MUSIC AFTER 1949

Below is a short overview and description of the subjects in the module “music after 1949”. It is not a
substitute for the lessons, in which techniques and compositions were explained in more detail.

Because the compositions are relatively recent they are still protected by copyright law. To avoid a (probably
huge) financial penalty for Codarts I did not add scores of the examples. Of several of these compositions a
complete score is in Codarts’ library.
You can also find most of them in the book:
“Compositietechnieken in de twintigste eeuw Partituurvoorbeelden” by Wim de Ruiter.
The textbook unfortunately is only in Dutch, but the examples (“Partituurvoorbeelden”) are scores, so
understandable for all of us. The book is in the Codarts library.
Many pages or snippets of these compositions can also be found in the internet.

Bruitism and “Organized sound”

Apart from the different musical developments initiated by Debussy, Stravinsky and the 2nd Viennese
School in the 1910’s and 1920’s some composers started to use sounds from their daily environment, like
street noise, industrial noise, sounds from nature etc. as musical material. That could be done using
recordings of sounds (in electronic music, “musique concrete”), imitations but also just as a source of
inspiration for a composition. In compositions the concept of melody and harmony became less important or
totally unimportant. Music of this kind is called “bruïtistic” (after the French word for noise: “bruït”)
The most important and influential composer of this type of music is Edgard Varèse. He called this way of
composing “organized sound”. In most compositions Varèse uses a considerable amount of percussion
instruments and players. He was the first composer to write an entire composition solely for percussion
instruments (played by 13 players)
- Ionisation (1933)
But in compositions without percussion the effect of “noise” is also far more important than melody and
harmony:
- Octandre (1923)

Bruïtism is not a separate style, but a (new) possibility for composers. It also can be found in many
compositions from later periods using tone fields. Examples see below.

(1945 – 1965)

Serial technique (serialism)

- A tone/music is considered to consist of different parameters.

Parameters of a tone are pitch, duration, dynamic, articulation; parameters of a group are - among others -
number of tones per time unit, number of tones in a certain group, tempo, time signature...

The idea of treating the different parameters of a tone separately stems from Olivier Messiaen. In his
composition “Mode de valeurs et d’intensités” (1949) he makes an inventory of the pitches, durations,
dynamics and attacks to be used, before combining them into a “mode” consisting of 36 different tones,
divided in 3 groups, to be used in the composition. This composition however is not yet a composition
using the serial technique, because it is not structured using series.

- Parameters are structured following one or more rows or series. The series organizes the order in which
the elements of certain parameters will be used in the composition.

This idea is a further development of the twelve tone technique, in which the order of pitches is
organized. The twelve tone technique however is not considered to be serial, because the row only applies
to the pitch. Other parameters are not subject to serial structuring.
- Before composing it is necessary to decide which elements of each parameter will be used (which pitches,
which durations, which dynamics etc., like in the example of Messiaen). Then it is decided in which order
the elements will be used. This can be done “randomly”, but also following an abstract series, a series of
numbers, to organize the order of the (numbered) elements of a parameter

- A series can be permutated. Simple permutations are transpositions and mirroring. More complex
permutations are used as well.

- The parameters can be organized using a different series for each parameter, but it is also possible to use
one series for more parameters (usually a series of numbers, because these are abstract)

When the serial technique is used to organize the individual tones: punctual technique.
Examples:
- Pierre Boulez, Structures I (1952)
- Luigi Nono, Il Canto Sospeso (1956), 2nd movement

When the serial technique is used to organize groups of tones: group technique.
Example:
- Karlheinz Stockhausen, Klavierstück IX

Aleatoric music (aleatoricism)

More complex and difficult to perform actions lead to inaccuracies in the performance of a composition. This
element of unpredictability is deliberately used in compositions when elements of chance are introduced.
There are several possibilities to use chance:
- The process of composing is determined by chance. The result is a completely written out and fixed
composition.
Example:
John Cage, Cheap Imitation (1969); chance determined by The I Ching or Book Of Changes

- Non-exact indication of the duration or moment of an event: “as fast as possible”, “on one breath”, a
certain number of tones to be played within a given time slot…
Example:
Pierre Boulez, Improvisation sur Mallarmé II (1958)

- Leaving several parameters (pitch, rhythm, dynamics, …) open to choice by the performer.
Example:
Morton Feldman, Intersection 3 (1953); the form, the tempo of events, the density and a very rough
indication of the range/register of the tones are composed. The exact pitch, rhythm and dynamics are
assigned to the performer

- Open form. Order and number of fragments are determined by the performer/conductor
Examples:
Karlheinz Stockhausen, Klavierstück XI (1956); performer determines by chance how to preceed and
when to end.
Earle Brown, Available Forms I (1961); the conductor indicates which fragment is to be played

- Indistinct notation. For example: pitch is indicated very vaguely by some scribbled notes or lines, the
moment to play something is indicated roughly in a given time span in the score.
Examples:
Earl Browne, String Quartet (1965), Available Forms I (1961)

- Graphic score. The performer may freely interpret a “drawing”.

- John Cage, 4’33” (1952).

 All “actions” completely determined, but the result is totally undetermined.
John Cage’s ideas: “to open up” is more important than “to strive for”; every sound is as good as any
other sound; listening very well is the essence of music

Tone field music

A tone field is a rhythmic as well as harmonic static musical situation. This can be achieved in all
graduations from a consonant field to complete chromaticism (a cluster).
A cluster is a group of 3 or more neighbouring tones, diatonic or chromatic. The individual tones cannot be
noticed.
In a tone field the individual parts cannot be distinguished.
In a composition formed by tone fields the individual parts -the details- are not or hardly audible, but they
contribute to the character and colour of the whole.
Ligeti calls this technique of writing: micro polyphony.
The texture and other characteristics of a tone field can change gradually through changes in the individual
parts, like cresc.-decresc., accelerando-ritardando in the rhythmical subdivision, ascending-descending lines,
range of the tone field, tone colour, etc…
Examples::
György Ligeti, Atmosphères (1961); tone field composition
Krzysztof Penderecki, Anaklasis (1960); quarter tone clusters (apart from many special playing techniques)

Musical theatre

When the theatrical effect of the performance is an essential element of a composition (without a story being
told) it can be considered musical theatre. Not to be mistaken for music theatre (opera, musical, ballet…).
The theatrical actions cannot be separated from the music.

Examples:
- Luciano Berio, sequenza V for trombone; including indications for the podium and directions for the
movements of the trombone player
- Maurizio Kagel, Pas de Cinq; score for five walkers with a walking stick each, with precise indications of
the rhythm to walk and use the walking stick, together with a “choreography” of the walking patterns. No
“story”, just abstract movements.

Later developments: reaction and simplification

Minimal music

- Musical material reduced to the minimum: timbre, rhythm, texture and dynamics hardly change
throughout the composition or change very slowly, simple modal tone material
- Repeats (ostinato) are the prevalent element
- Changes take place very slowly
- Compositions are very long, given the minimum of material
- Anti-romantic, no or hardly any personal expression

Examples:
- Terry Riley, In C (1964)
- Philip Glass, Strung Out (1967)
- Steve Reich, Piano Phase (1967); techniques: phase shifting, resulting patterns

Neo-romanticism

Example:
- Krzysztof Penderecki, symphony nr. 2 (1979-1980)
Neo-modality, spirituality.

Arvo Pärt:
- Tintinnabuli: stepwise melody in a certain mode, in another part only the tones of the broken triad of this
same mode.
- Limited number of very basic musical ideas, developing according to a rather strict logic (almost “self-
generating”)
Example:
- Cantus in memoriam Benjamin Britten (1977)