STEFANI SHAH IAN SAVANT HOSTETTER

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Design .of Feedback

Control Systems

Raymond T. Stefani
California State University, Long Beach

Bahram Shahian
California State University, Long Beach

Clement J. Savant, Jr.

Gene H. Hostetter

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NUST-EME COLLEGE LIBRARY

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New York Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
2002
 Oxford University Press

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Design of feedback control systems I Raymond T. Stefani ... let al.l.-- 4th ed.
p. em. -- (Oxford series in electrical and computer engineering)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-19-514249-7
I. Feedback control systems. I. Stefani, Raymond T, II. Series.

TJ 216 .0417 2001

,., 629.8'3--dc21 00-058913

..
,

Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
 TO
Ted, Rick, and my Inspiration
Saleh and Mahin; Farahnaz, Bita and Nima
Barbara and the Savant family in memory of Clement
Donna and the Hostetter family in memory of Gene
=ontents

Preface xv

HAPTER 1 Continuous-Time System Description

1.1 Preview
1.2 Basic Concepts 2
1.2.1 Control System Terminology 2
1.2.2 The Feedback Concept 4
1.3 Modeling 7
1.4 System Dynamics 9
1.5 Electrical Components 10
1.5.1 Mesh Analysis 11
1.5.2 State Variables 13
1.5.3 Node Analysis 15
1.5.4 Analyzing Operational Amplifier Circuits 18
1.5.5 Operational Amplifier Applications 21
1.6 Translational Mechanical Components 25
1.6.1 Free-Body Diagrams 25
1.6.2 State Variables 29
1.7 Rotational Mechanical Components 32
1.7.1 Free-Body Diagrams 32
1.7.2 Analogies 35
1.7.3 Gear Trains and Transformers 37
 CONTENTS vii

1.8 Electromechanical Components 40

1.9 Aerodynamics 45
1.9.1 Nomenclature 46
1.9.2 Dynamics 46
1.9.3 Lateral and Longitudinal Motion 50
1.1 0 Thennal Systems 52
1.11 Hydraulics 54
1.12 Transfer Function and Stability 55
1.12.1 Transfer Functions 55
1.12.2 Response Terms 57
1.12.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs 67
1.12.4 Stability 69
1.13 Block Diagrams 73
1.13.1 Block Diagram Elements 73
1.13.2 Block Diagram Reduction 75
1.13.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs 78
1.14 Signal Flow Graphs 79
1.14.1 Comparison with Block Diagrams 79
1.14.2 Mason's Rule 83
1.15 A Positioning Servo 91
1.16 Controller Model of the Thyroid Gland 94
1.17 Stick-Slip Response of an Oil Well Drill 96
1.18 Summary 101
References 103
Problems 105

CHAPTER 2 Continuous-lime System Response 119

2.1 Preview 119
2.2 Response of FIrst-Order Systems 120
2.3 Response of Second-Order Systems 126
2.3.1 Time Response 126
2.3.2 Overdamped Response 127
2.3.3 Critically Damped Response 128
2.3.4 Underdamped Response 128
2.3.5 Undamped Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio 129
2.3.6 Rise Time, Overshoot, and Settling Time 136
2.4 Higher-Order System Response 141
2.5 Stability Testing 143
2.5.1 Coefficient Tests 143
2.5.2 Routh-Hurwitz Testing 145
2.5.3 Significance of the Array Coefficients 147
iii CONTENTS

2.5.4 Left-Column Zeros 148

2.5.5 Row of Zeros 150
2.5.6 Eliminating a Possible Odd Divisor 154
2.5.7 Multiple Roots 155
2.6 Parameter Shifting 159
2.6.1 Adjustable Systems 159
2.6.2 Kharitonov's Theorem 163
2.7 An Insulin Delivery System 165
2.8 Analysis of an Aircraft Wing 168
2.9 Summary 171
References 173
Problems 174

