10-Axial Turbines (Compatibility Mode) PDF

PEMP
RMD 2501
Axial Turbines
Session delivered by:

Prof Q.H.
Prof. Q H Nagpurwala
10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 1

PEMP
Session Objectives RMD 2501
This session is intended to introduce the following:

• Construction and types of axial turbines
• Euler turbine equation and velocity triangles
• Vortex theory and radial equilibrium
• Turbine blade loading
• Loss mechanisms and loss correlations
• Turbine performance characteristics

PEMP
RMD 2501
C
Compressor C b t
Combustor T bi
Turbine
Intake
Exhaust
A i l Turbine
Axial T bi
A ttriple-stage
i l t turbine
t bi withith
single shaft system

Types of Axial Turbines
PEMP
RMD 2501
Axial turbines can

Rotor
be single stage or blades
multistage
lti t …..
Nozzle
guide vanes
Single stage
Multistage turbine
axial turbine
….. but the basic design

g
principles remain the same
Types of Axial Turbines
PEMP
RMD 2501
Axial turbines can also be classified as:
• Subsonic turbines
• Transonic turbines
• Supersonic
p turbines

PEMP
Expansion Process on T-S Diagram RMD 2501

Velocity Triangles
PEMP
RMD 2501

Euler Turbine Equation
PEMP
RMD 2501
In a turbine, the fluid does work on the rotor.

H
Hence, th
the specific
ifi workk is
i given
i by
b
& Wt
Wt = = (U 2Cw 2 − U 3Cw3 ) > 0 Watt . s /kg
m&
Specific
p work can also be related to the change
g in total enthalpy:
py
W&t = (Wt m& ) = (U 2Cw 2 − U 3Cw3 ) = (h02 − h03 ) Watts s /kg

PEMP
Turbine Efficiency RMD 2501
Actual enthalpy drop h01 − h02

ηisen = =
Isentropic enthalpy drop h01 − h02 s
c p (T01 − T02 )
=
c p (T01 − T02 s )
⎛ T02 s ⎞
(T01 − T02 ) = ηt (T01 − T02 s ) = ηtT01 ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎝ T01 ⎠ 02
(γ −1) γ
T02 s ⎛ p02 ⎞
Q = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
T01 ⎝ p01 ⎠ Compression process
on T-s diagram
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞(γ −1) γ ⎤
T02 = ηtT01 ⎢1 − ⎜⎜
T01-T ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ p01 p02 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Flow in Axial Turbine Stage
PEMP
RMD 2501
Now consider a 1 ½ stage turbine with the following nomenclature

PEMP
RMD 2501

PEMP
RMD 2501
Using the above nomenclature
Since
we get f repeating
for ti stages
t with
ith AVR = 1
Temperature and pressure ratios can be expressed in terms of reaction, R

PEMP
Impulse and Reaction Turbine Stages RMD 2501
Hence, the low and zero reaction turbines have a higher temperature drop
(work output) but lower temperature ratio and pressure ratio than does a
corresponding high reaction turbine for the same mass flow, blade speed,
and relative inlet flow angle.
For repeating stages having axial exit flow with no swirl ( ),
i.e. repeating stages with constant axial velocity and axial exhaust,
Therefore,
Th f a zero reaction
ti tturbine
bi ((~ iimpulse
l tturbine)
bi ) produces
d
twice as much work as a 50% reaction turbine.

PEMP
Temperature drop is higher for low/zero reaction turbines, hence the

subsequent blade rows have lower temperatures and lower cooling
requirements.
Rotor faces relative stagnation
g temperature
p and stator faces absolute
stagnation temperature. Both these quantities are low for an impulse rotor
and stator with consequent lower cooling requirement.
The
Th disadvantage
di d t off an iimpulse
l stage
t is
i that
th t all
ll the
th acceleration
l ti occurs in
i
the stator passage, producing increased losses.
Thus, an impulse stage has lower efficiency than a
Thus
corresponding reaction turbine.

PEMP
Degree of reaction
varies from a high
value at the tipp to a low
value at the hub.
The degree of
reaction
ti during
d i mean
line design should be
chosen such that it
d
does nott become
b
negative at the hub
causing the flow to
d l
decelerate.
A decelerating flow
will give rise to lower
work output.
PEMP
Consider an impulse stage (R ~ 0).
and all the static ppressure drop

p occurs in the nozzle or the stator and all the
stagnation pressure drop occurs in the rotor. For AVR = 1,
For a 50% reaction turbine, the velocity triangles are symmetrical and

PEMP
• At a given α1, ψ increases linearly

with φ.
• At a fixed φ, an increase in α1 results
in increased ψ.
• For example, at φ =0.5, increasing α1
from 50 to 70 increases ψ from 0.2
0 2 to
1.75 !
• Current design trend is to use high α1
nozzles.
l
• High α1 increases W1 for a given
blade speed. Flow may become
supersonic limiting the mass flow rate.
Plot of the equation
for a 50% reaction turbine

Turbine Efficiency
PEMP
RMD 2501
Apart from total-to-total

total to total and total-to-static
total to static efficiencies,
efficiencies another useful
performance measure of a rotor is the efficiency based on the kinetic energy
at the inlet to the rotor.
This represents how well the rotor converts potential and kinetic energy
into mechanical power.
KE at exit can not be zero,, hence ηKE=1 can not be achieved in ppractice.
For isentropic turbines, the optimum values of ηKE are:
where σ = V1/U is
the velocity ratio
to be optimised

Turbine Efficiency
PEMP
RMD 2501
For a reversible impulse stage
Similarly, for a reversible 50% reaction stage
Because α1 is usually large, the best ηKE is achieved when V1/U is close to
y for a 50% reaction turbine and close to 2 for an impulse
unity p turbine.

Choice of Blade Loading
PEMP
RMD 2501
Data compiled and correlated by Kacker and Okapuu (1982) from 100 sets
of data from 33 turbines
Choice of Blade Loading
PEMP
RMD 2501
Efficiency of a turbine depends on the loading coefficient and

the flow coefficient
coefficient.
Loading coefficient influences pressure gradient in the passage,
and this increases losses.
Higher flow coefficient (higher mass flow rate) results in higher
pressure drop and corresponding losses also increase.
Hence, highest efficiencies are achieved at low loading and low
flow coefficient.

Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
Degree of Reaction:
T2 − T3
R=
T1 − T3
Ca
= (tan β3 − tan β2 )
2U
2U
1 C
= + 2 a (tan β3 − tan α 2 )
2 U
Also,
ψ = 2 Φ (tan β2 + tan β3)
R = ½ Φ (tan β3 - tan β2)
where Φ = Ca / U

Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
Degree off R
D Reaction,
i R is
R, i defined
d fi d as the
h ratio
i off the
h static
i enthalpy
h l drop
d
in the rotor to the static enthalpy drop in the whole stage.
ΔT A ΔTA : Static temperature drop in the rotor
R=
ΔT A + ΔT B ΔT B : Static temperature drop in the stator
Since c p ΔT0 s ≈ c p ΔTs

W = cp ( ΔTA + ΔTB ) = cp ΔTs = cp (T1 − T3 )
= c p (T01 − T03 ) = UCa (tan t β3 )
t β2 + tan
Also,
1 2
(
c p ΔTA = c p (T2 − T3 ) = Ca tan 2 β 3 − tan 2 β 2
2
)
It can be shown that
C 1 C
R = a (tan β3 − tan β 2 ) = + 2 a (tan β3 − tan α 2 )
2U 2 U
Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
Z
Zero Reaction
R i Stage
S
Velocity
i diagram
i and Mollier
i diagram
i for
f a Mollier
i diagram
i for
f an impulse
i
zero reaction turbine stage turbine stage
From the definition of reaction, when R = 0, we have h2 = h3 and β3 = β2. As h02rel =

h03rel and
d h2 = h3 for
f R = 0 it mustt follow,
f ll th f
therefore, th t W2 = W3. Because
that B off
irreversibility, there is a pressure drop through the rotor row. The zero reaction stage
is not the same as an impulse stage; in the latter case, by definition, there is no
press re drop through
pressure thro gh the rotor.
rotor The Mollier diagram for an impulse
imp lse stage is also
shown, where it is seen that the enthalpy increases.
Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
50% Reaction
R i Stage
S
Velocity diagram and Mollier diagram for a 50% reaction turbine stage
The combined velocity diagram for this case is symmetrical since β3 = α2. Because
of the symmetry it is obvious that β2 = α3, also. With R = 1/2 , the enthalpy drop in
the nozzle row equals the enthalpy drop in the rotor, or h1 – h2 = h2 – h3.

Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
100% Reaction
R i Stage
S – Diffusion
Diff i within
i hi Blade
Bl d Rows
R
Any diffusion of the flow through turbine blade
rows is particularly undesirable and must, be
avoided This is because the adverse pressure
avoided.
gradient (arising from the flow diffusion) coupled
with large fluid deflection (usual in turbine blade
rows), increases the chances of boundary-layer
separation causing large scale losses. A
compressor blade row, on the other hand, is
designed to cause the fluid pressure to rise in the
direction of flow,
flow i.e.
i e an adverse pressure
gradient. The magnitude of this gradient is strictly
controlled in a compressor, mainly by having a Velocity diagram for a 100%
fairly limited amount of fluid deflection in each reaction turbine stage
blade row. Substituting tan β3 = tan α3 + U/Cx in
the earlier equation, we get
Thus, when α3 = α2 , the reaction is unity. It will
be apparent that if R exceeds unity, then C2 < C1
(i.e. nozzle flow diffusion).
Choice of Degree of Reaction
PEMP
RMD 2501
Consider Ca3=Ca2 and C3=C1 repeating stages.

The blade speed U is limited by stressing considerations.
Overall temperature drop is fixed from cycle calculations, but the
choice of R is infinite
The
Th designer
d i can choose
h one or two
t stages
t off large
l ψ or a larger
l
number of stages of smaller ψ.
Any
y turbine for a gas
g turbine plant
p is a relativelyy low pressure
p ratio (20-
(
40:1) machine compared to steam turbine plants (1000:1).
Impulse stages are desirable owing to low rotor tip leakage losses and
h
hence these
h are employed
l d in i the
h high
hi h pressure stages off steam turbines.
bi
Reaction stages result in excessive tip leakage.
Impulse stages are not employed in gas turbines because the pressure
levels are relatively too low.
PEMP
Choice of Reaction RMD 2501
For the same total enthalpy drop (h01- h02) in a stage, an

optimum reaction turbine requires a higher blade speed than an
optimum impulse turbine.
If the blade speed is fixed, it can be shown that a reaction
turbine requires more stages (for the same total output power) than
an impulse turbine.

PEMP
Effect of Reaction on Efficiency RMD 2501
Rotor diameter : 82 cm
Pressure ratio : 4
Loading coefficient : 1.62
Flow coefficient : 0.351
Rotational speed : 13232 rpm
High shock losses and viscous losses at

high pressure ratios due to large
acceleration of relative flow with
supersonic exit flow
Data from Turbine

T rbine for Energy
Energ Efficient Engine
[Thulin et al (1982) and Leach (1983)]
PEMP
3-D Flows in Turbine Blade Rows RMD 2501
Some of the three dimensional inviscid effects are due to:

Radial Equilibrium of Fluid Element
PEMP
RMD 2501
Radial equilibrium flow through

a rotor blade row
A fluid element in radial

equilibrium (Cr = 0)

Radial Equilibrium Equation
PEMP
RMD 2501
The basic assumption

ass mption of the radial equilibrium
eq ilibri m is that the radial velocity
elocit Cr is
zero at entry and exit from a blade row.
Starting from the equation of motion in cylindrical coordinates, the variation in
Cr is written as
∂Cr Cθ ∂Cr ∂Cr Cθ2 1 ∂p
Cr + + Cx − =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂x r ρ ∂r
If there are large number of blades, then variations in θ direction may be
neglected.
∂Cr ∂Cr Cθ2 1 ∂p
Cr + Cx − =−
∂r ∂x r ρ ∂r
Further, if there is no component of velocity in the radial direction, i.e. if there is
radial equilibrium, then Cr = 0, and the above equation reduces to
1 ∂p Cθ2 Radial equilibrium equation indicating that

= the
h pressure forces
f on the
h fluid
fl id particles
i l
ρ ∂r r are balanced by the centrifugal forces
Axial Velocity Distribution
PEMP
RMD 2501
For incompressible flow:

1
(
p0 = p + ρ C x2 + Cθ2
2
)
1 dp0 1 dp dC x dCθ
and = + Cx + Cθ
ρ dr ρ dr dr dr
Cθ2 dC x dCθ
= + Cx + Cθ
r dr dr
dC x Cθ d
= Cx + (r.Cθ )
d
dr r dr
d
If the total pressure is assumed constant along the radius, then
dC x Cθ d
Cx + (r.Cθ ) = 0
dr r dr
or
d 2
dr
( )1 d
Cx + 2
r dr
(r.Cθ )2 = 0 Gives variation
Gi i ti off axial
velocity with radius
i l

Axial Velocity Distribution
PEMP
RMD 2501
Similarly, for compressible flow: h0 = h +

