1 SPLITTING/BURSTING PERFORMANCE OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PRISMS

2
3
4
5 Moochul Shin
6 Western New England University
7 1215 Wilbraham Road, Springfield, MA 01119
8 Tel: 413-796-2202 Fax: 413-796-22116; Email: moochul.shin@wne.edu
9
10 Hailing Yu
11 Volpe, The National Transportation System Center
12 US Department of Transportation
13 55 Broadway, Cambridge, MA 02142
14 Tel: 617-494-2554 Email: hailing.yu@dot.gov
15
16
17 Word count: 3,953 words text + 14 tables/figures x 250 words (each) = 7,453 words
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24 Submission Date: 07/31/2017
 Shin and Yu 2

1 ABSTRACT
2 This numerical parametic study focuses on evaluating the splitting/bursting performance of
3 prestressed concrete prisms. Under the sponsorship of Federal Railroad Administration, Kansas
4 State University (KSU) experimentally characterized the bond-slip behavior of various
5 prestressing wires and strands commonly used in railroad concrete ties in the U.S. Based on the
6 experimentally obtained bond-slip behaviors, Volpe Center has developed elastoplastic bond-slip
7 models as a user-defined material (UMAT). In the bond-slip models, the required parameters
8 were calibrated with the KSU untensioned pullout and pretensioned concrete prism testing
9 results. In this study, effects of important geometric/mechanical parameters on the
10 splitting/bursting performance of pretensioned concrete prisms are examined by incorporating a
11 recently developed, unified bond model into the finite element (FE) analyses of pretensioned
12 concrete prisms. The commercial FE software ABAQUS with the unified bond-slip UMAT is
13 used. The important geometric/mechanical parameters considered herein are: reinforcement type,
14 initial pretension force, concrete edge cover, reinforcement center-to-center spacing and concrete
15 mechanical properties. The results show that releasing the prestressing wires at a concrete
16 compressive strength of 3500 psi could cause significant splitting/bursting damages in the
17 concrete prisms and a 0.5 in. concrete cover should be avoided due to the potential of premature
18 splitting cracks. Finally, recommendations on developing qualification tests using pretensioned
19 concrete prism results to prevent the splitting/bursting failure of concrete ties are made.
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24 Keywords: Bond-slip, Prestressed Concrete, UMAT, Cohesive, Splitting/bursting
25
 Shin and Yu 3

1 INTRODUCTION
2 The railroad instrudy in North America started replacing traditional wooden crossties with
3 prestressed concrete crossties (PSCCs) since the 1960s as loading demands of freight cars and
4 interests of high speed trains have been growing. PSCCs have been placed on multiple railroad
5 tracks including passenger, freight, and mixed-use tracks. However, some of prestressed concrete
6 crossties have failed prior to their expected service life, i.e. 50 years. And these damages have
7 been identified as one of main causes of derailment accients.
8
9 In the early 1990s, a well-known train accident occurred related to premature failures of
10 PSCCs on Amtrak’s concrete crosstie tracks on the eastern seaboard (1). The failures
11 demonstrated that there was significant loss of prestressing force of prestressing wires originated
12 from the developed cracks on the concrete crossties. Many investigators identified that the issue
13 was associated with degradation of the concrete material, i.e. alkai-silica reaction (ASR). Since
14 they found the degradation of the concrete material was an issue, the manufactures of prestressed
15 concrete crossties made their effort to improve their quality of concrete crossties such as ASR,
16 and freezing and thawing damage. However, concrete damage and cracks were reported again
17 even for the high-quality-controlled concrete crossties which had been placed on the Northeast
18 Corridor and other places. Amtrak had to replace the ties with new concrete ties between 1990
19 and 2000 on tracks, and found that more than 1 million ties had similar problems (1). Federal
20 Railroad Administration investigated main failure mechanisms of those concrete ties, and it
21 turned out the horizontal cracks of the concrete crossties were initially developed and propagated
22 because of high imposed prestress together with ASR (2). Figure 1 shows examples of damaged
23 concrete crossties with the horizontal cracks (2).
24

25
26 FIGURE 1 Example pictures of concrete crossties with horizontal cracks (2).
27
28 Some of main failure modes of PSCCs are as follows, not limited to: splitting/bursting
29 failure (horizontal crack), center binding (vertical crack), rail seat deterioration (RSD), and loss
30 of cover concrete. The manufacturers of PSCCS in North America use different types of
31 prestressing wires, indentations, strands, and thickness of cover concrete, patterns and numbers
32 of wires etc., which result in wide range of structural performances. In order to improve
33 structural integrity of PSCCs, many researches have been conducted at the various institutions. A
34 research team at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) investigated how to
 Shin and Yu 4

1 improve the current design practice by conducting extensive laboratory and field experiments
2 while concurrently developing an analytical tool using a finite element analysis (3, 4). Another
3 research team from Kansas State University experimentally examined the effects of different
4 indented wires on structural performances of prestressed concrete crossties currently used in
5 North Amercia (5, 6). Furthermore, based on the experimental test results obtained by the KSU
6 research team, researchers at the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, U.S.
7 Department of Transportation (DOT) have developed 3D finite element models of concrete
8 crossties which are capable of mimicking bond -slip behaviors between concrete and various
9 prestressing wires (7–10). In order to represent the different bond-slip behaviors in the interface
10 between concrete and prestressing steels, they used a thin layer of cohesive elements by
11 assigning traction-displacement relation (bond-slip) to the elements. The bond-slip model is
12 defined with a yielding function and a plastic flow rule to represent adhesive, frictional and/or
13 dilatational bonding mechanism (7–10). Then, the parameters for describing the bond-slip model
14 were calibrated with untentioned pullout tests and pretensioned prism tests conducted by the
15 research team at KSU (11).
16
17 One of the main objectives of the study is to optimize the various (geometrical or
18 mechanical) design parameters of PSCCS: thickness of cover concrete (CV), type of
19 reinforcement, spacing of reinforcement (S), indentation, initial pretension force (P),
20 compressive strength of concrete when prestressing reinforcement is released. An extensive
21 parametic study on behaviors of prestressed concrete prisms are carried out in order to ensure
22 structural performances of prestressed concrete blokcs in splitting mode and prevent
23 splitting/bursting failure during their de-tensioning process. Prestressed concrete prisms with
24 single wires are used to perform the parametric study.
25
26 MATERIAL MODELS
27
28 Constitutive Model for Concrete
29 Concrete is one of highly complex heterogeneous materials, and it can be numerically
30 represented as a nonlinear solid material. In this study, a concrete model, Concrete Damaged
31 Plasticity Model, available in Abaqus, which enables to simulate failures of brittle materials such
32 as cracking in tension and crushing in compression is used. Figure 2 shows the uniaxial stress-
33 strain curves of the concrete model. In tension, concrete exhibits a linear elastic behavior until it
34 reaches the cracking strength (σt0), and the stress-strain curve is followed by softening behaviors.
35 In compression, the stress-strain curve follows a linear-elastic behavior until the elastic limit
36 (σc0), and a hardening behavior until the compressive strength (σ’c), and then finally a softening
37 behavior until the ultimate strength. The two damage parameters (dt and dc) can be defined to
38 simulate damage progressions at each cyclic loading after the elastic limits, and represent the
39 reduction of the intial elastic modulus of concrete. The damage indecis dt and dc should be
40 between 0 and 1 (12).
 Shin and Yu 5

(1- (1-

(a) In tension (b) In compression

1
2 FIGURE 2 Uniaxial constitutive behaviors of concrete: a) in tension and b) in compression.
3
4 Bond-slip Model
5
6 Bond-slip behaviors between concrete and prestressing wires have been traditionally understood
7 by three mechanisms: 1) adhesion force between the materials, 2) mechanical interlocking
8 between concrete and wires due to the existence of indentations, and 3) frictional force between
9 two materials. Tepfers was one of the pioneers who studied on the subject of prestress transfer
10 (13). Many of them recognized them potential splitting cracks due to the Hoyer effect (14).
11 Prestressed concrete structures are prone to be split by cracks when high radial stress a
12 surrounding prestressing wire is induced.
13
14 Recently, the researchers at Volpe center developed a bond-slip model which is capable
15 of simulating the dilation of reinforcement upon de-tensioning the reinforcement, and slip (7–
16 10), in return, the splitting damage of concrete due to dilation of the reinforcement and the slip
17 can be examined. This bond-slip model was adopted to simulate the interface interaction between
18 reinforcement and concrete. Table 1 summazises the important mechanical properties of
19 materials. The parameters for the bond-slip models were dependant upon indentation types, and
20 concrete release strengths. In this table, the parameters calibrated for a wire with a spiral
21 indentation pattern at the release strengths of 3,500 and 4,500 psi (24.1 and 31.0 MPa) are
22 presented, respectively as examples. In order to calibrate the bond-slip model parameters and
23 validate the model, series of untensioned pullout and pretensioned concrete prism testing results
24 were used (11). Figure 3 shows the comprasions of the experimental (Test) and numerical (FEA)
25 untensioined pull-out test results on concrete prisms at the compressive strength of 6,000 psi
26 with a single reinforcement with different indentation patterns. They showed good agreements
27 while capturing the slip starting points, which indicate the bonding failure. Five different types of
28 reinforcement used; WE (spiral), WH (deeper chevron indentation), WG (shallow chevron
29 indentation) and WA (smooth) are a single wire with different indentations, and SA represents a
30 7-wire strand. As shown in the figure, WA (smooth wire) had the poorest bonding behavior, and
31 the indentation patterns significanlty affected the bonding charaststics of prestressed concrete
32 prisms. More detailed descriptions, calibration procedures of the bond-slip models and the
33 material properties can be found in the previous work done by one of the authors (7–10, 15, 16).
34
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38
 Shin and Yu 6

1 Table 1 Material properties

2
Concrete Steel
Release strength 3500 psi 4500 psi Yied stress 274000 psi
Elastic modulus 3259 ksi 3655 ksi Elastic modulus 30000 ksi
Compressive strength 3586.0 psi 4570.2 psi
Tensile strength 366.0 psi 439.4 psi
Bond-Slip for a spiral identation pattern
Normal elastic stiffness 9022650 lb/in3 12245025 lb/in3
Shear elastic stiffness 187971.7 lb/in3 25104.45 lb/in3
Coefficient of friction 0.35 0.475
Initial adhesive
strength 385.0 psi 522.5 psi
3
4
(mm)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
15
2000 WE
Bond stress (psi)

WH B
1500 10
(MPa)

WG
1000
SA 5
500
Test FEA
WA
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
5 Unloaded end slip (in.)
6 FIGURE 3 Comparisons of the pull-out test results at the 6,000 psi nominial concrete
7 compressive strength.
8
9 PARAMETIC STUDY
10 Prestressed Concrete Prisms
11
12 The effects of the design parameters on the splitting/bursting performance of prestressed
13 concrete prisms were examined by incorporating the bond-slip model into a finite element
14 analysis (FEA). The important geometric/mechanical parameters were as follows: reinforcement
15 type, initial pretension force (P), concrete cover (cv), reinforcement center-to-center spacing (s),
16 release strength of concrete. Two different prisms were prepared: 1) single-wire prisms in order
17 to examine the effect of cover concrete, and 2) four-wire prisms to evaluate the maginal spacing
18 between wires. Figure 4 shows schmatics of a single reinforcement prism and a four
19 reinforcement concrete prism. The concrete cover (CV) is defined as the distance from the center
20 of a wire to the outside wall of the prism. Spacing (S) is defind as the distance between the center
21 of one wire to another. The length of the prisms is 69 in (1752.6 mm). In this numerical analysis,
22 X,Y, and Z axis symmetry is applied and only 1/8 of the prism is modeled.
23
 Shin and Yu 7

L
cover
cover d
(a) (b)
1
2 FIGURE 4 Schmatics of a single-wire prism (a) and a four-wire prism (b).
3
4 The three different wire types were denoted by WE, WG and WH, herein. The diameter
5 of the wires is 0.209 in (5.32 mm). Figure 5 shows exemplary pictures of the used reinforcement.
6 WE is a spiral-indented wire, WG and WH are both chevron indented wires with WH having a
7 deeper indentation.
WE WG WH

8
9 FIGURE 5 Thee wires with different indentations (17)
10
11 Parameters of Single Wire Prism
12
13 The effects of cover concrete, indentation types, and release strengths were examined via single
14 wire concrete prisms. The concrete cover was tested at four different thicknesses. Table 2
15 summazies the values of the parameters used in this study. Two different concrete release
16 strengths were explored, 3500 psi (24.1 MPa) and 4500 psi (31.0 MPa). These values were
17 chosen to demonstrate the effects of de-tensioning the wires within a few hours or a day after
18 pouring the concrete. Three pretension forces were tested: P - 7000 lb (31.1 kN), 0.9 P - 6300 lb
19 (28.0 kN), and 0.75 P - 5250 lb (23.3 kN). Those prestress values were preassigned to a
20 prestressing wire, and the prestress was released once a simulation began.
21
22 Parameters of Four Wire Prism
23
24 The effect of the spacing between the adject wires was examined along with three indentation
25 types and two prestress releasing strengths. The cover concrete of 1.0 in (25.4 mm) and the
 Shin and Yu 8

1 pretension force of 7000 lb (31.1 kN) was used for the four-wire prisms. In Table 3, the design
2 parameters of a four-wire prism are presented.
3
4
5 TABLE 2 Design parameters of a single-wire prism.
6
Cover Indentation Pretension Release
Concrete force strength
1 in SA P 3500 psi
0.875 in WE 0.9 P 4500 psi
0.750 in WG 0.75 P
0.650 in WH
7
8
9 TABLE 3 Design Parameters of a four-wire prism.
10
Spacing, S Indentation Release strength
S1: 2.00 in 3500 psi
WE
(50.8 mm) (24.1 MPa)
S2: 1.75 in 4500 psi
WG
(44.5 mm) (31.0 MPa)
S3: 1.50 in
WH
(38.1 mm)
S4: 1.25 in
(31.8 mm)
S5: 1.00 in
(25.4 mm)
11
12 SIMULATION RESULTS
13
14 Single Wire Prism
15
16 24 simulations were conducted for each wire, and a total of 72 simulations was carried out (3
17 indentation types x 2 release strengths x 4 cover thicknesses x 3 pretension force). The models
18 were created using Abaqus CAE program, and a standard static analysis with a user-subroutine
19 option was performed. The nomenclature of each model was defined based on its input
20 parameters such as compressive strength_cover thickness_Pretension force_Indentation. For
21 example, fc3500_CV1_P1_WE model is a simulation with the release strength of 3500 psi (24.1
22 MPa), the cover concrete of 1 in. (25.4 mm), the pretension force of 7000 lb (31.1 kN), and the
23 WE wire.
24
25 Three different outputs were examined to evaluate the performances or damage of single
26 reinforcement prisms: 1) maximum dt (see Figure 2.a), 2) Damaged length and 3) Damaged
27 Radius/CV. Figure 6 shows countour plots of a damaged concrete prism after the simulation. Any
28 elements experienced tensile damage (beyond the cracking strength, σt0) were highlighted.
29 Herein, dt greater than 0.001 was used to demonstrate cracking elements. Damaged length is the
 Shin and Yu 9

1 distance where the concrete is damaged in the longitudinal direction, measured from the front
2 face to the furthest damaged point. Damaged radius/CV is a ratio that indicates the relative
3 severity of the damage caused to the concrete due to the detensioining. A value of 0 means there
4 is no damage to the concrete, a value of .5 means that the damaged radius reached halfway to the
5 concrete cover, and a value of 1 means the concrete is damaged to the cover.
6

CV

Damaged Radius
(a) (b)
7
8 FIGURE 6 Examples of the damaged radius and damaged Length of a concrete prism after
9 releasing a prestress wire.
10
11 Figure 7 shows qualitative comparisons of damaged areas of the concrete prisms with
12 respect to different indentations and release strengths under the pretension force of 7000 lb (31.1
13 kN) and the cover concrete of 1 in. (25.4 mm). WE (spiral indentation) shows least radial
14 damage, while WH (deeper chevron indentation) indicated that the damaged radius reached to
15 the cover when the prestressing wire was detensioined at 3,500 psi (24.1 MPa). In addition, by
16 increasing the releasing strength to 4,500 psi (31.0 MPa), the damaged areas were reduced in
17 every wire types.
18
WE WG WH
f’c of 3500 psi
f’c of 4500 psi

19
20 FIGURE 7 Qualitative comparisons of the damaged radius of a cross-section of single-wire
21 concrete prisms after the detension.
 Shin and Yu 10

1
2 In Figure 8, the maximum dt (Figure 8.a) and the damaged length (Figure 8.b) for
3 concrete prisms with pretensioned force held constant at 7000 lb (31.1 kN) and the release
4 strength of 3,500 psi (24.1 MPa) are shown with respect to the varing concrete cover thicknesses.
5 As the thickness of the concrete cover increases the max damage decreases rapidly. When the
6 concrete cover is 1 in. (25.4 mm), the differences between the maximum dt of using different
7 wires become minimal, while the maximum dt of fc3500_CV4_P1_WH reached approximately
8 0.9. The damaged length was also affected by the concrete cover thickness. Figure 8.b shows
9 changes of the damaged lengths of each wire under the release strength of 3500 psi (24.1 MPa)
10 and the pretension force of 7000 lb (31.1 kN). WG (shallow chevron indentation) tended to slip
11 longer than others except when the concrete cover became 0.65 in (16.51 mm) for WH. In the
12 case of the cover concrete of 0.65 in (16.51 mm), the cover concrete was insufficient to develop
13 the strong bonding with WH, because the surrouding concrete prism had severely failed, which
14 resulted in the longer damaged length. In general, when releasing the prestressing wires at a
15 higher concrete strength, the damaged region become less. In terms of Damaged radius/CV ratio
16 (see Figure 8.c), the ratio for WH was found to be always 1.0 regardless of the thickness of
17 concrete cover. The ratios for WG and WE cases became 1.0 when the cover concrete was
18 reduced less than or equl to 0.875 in. (22.22 mm) and 0.75 in. (19.05 mm), respectively. Overall,
19 WH (deeper chevron indentation) was proned to have severe tensile cracks upon detensioining at
20 the release strength of 3500 psi (24.1 MPa) with 7000 lb (31.1 kN) pretension force. Finally, the
21 less pretension force applied, the less damage the concrete had to suffer.
22
23
Cover Concrete (mm) Cover Concrete (mm)

Damaged length (mm)

15.24 20.24 25.24 15.24 20.24 25.24
Damaged length (in)

1.00 15.00 400

0.80 WE
Max. dt

300
0.60 WG 10.00
200
0.40 WH
5.00 100
0.20
0.00 0.00 0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Cover Concrete (in) Cover Concrete (in)
(a) (b)
Cover Concrete (mm)
15.24 20.24 25.24
Damaged radius/CV

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Cover Concrete (in)
(c)
24
25 FIGURE 8 Maximum dt (a), Damaged length (b), and Damaged Radius/CV ratio of a
26 single-wire concrete prisms under the release strength of 3500 psi and the pretension force
27 of 7000 lb.
28
29
 Shin and Yu 11

1 Four Wire Prism

2
3 A total of 30 simulations was carried out (3 indentation types x 2 release strengths x 5 spacings),
4 while the cover concrete and the pretension force were kept constant at 1.00 in. (25.4 mm) and
5 7000 lb (31.1 kN), respectively based on the previous single-wire prism results. The
6 nomenclature of each model was defined based on its input parameters such as compressive
7 strength, spacing, and indentation. fc3500_S1_WE model has a release strength of 3500 psi (24.1
8 MPa), the spacing of 2.00 in (50.8 mm), and the WE wire. With the previously defined three
9 damage outcomes, mainly maximum dt, Damaged length and Damaged Radius/CV, Damaged
10 Spacing ratio was newly introduced. The Damaged Spacing Ratio is defined as the maximum
11 damaged radius inside from the center of a wire (S’max ) devided by the half of spacing (S’) (see
12 Figure 9). The damaged spacing ratio of 1.0 indicates that the cracks are interconnected between
13 the adjacent prestressing wires.
14
S
S’ CV

Damaged Spacing=S’max Damaged CV=CVmax

15
16 FIGURE 9 Damaged spacing ratio of a four-wire prism.
17
18 Figure 10 shows qualitative comparisons of damaged areas of four-wire concrete prisms
19 with respect to different indentations and spacings under the release strength of 3500 psi (24.1
20 MPa). By comparing the top raws to the bottom raws, the effect of the reduced spacing can be
21 observed. When the spacing of 2.0 in (50.8 mm) was used for WE, the damaged area is more
22 localized around each wire. However, when the spacing was reduced by 1.5 in. (38.1 mm), the
23 cracks became interconnected (see Figure 10.a and d). Similar to the single-wire prism results,
24 WH showed most severe tensile failures, and WG tended to slip longer when the releasing
25 strength of 3500 psi (24.1 MPa) was used.
 Shin and Yu 12

WE WG WH
Spacing of 2 in

(a) (b) (c)

Spacing of 1.5 in

(d) (e) (f)

1
2 FIGURE 10 Qualitative comparisons of the damaged area of a cross-section of four wire-
3 concrete prisms after the detension.
4
5 The maximum dt and the Damaged Spacing Ratio (S’max/S’) of the four-wire prisms
6 under the release strength of 3500 psi (24.1 MPa) with respect to five different spacings were
7 plotted in Figure 11. Until the spacing between the adjacent wires maintained wider than or equal
8 to 1.5 in. (38.1 mm), the maximum dt was less than 0.05 for all three indentation types. However,
9 the maximum dt of WH became greater than 0.3 when the spacing was reduced to 1.25 in. (31.75
10 mm). Furthermore, the Damaged Spacing Ratio of WH was 1.0 regardless of the spacings, while
11 the cracks of WG and WE became interconnected when the spacing of 1.5 and 1.25 in. (38.1 and
12 31.75 mm) were used, respectively. It is noteworthy that the cracks tended to get interconnected
13 before the cracks propagated toward the outside of the concrete prism when the cover concrete of
14 1.0 in. (25.4 mm) was used. Under the release strength of 4500 psi (31.0 MPa), the less damage
15 of concrete was observed.
16
Spacing, S (mm) Spacing, S (mm)
19.05 29.05 39.05 49.05 19.05 29.05 39.05 49.05
Damaged Spacing Ratio

0.60
1.00
0.50
Max. dt

WE 0.80
0.40
0.30 WG 0.60
0.20 WH 0.40
0.10 0.20
0.00 0.00
0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25
Spacing, S (in) Spacing, S (in)
(a) (b)
17
18 FIGURE 11 Maximum dt (a), and Damaged Spacing Ratio (b) of four-wire concrete prisms
19 under the release strength of 3500 psi with respect to conver concrete thicknesses.
 Shin and Yu 13

1
2 CONCLUSIONS
3
4 In this numerical study, the effects of geometrical and mechanical parameters on the slitting
5 performances of prestressed concrete prisms due to detensioning of prestressing wires were
6 examined. In the railroad engineering field, various types and sizes of concrete crossties have
7 been manufactured with different prestressing steel reinforcement. In order to ensure the
8 structural integrity of prestressed concrete prisms with different indentated wires, an extensive
9 parametric study was performed using a newly developed bond-slip model. Two different
10 concrete prisms were prepared: 1) a single-wire prism for the effect of the concrete cover
11 thickness and 2) a four-wrie prism for the effect of the spacing between prestressing wires.
12 Furthermore three different indentation patterns were explored: 1) spiral indentation, 2) chevron
13 with shallow indentation, 3) chevron with deeper indentation. The release strength of 3500 and
14 4500 psi (24.1 and 31.0 MPa), and three levels of a pretension force were considered. The single-
15 wire prism simulation results indicated that a thickness of cover concrete less than or equal to
16 0.75 in. (19.05 mm) is not recommended when detensioning the wires at the early stage (i.g.
17 3500 psi) due to the tendency of having splitting cracks. The deeper chevron indentation wire
18 was prone to show more damage at the early stage of concrete. The cracks could be inter-
19 connected between the adjacent wires when the spacing is less than 1.5 in. (38.1 mm). Finally,
20 detentioning prestressing wires at the very early stage of concrete’s strength should be avoided.
21
22 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
23
24 The work described in this paper was sponsored by the Office of Research, Development and
25 Technology, Federal Railroad Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation. Mr. Cameron
26 Stuart of the Track Research Division provided direction to this research, and the authors are
27 grateful for the technical discussions with Dr. Robert Peterman of Kansas State University.
28
29 REFERENCES
30 
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1 Made With Different Prestressing Strands. In Proceeding of the ASME 2016 Joint Rail
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