~HAPTER 3 Performance Specifications 183

3.1 Preview 183
3.2 Analyzing Tracking Systems 184
3.2.1 Importance of Tracking Systems 184
3.2.2 Natural Response, Relative Stability, and Damping 187
3.3 Forced Response 189
3.3.1 Steady State Error 189
3.3.2 Initial and Final Values 190
3.3.3 Steady State Errors to Power-of-Time Inputs 192
3.4 Power-of-Time Error Performance 198
3.4.1 System Type Number 198
3.4.2 Achieving a Given Type Number 200
3.4.3 Unity Feedback Systems 201
3.4.4 Unity Feedback Error Coefficients 204
3.5 Performance Indices and Optimal Systems 208
3.6 System Sensitivity 215
3.6.1 Calculating the Effects of Changes in Parameters 215
3.6.2 Sensitivity Functions 216
3.6.3 Sensitivity to Disturbance Signals 220
3.7 Time Domain Design 223
3.7.1 Process Control 224
3.7.2 Ziegler-Nichols Compensation 224
3.7.3 Chien-Hrones-Reswick Compensation 225
3.8 An Electric Rail Transportation System 231
3.9 Phase-Locked Loop for a CB Receiver 234
3.10 Bionic Eye 237
3.11 Summary 240
References 242
Problems 244
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 4 Root Locus Analysis 254

4.1 Preview 254
4.2 Pole-Zero Plots 255
4.2.1 Poles and Zeros 255
4.2.2 Graphical Evaluation 256
4.3 Root Locus for Feedback Systems 260
4.3.1 Angle Criterion 260
4.3.2 High and Low Gains 261
4.3.3 Root Locus Properties 262
4.4 Root Locus Construction 263
4.5 More About Root Locus 272
4.5.1 Root Locus Calibration 272
4.5.2 Computer-Aided Root Locus 284
4.6 Root Locus for Other Systems 286
4.6.1 Systems with Other FomlS 286
4.6.2 Negative Parameter Ranges 288
4.6.3 Delay Effects 293
4.7 Design concepts (Adding Poles and Zeros) 295
4.8 A Light-Source Tracking System 300
4.9 An Artificial Limb 302
4.10 Control of a Flexible Spacecraft 308
4. J 1 Bionic Eye 310
4.12 Summary 313
References 314
Problems 314

CHAPTER 5 Root Locus Design 327

5.1 Preview 327
5.2 Shaping a Root Locus 328
5.3 Adding and Canceling Poles and Zeros 329
5.3.1 Adding a Pole or Zero 329
5.3.2 Canceling a Pole or Zero 330
5.4 Second-Order Plant Models 334
5.5 An Uncompensated Example System 338
5.6 Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI) 341
5.6.1 General Approach to Compensator Design 341
5.6.2 Cascade PI Compensation 343
5.7 Cascade Lag Compensation 347
5.8 Cascade Lead Compensation 351
5.9 Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation 355
 CONTENTS

5.10 Rate Feedback Compensation (PD) 357

5.11 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Compensation 361
5.12 Pole Placement 365
5.12.1 Algebraic Compensation 366
5.12.2 Selecting the Transfer Function 367
5.12.3 Incorrect Plant Transmittance 370
5.12.4 Robust Algebraic Compensation 373
5.12.5 Fixed-Structure Compensation 378
5.13 An Unstable High-Performance Aircraft 381
5.14 Control of a Flexible Space Station 385
5.15 Control of a Solar Furnace 388
5.16 Summary 393
References 394
Problems 395

'HAPTER 6 Frequency Response Analysis 405

6.1 Preview 405
6.2 Frequency Response 406
6.2.1 Forced Sinusoidal Response 406
6.2.2 Frequency Response Measurement 407
6.2.3 Response at Low and High Frequencies 410
6.2.4 Graphical Frequency Response Methods 412
6.3 Bode Plots 420
6.3.1 Amplitude Plots in Decibels 420
6.3.2 Real Axis Roots 424
6.3.3 Products of Transmittance Terms 428
6.3.4 Complex Roots 433
6.4 Using Experimental Data 446
6.4.1 Finding Models 446
6.4.2 Irrational Transmittances 447
6.5 Nyquist Methods 449
6.5,1 Generating the Nyquist (polar) Plot 450
6.5.2 Interpreting the Nyquist Plot 456
6.6 Gain Margin 464
6.7 Phase Margin 469
6.8 Relations Between Closed-Loop and Open-Loop Frequency Response 475
6.9 Frequency Response of a Flexible Spacecraft 480
6.10 Summary 485
References 488
Problems 488
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER 7 Frequency Response Design 501

7.1 Preview 501
7.2 Relation Between Root Locus, Time Domain, and Frequency Domain 501
7.3 Compensation Using Bode Plots 505
7.4 Uncompensated System 507
7.5 Cascade Proportional Plus Integral (PI) and Cascade Lag Compensations 509
7.6 Cascade Lead Compensation 514
7.7 Cascade Lag-Lead Compensation 517
7.8 Rate Feedback Compensation 520
7.9 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Compensation 523
7.10 An Automobile Driver as a Compensator 525
7.11 Summary 529
References 530
Problems 530

CHAPTER 8 State Space Analysis 535

8.1 Preview 535
8.2 State Space Representation 536
8.2.1 Phase-Variable Form 537
8.2.2 Dual Phase- Variable Form 540
8.2.3 Multiple Inputs and Outputs 542
8.2.4 Physical State Variables 547
8.2.5 Transfer Functions 551
8.3 State Transformations and Diagonalization 554
8.3.1 Diagonal Forms 558
8.3.2 Diagonalization Using Partial Fraction Expansion 562
8.3.3 Complex Conjugate Characteristic Roots 564
8.3.4 Repeated Characteristic Roots 567
8.4 Time Response from State Equations 575
8.4.1 Laplace Transform Solution 575
8.4.2 Time Domain Response of First-Order Systems 576
8.4.3 Time Domain Response of Higher-Order Systems 577
8.4.4 System Response Computation 579
8.5 Stability 584
8.5.1 Asymptotic Stability 584
8.5.2 BIBO Stability 585
8.5.3 Internal Stability 587
8.6 Controllability and Observability 589
8.6.1 The Controllability Matrix 592
8.6.2 The Observability Matrix 594
8.6.3 Controllability, Observability, and Pole-Zero Cancellation 595
 CONTENTS

8.6.4 Causes of Uncontrollability 596

8.7 Inverted Pendulum Problems 603
8.8 Summary 610
References 612
Problems 614

HAPTER 9 State Space Design 626

9.1 Preview 626
9.2 State Feedback and Pole Placement 626
9.2.1 Stabilizability 630
9.2.2 Choosing Pole Locations 632
9.2.3 Limitations of State Feedback 635
9.3 Tracking Problems 637
9.3.1 Integral Control 638
9.4 Observer Design 640
9.4.1 Control Using Observers 644
9.4.2 Separation Property 646
9.4.3 Observer Transfer Function 647
9.5 Reduced-Order Observer Design 650
9.5.1 Separation Property 653
9.5.2 Reduced-Order Observer Transfer Function 654
9.6 A Magnetic Levitation System 657
9.7 Summary 667
References 668
Problems 669

HAPTER 10 Advanced State Space Methods 675

10.1 Preview 675
10.2 The Linear Quadratic Regulator Problem 676
10.2.1 Properties of the LQR Design 680
10.2.2 Return Difference Inequality 680
10.2.3 Optimal Root Locus 682
10.3 Optimal Observers-the Kalman Filter 685
10.4 The Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) Problem 687
10.4.1 Critique of LQG 690
10.5 Robustness 692
10.5.1 Feedback Properties 693
10.5.2 Uncertainty Modeling 695
10.5.3 Robust Stability 698
10.6 Loop Transfer Recovery (LTR) 705
 CONTENTS xiii

10.7 Roo Control 709

10.7.1 A Brief History 709
10.7.2 Some Preliminaries 710
10.7.3 Hoo Control: Solution 713
10.7.4 Weights in Hoo Control Problems 715
10.8 Summary 722
References 723
Problems 724

CHAPTER 11 Digital Control 733

11.1 Preview 733
11.2 Computer Processing 734
11.2.1 Computer History and Trends 734
11.3 AID and DJA Conversion 737
11.3.1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 737
11.3.2 Sample and Hold 739
11.3.3 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 741
11.4 Discrete-Time Signals 741
11.4.1 Representing Sequences 741
11.4.2 z-Transformation and Properties 744
11.4.3 Inverse z Transform 749
1l.5 Sampling 751
11.6 Reconstruction of Signals from Samples 753
11.6.1 Representing Sampled Signals with Impulses 753
11.6.2 Relation Between the z Transform and the Laplace Transform 756
11.6.3 The Sampling Theorem 757
11.7 Discrete-Time Systems 760
11.7.1 Difference Equations and Response 760
11.7.2 z-Transfer Functions 762
11.7.3 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs 763
11.7.4 Stability and the Bilinear Transformation 764
11.7.5 Computer Software 768
11.8 State-Variable Descriptions of Discrete-Time Systems 771
11.8.1 Simulation Diagrams and Equations 771
11.8.2 Response and Stability 774
11.8.3 Controllability and Observability 777
11.9 Digitizing Control Systems 779
11.9.1 Step-Invariant Approximation 779
11.9.2 z-Transfer Functions of Systems with Analog Measurements 782
11.9.3 A Design Example 785
11.10 Direct Digital Design 788
11.10.1 Steady State Response 788
 CONTENTS

ii.1O.2 Deadbeat Systems 789

11.10.3 A Design Example 790
11.11 Summary 798
References 800
Problems 802

JENDIX A Matrix Algebra 812

A.l Preview 812
A.2 Nomenclature 812
A.3 Addition and Subtraction 812
AA Transposition 813
A.5 Multiplication 813
A.6 Determinants and Cofactors 814
A.7 Inverse 816
A.8 Simultaneous Equations 817
A.9 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 819
A.lO Derivative of a Scalar with Respect to a Vector 821
A.ll Quadratic Forms and Symmetry 823
A.12 Definiteness 824
A.13 Rank 826
A.14 Partitioned Matrices 827
Problems 830

")ENDIX B Laplace Transform 834

B.l Preview 834
B.2 Definition and Properties 834
B.3 Solving Differential Equations 835
BA Partial Fraction Expansion 837
B.5 Additional Properties of the Laplace Transform 841
B.5.1 Real Translation 842.
B.5.2 Second independent Variable 842
B.5.3 Final- Value and initial-Value Theorems 843
B.5.4 Convolution integral 844

lex 845
Preface

As the new millennium begins, we look back in gratitude to the many faculty and students who have
used the three earlier editions of this textbook and made many helpful suggestions to the authors. In
those earlier editions we introduced comprehensive design examples, drill problems, and wide margins
with notes. Other texts followed our lead and emulated those items. What other texts cannot emulate,
we believe, is the clear and understandable exposition we bring to the field of control system science.
Throughout this book we try to make complicated methodology accessible to a spectrum of students
with widely varying backgrounds. Detail is there for those who want to know "why." Summaries and
marginal comments are there for those who simply want to know "how."

Revisions
The most obvious change in this edition is the comprehensive keying of this text to MATLAB. We
created sections of "Computer-Aided Learnirig" by which each student can learn how the MATLAB
platfonn can be used to verify all figures and tables included in the text. We selected a small group of
MATLAB commands to efficiently focus the use of that computational package. In a basic course such
as this, it is essential that every student use the computer as an aid to learning and not as the primary
source of information. The student should learn all basics and should be able to sketch (albeit roughly)·
time response plots, root locus plots, and BodeJNyquist plots manually. MATLAB (or any other
computer tool) may then be used to fine-tune understanding and to obtain results of high accuracy. But,
those results must be critically reviewed by a knowledgeable user; otherwise the computer becomes
the master and the user becomes the slave.
Chapter I has been substantially revised. Linearization is introduced by which models may be gen-
erated. Operational amplifier applications are included for the various types of compensator designed
later in the text. Substantive coverage is made of aerodynamics, thermal systems, and hydraulic sys-
tems. Drill problems cover those topics. Stability is covered in more detail. Signal flow graphs are better
compared to block diagrams. Design examples are added for the human thyroid gland as a controller
and for oil well drill dynamics.
For Chapter 2, we include the significance of Routh array coefficients and the stability implication
of multiple roots occurring as even divisors. An example of Kharitonov's theorem is added.

xv
xvi PREFACE

Hurwitz determinants are now presented in Chapter 3. It is now shown how coefficients of the
transfer function may be selected to force a given type number to occur. An interesting biomedical
design example is added, that of a bionic eye for the blind. Time response examples are added to
illustrate time domain design.
The main change to Chapter 4 is inclusion of computer-aided means for calculating breakaway
points, entry points, departure angles, and approach angles. The MATLAB command rltool is
introduced. Delay effects are evaluated as a function of 1/ T where T is the delay in seconds. The
bionic eye example is again used, this time to illustrate use of the root locus.
Chapter 5 is revised comprehensively. Root locus design methods are now more general and more
flexible. The effect of adding or canceling poles or zeros is covered in detail. The MATLAB command
rl tool is suggested as a primary computer aid in that the effect of each root locus design point may
be evaluated in terms of step response and the Bode plot. A new design example is introduced for a
solar furnace.
Chapter 6 now begins with an introduction to all frequency response plots. It is argued that
frequency response data are complex vectors, hence can be plotted in a variety of ways resulting in
Bode, Nyquist, and Nichols plots. There is a new section that discusses the relation between open-loop
and closed-loop frequency response plots. Closed-loop frequency response data such as bandwidth
and peak resonance are introduced more formally. Nichols plots, Nichols charts, and constant loci M
and N circles are also discussed. Chapter 7 on frequency domain design remains unchanged.
Chapter 8 now includes a design example of the classic inverted pendulum problem and several
variations. This famous problem has become a benchmark for testing novel control design techniques
and provides an excellent tool for introducing the important concepts of controllability, observabil-
ity, pole-zero cancellation, and practical issues such as sensor placement. Appropriate MATLAB
commands for state space modeling, transforniation, analysis, and simulation are also discussed.
Chapters 9-11 have minor corrections along with the introduction of MATLAB commands for
digital control.

Use of This Textbook

The text can be divided into six areas:
Classical analysis including modeling (Chapters 1-4,6)
Classical design (Chapters 5 and 7)
State-variable analysis (Chapter 8)
State-variable design (Chapter 9)
Advanced topics (Chapter 10)
Digital control (Chapters 11)
These six areas represent building blocks to construct a course. We have purposely included more
material than a three-semester unit course or a four-quarter unit course would normally cover. The
extra material is intended to give ~he instructor flexibility in structuring a course to meet the needs of
the program, the university, and the community served. We suggest that it is better to cover a smaller
number of units well than to cover a larger number poorly.
For example, a two-course sequence could be created where the first course covers classical
analysis (Chapters 1-4 and 6) followed by a second course including state variables, design, and
advanced topics (Chapters 5 and 7-10). Chapter 11 is often used as reference material, introducing
the student to digital control and providing a comparison with analog methods. The possibilities are
endless.

Raymond T. Stefani
Bahram Shahian
Clement J. Savant Jr. (late)
Gene H. Hostetter (late)
Continuous-Time
System Description

The first conscious use of feedback control of a physical system by mankind lives in
prehistory. Possibly it was a spillway in an irrigation network, where excess water was
automatically drained. Development of a mathematical framework for the description,
analysis, and design of control systems dates from the introduction of James Watt's
flyball governor (1760), which was used to regulate the speed of steam engines, and
the subsequent work by James Clerk Maxwell (ca. 1868) and others to improve the
design and extend its applicability.
Since that era, the theory and practice of control system design advanced rapidly.
Important new concepts and tools were developed in connection with telephone and
radio communications in the 1920s and 1930s. Rather poorly performing electronic
devices, including amplifiers and modulators, were dramatically improved by feed-
back. World War II further accelerated the development of classical control theory
and practice. Heavy guns had to be rapidly and accurately positioned. Precise navi-
gation and target tracking were increasingly important, and aircraft performance was
improved greatly with the incorporation of complex control systems to aid the pilot.
Latter, automation became a household word as industry began to depend more and
more upon automatically controlled machinery.
Today, feedback control systems are pervasive in industry and in our everyday
lives. They range from governmental regulation (such as that governing monetary
policy) to automated and highly flexible manufacturing plants to sophisticated auto-
mobiles, household appliances, and entertainment systems. It is our purpose to learn
to design feedback control systems for a wide variety of applications.

1
2 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The plant (process), inputs,
and outputs are defined.
Controller and open-loop
control are defined.
Control system designers find that block diagrams provide a particularly useful
way to visualize the interconnections of system components, thus revealing the
system structure. Successful design begins by creating a mathematical model of the
system to be stabilized. Next, the contentS of the blocks within a diagram must be iden-
tified. Finally, values must be selected for those parameters that are adjustable, and
sometimes additional components must be added to provide acceptable performance.
This chapter begins by defining basic control system terminology. Since design
requires a model of each system of interest, the behaviors of many typical electrical,
mechanical, and electromechanical systems are described. The resulting differential
equations must be rendered into a forin useful to the controls engineer. The goal can be
accomplished by Laplace-transforming each differential equation and then generating
a relationship, the transmittance, between the input and output of each block of the
control system block diagram. In Appendix B, a summary of the Laplace transform
method is presented.
The block diagram can be reduced to just one input-output relationship, the
system overall transfer function. By converting the block diagram into an equivalent
fo~, the signal flow graph can be developed. Subsequent chapters will describe the
design steps that follow once the block diagram has been defined and the transfer
function has become available.
All the chapters of this text conclude with examples that are intended to reinforce
the key points of the chapter in an interesting and informative manner. Chapter 1
concludes with discussion of a positioning servo, analysis of the thyroid gland, and
design of an oil well drilling system.
While the material in the first chapter involves subjects already known to the
reader from previous experience, the text provides a coherent review. The emphasis
here is on using rather than proving results.
1.2.1 Control System Terminology
Control systems influence each facet of modem life. Automatic washers and dry-
ers, microwave ovens, chemical processing plants, navigation and guidance systems,
space satellites, pollution control, mass transit, and economic regulation are a
few examples. In the broadest sense, a control system is any interconnection of
components to provide a desired function.
The portion of a system that is to be controlled is called the plant or the process.
It is affected by applied signals, called inputs, and produces signals of particular
interest, called outputs, as indicated in Figure 1.l(a). The plant is fixed insofar as the
control system designer is concerned. Whether the plant is an automobile engine, an
electri!=al generator, or a nuclear reactor, it is the designer's job to ensure that the plant
operates as required. Other components must be specially created and connected as
a means to an end.
A controller may be used to produce a desired behavior of the plant, as shown
in Figure 1.1(b). The controller generates plant input signals designed to produce
 BASIC CONCEPTS 3

Desired Disturbance
plant inputs
behavior , . - - - - - - ,
Inputs Outputs

(a) (b)

Pump
load
Shalt
speed
30· 60· 90· 120· ISO·
Throttle position (angle)

(e) (d)

Figure 1.1 (a) A plant or process to be controlled. (b) An open-loop control system.
(c) Example of an open-loop control system. (d) Engine speed versus throttle angle curves.

desired outputs. Some of the plant inputs are accessible to the designer and some are
generally not available. The inaccessible input signals are often disturbances to the
plant. The double lines in the figure indicate that several signals of each type may be
involved. Arrows indicate direction of flow. This system is termed open-loop because
the control inputs are not influenced by the plant outputs: that is, there is no feedback
around the plant.
Such an open-loop control system has the advantage of simplicity, but its per-
formance is highly dependent upon the properties of the plant, which may vary with
time. The disturbances to the plant may also create an unwanted response, which it
would be desirable to reduce.
As an example, suppose that a gasoline engine is used to drive a large pump, as
depicted in Figure l.l(c). The carburetor and the engine comprise a common type
of control system wherein a large-power output is controlled with a small-power Open-loop examples 'are
input. The carburetor is the controller in this case, and the engine is the plant. The presented.
desired plant output, a certain engine shaft speed, may be obtained by adjusting the
throttle angle.
Two plots of engine speed versus throttle angle are shown in Figure 1.1 (d). If the
nominal curve is used, a throttle angle of 80° produces an engine speed of 2300 rpm.
Suppose that a disturbances occurs, consisting of a change in engine load. For the new
curve, a throttle angle of 80° produces an engine speed of only 1000 rpm. In some
cases open-loop control may be acceptable. In other cases, it may not be acceptable
to have system output change when other values change. In these more critical cases,
the closed-loop procedure of the next section may be needed.
Table 1.1 shows five examples. The first two examples are for open-loop systems
in that no measurements are taken to adjust controller influence on the plant. Each
of the two controllers is specified when a manual setting is made of temperature
and speed respectively. Hair dampness and the type of material being drilled are
4 CONTINUOUS-TIME SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

disturbances affecting desired performance. In these two cases, the user simply alters
the total time until the job is done. In the case of the hair dryer, output air temperature
remains constant while drying time for hair will vary according to wetness. In the case
of the drill, output speed may vary while the drilling requirement remains constant.
Figure l.l(b) describes these systems.

1.2.2 The Feedback Concept

Closed-loop control is
distinguished from open-loop
control.
If the requirements of the system cannot be satisfied with an open-loop control system,
a closed-loop or feedback system is desirable. A path (or loop) is provided from the
output back to the controller. Some or all of the system outputs are measured and
used by the controller, as indicated in Figure 1.2(a). The controller may then compare
a desired plant output with the actual output and act to reduce the difference between
the two.
Let us return to Table 1.1 and consider the third and fourth examples. Tempera-
tures and speed are the system outputs, as was the situation for the first two examples,
but now measurements are used to keep the outputs constant in the presence of dis- ,
turbances. If outside temperatures drops, a thermostat determines that the room is
becoming too cold. The thermostat causes furnace heat to increase which, in tum,
causes the room temperature to increase to the predetermined value.
Changes in driving conditions represent disturbances affecting an automobile's
speed. One possible feedback control configuration is shown in Figure 1.2(b).
A tachometer produces a voltage proportional to the engine shaft speed. The input
voltage, which is proportional to the desired speed, is set with a potentiometer. The
tachometer voltage is subtracted from the input voltage, giving an error voltage that
is proportional to the difference between the actual speed and the desired speed.
The error voltage is then amplified and used to position the throttle. The throttle
actuator could be a reversible electric motor, geared to the throttle arm. When the
engine shaft speed is equal to the desired speed (when the difference or error is zero),
the throttle remains fixed. If a change in load or a change in the engine components

Table 1.1 Examples of Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Systems

~"l~y"q\'~~i-
Input ' Controller "Q~'!tppt
Heat setting Dial Hair dryer Hair dampness Hot air None
temperature
Speed setting Dial Drill Type of material Rotating drill None
bit speed
Desired Thermostat Furnace Outside Hot air Room
temperature temperature temperature temperature
Desired speed Cruise control Auto engine Driving Car speed Enginerprn
conditions
Desired Electorate President Economy Decisions Evaluation
performance