1 2
2
(
C x + Cθ2 )
dh0 dh dC x dCθ
= + Cx + Cθ
dr ∂r dr dr
ds dh 1 dp
But T = +
dr ∂r ρ dr
dh0 ds 1 dp dC x dCθ
−T = + Cx + Cθ
dr dr ρ dr dr dr
dC x Cθ d
= Cx + (r.Cθ )
dr r dr
dh0 ds
If = 0 and T =0
dr ∂∂rr
dC x Cθ d
Then Cx + (r.Cθ ) = 0
dr r dr
or
d 2
dr
( )
Cx + 2
1 d
r dr
(r.Cθ )2 = 0 Gives variation
Gi i ti off axial
velocity with radius
i l

Types of Whirl Distribution PEMP
RMD 2501
The whirl (vortex) distributions normally used in compressor

design practice are:
• Free vortex r Cθ = constant
• Forced vortex Cθ / r = constant
• Constant reaction R = constant
• Exponential Cθ1 = a – b/r (after stator)
Cθ2 = a + b/r (after rotor)
• Free
F vortex
t whirl
hi l distribution
di t ib ti results
lt in
i highly
hi hl twisted
t i t d blades
bl d
and is not advisable for blades of small height.
• The current design practice for transonic compressors is to use
constant pressure ratio across the span.
PEMP
RMD 2501
Free and Forced Vortex Velocity Distribution

Free Vortex Design
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RMD 2501
• For free vortex design

a) The stagnation enthalpy ho is constant over the annulus
(i.e. dho /dr = 0),
b) The axial velocity is constant over the annulus,
c) The whirl velocity is inversely proportional to the radius,
• Then the condition for radial equilibrium of the fluid
elements, is satisfied. A stage designed in accordance with
( ) (b) andd (c)
(a), ( ) is
i called
ll d a free
f vortex stage.

Free Vortex Design (… contd.)
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Applying this to the stage in the figure, we can see that with
uniform inlet conditions to the nozzles then, since no work is
done by the gas in the nozzles, h0 must also be constant over
the annulus at outlet. Thus condition (a) is fulfilled in the space
between the nozzles and rotor blades.

Free Vortex Design (… contd.)
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Furthermore, if the nozzles are designed to give Ca2 = constant and

Cw2r = constant, all three conditions are fulfilled and the condition
f radial
for di l equilibrium
ilib i is
i satisfied
ti fi d in
i plane-2.
l 2
• Similarly, if the rotor blades are designed so that Ca3 = constant
and Cw3r = constant,
constant it is easy to show as follows that condition
(a) will be fulfilled, and thus radial equilibrium will be achieved in
plane-3 also. Writing ω for the angular velocity we have
Ws = U (Cw 2 + Cw3 ) = ω(Cw 2 r + Cw3 r ) = constant
• But when the work done per unit mass of gas is constant over the
annulus, and ho is constant at inlet, h0 must be constant at outlet
also; thus condition (a) is met.
Constant Nozzle Angle Design
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Nozzles are designed using the relation

i 2 α2
Ca2r sin
= constant
• Normally nozzle angles are greater than 60°, and quite a good
approximation to the flow satisfying the equilibrium condition is
obtained byy designing
g g with a constant nozzle angleg and constant
angular momentum, i.e. α2= constant and Cw2r = constant.
• If this approximation is made and the rotor blades are twisted to
give constant angular momentum at outlet also, then, as for free
vortex flow, the work output per unit mass flow is the same at all
radii.

Constant Nozzle Angle Design
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Normally nozzle angles are greater than 60°, and quite a good
approximation to the flow satisfying the equilibrium condition is
obtained by designing with a constant nozzle angle and constant
angular momentum, i.e. α2= constant and Cw2r = constant. If this
approximation is made and the rotor blades are twisted to give
constant angular momentum at outlet also, then, as for free vortex
flow, the work output per unit mass flow is the same at all radii.

Types of Turbine Blades
PEMP
RMD 2501
Nozzle guide vanes and

Part span snubber
rotor blades
Impulse type blades Reaction type blades

PEMP
Axial Turbine Parameters RMD 2501
Blade Loading Coefficient or temperature drop coefficient Ψ, which

expresses the work capacity of a stage, is defined as
U Ca (tan β2 + tan β3 )
c p Δ T0 s
Ψ= 2
=
U 2 U2 2
2 Ca
or Ψ= (tan β2 + tan β3 )
U
T2 − T3
Degree of Reaction, R is defined as R=
T1 − T3
if Ca 2 = Ca3 = Ca and C3 = C1
Ca
then R= (tan β 3 − tan β 2 )
2U
PEMP
Axial Turbine Parameters RMD 2501
The expressions for ψ , φ and R can be

derived in terms of the flow angles
Φ = Flow coefficient = Ca / U
ψ = 2 Φ (tan β2 + tan β3)
R = ½ Φ (tan β3 - tan β2)
Similarly, the expressions for flow angles

can be derived in terms of ψ , φ and R
tan β3 = ½ Φ ( Ψ / 2 + 2 R )
tan β2 = ½ Φ ( Ψ / 2 - 2 R )
tan α3 = tan β3 - 1/Φ
tan α2 = tan β2 + 1/Φ
Effect of ψ and φ
PEMP
RMD 2501
Low Ψ means more stages

for a given over all turbine
output.. Low Φ means a
l
larger turbine
t bi annulus l area
for a given mass flow
In industrial gas turbines,
when size and weight are of
little consequence and a low
sfc is vital, it is sensible to
design with a low Ψ and a
low Φ.
For aeroengines, it is
desired to keep the weight
and frontal area minimum
and this requires using
higher values of Ψ and Φ.
example Ψ = 3 to 5 and
For example,
Φ = 0.8 to 1.0

Comments on Variation of ψ and φ
PEMP
RMD 2501
Efficiency contours superimposed on Ψ - Φ plot

g havingg a low Ψ and low Φ y
Designs yield the best stage
g efficiencies.
Low values of Ψ and Φ imply low gas velocities and hence reduced
friction losses.
Low Ψ means more stages for a given over all turbine output. Low Φ
means a larger turbine annulus area for a given mass flow.
In industrial gas turbine when size and weight are of little consequence
and a low sfc is vital, it would be sensible to design with a low Ψ and a
low Φ. Certainly in the last stage a low axial velocity and a small swirl
angle α3 are desirable to keep down the losses in the exhaust diffuser.
diffuser
For an aircraft propulsion unit, it is important to keep the weight and
frontal area to a minimum and this means using higher values of Ψ and
Φ. For example,
e ample Ψ = 3 - 5 and Φ = 0.8 0 8 - 1.0
10

Polytropic Efficiency
PEMP
RMD 2501
The isentropic efficiency described

earlier, although fundamentally valid,
can be misleading if used for
comparing the efficiencies of
turbomachines of differing pressure
ratios. Now any turbomachine may be
regarded
d d as being
b i composed d off a large
l
number of very small stages
irrespective of the actual number of
stages in the machine.
machine If each small
stage has the same efficiency, then the
isentropic efficiency of the whole
machine will be different from the
small stage efficiency, the difference
depending upon the pressure ratio of
the machine.
Mollier diagram showing expansion process through
a turbine split up into a number of small stages.

Polytropic Efficiency
PEMP
RMD 2501
Polytropic
P l t i efficiency
ffi i i the
is th efficiency
ffi i off a
turbine stage operating between
infinitesimal pressure differential Δp. It is
used in comparing the performance of two
turbines having the same pressure ratio but
ncy, ηt
operating at different temperature levels.

pic efficien
In multistage
li turbines,
bi the
h polytropic
l i
efficiency can be used in defining the
isentropic efficiency of individual stages.
Isentrop
η p (γ −1)
⎛ p02 ⎞ γ
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ p01 ⎠
ηt = γ −1
Pressure ratio, p02/p01
⎛ p02 ⎞ γ
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ p01 ⎠
Blade Loading
PEMP
RMD 2501
Blade loading primarily depends upon two parameters:

Blade spacing
Flow turning
Blade Spacing
Close spacing larger number of blades smaller force per blade
larger weight
increased frictional losses due to increased blade surfaces
Large spacing smaller number of blades Larger force per blade

smaller weight
reduced frictional losses due to fewer blade surfaces
Zweifel’s Blade Loading Criterion
PEMP
RMD 2501
Hence, there is an optimum value of blade spacing which will provide reasonably
good efficiency as well as tangential momentum.
Zweifel’ss loading criterion is based on the non
Zweifel non-dimensional
dimensional force in a cascade.
Cz axial chord
V2 exit velocity
Equating the work done to the enthalpy rise Vz axial velocity
Fθ blade force
From the relation
and assuming that the flow is incompressible (Vz1 = Vz2), it can be proven that
α2 is usually negative
for a turbine

Zweifel’s Blade Loading Criterion
PEMP
RMD 2501
Zweifel suggested a value of 0.8 for the coefficient Z.

The maximum turning allowed is dictated by the viscous effects and
the Mach number considerations.
Hence, a good performance can be obtained with
Very high turning and fewer number of blades
Small turning with a large number of blades
Zweifel’s criterion can be used to determine S/Cz or number of blades
for a known value of α1 and assumed value of α2.
It has been used for compressible flows also with some success.

Losses in Turbine Blade Passages
PEMP
RMD 2501
a) Profile loss – associated with boundary layer

growth over the blade profile (including
separation loss under adverse conditions of
extreme anglesl off incidence
i id or high
hi h inlet
i l
Mach number).
b) Annulus loss – associated with boundary layer
growth on the inner and outer walls of the
annulus.
c) Secondary flow loss – arising from secondary

flows which are always present when a wall
boundary layer is turned through an angle by
an adjacent curved surface
surface.
d) Tip clearance loss – near the rotor blade tip the
gas does not follow the intended path, fails to
contribute
t ib t its
it quota
t off workk output,
t t andd
interacts with the outer wall boundary layer.
Viscous Effects
PEMP
RMD 2501
1. Decrease in turbine efficiency through stagnation pressure loss

and increase in entropy
2. Decrease in pressure drop in turbines
3. Introduce three
three-dimensionality
dimensionality and change in flow properties,
thus affecting the blade rows downstream also
4. Affect the coolingg and heat transfer in turbine blades
5. Introduce flow blockage which affects mass flow rate and
pressure drop
6. Introduce unsteadiness in the downstream blade rows owing to
wake blade interaction; unsteady pressures generate blade
vibration
ib ti andd noise
i

Complex Flow in Turbine Blade Passage
PEMP
RMD 2501
Turbine passage flows are complex and three-dimensional.

Major aerodynamic losses occurring in turbine blade passages are due to
secondaryy and tip
p clearance flows ((nearly
y 50-60% of total internal loss)) and reduce
efficiency by about 2-4%.
Growth of secondary and tip clearance

losses across turbine blade
(Bindon, 1989)
a) Turbine passage flow physics b) Internal turbine stage losses

Loss Mechanisms
PEMP
RMD 2501
Annulus wall boundary layer loss Secondary flow loss
Profile loss due to blade surface

boundary layer Tip clearance loss
Shock Waves in Transonic Turbines
PEMP
RMD 2501
www-pgtu.de.unifi.it/CFDBranch/rd/eurd.html
Losses in Turbine Blade Passages
PEMP
RMD 2501
• The profile loss coefficient Yp is

measured directly in cascade tests.
• Losses (b) andd (c)
L ( ) cannot easily
il be
b
separated, and they are accounted for
by a secondary loss coefficient Ys.
• The tip clearance loss coefficient,
which normally arises only for rotor
blades, will be denoted by Yk.
• The total loss coefficient Y comprises
the accurately measured two-
dimensional loss,, Yp, pplus the three-
Typical cascade results showing
dimensional loss (Ys + Yk) which
the effect of incidence on the
must be deduced from turbine stage
profile loss coefficient Yp for
test results. impulse (R = 0 and β2 ≈ β3) and
reaction type blading
PEMP
Losses in Blade Rows RMD 2501
Full line connects stagnation

states.
Chain dotted line connects
static states.
To2 = To1 because no work is
done in the nozzles; and the
short horizontal portion of
the full line represents the
stagnation (pressure drop)
po1- po2 due to friction in the
nozzle.
Ideally the gas in the nozzle
would be expanded from To1
to T2’ but due to friction the
T-s diagram for a reaction stage temperature at the nozzle
exit is T2, higher than T2’.

Losses in Blade Rows
PEMP
RMD 2501
Loss coefficient for the nozzle blade
T2 − T2' p01 − p02

λN = 2 or YN =
C 2 2c p p02 − p2
Both λ and Y express the proportion of the leaving energy

which is degraded by friction.
¾ YN cλN is more easily used in design.
¾ an easily be measured in cascade test.
Isentropic expansion in the whole stage would result in a
final temperature T3’ and in the rotor blade passage above
T3”. Expansion
E i withi h friction
f i i leads
l d to a final
fi l temperature T3.

Losses in Blade Rows
PEMP
RMD 2501
Similarly, loss coefficient for the rotor blade
T3 − T3'' p02rel − p03rel

λR = 2 YR =
V3 2c p p03rel − p3
⎛ T02 ⎞ ⎛ T03rel ