC production by 1995.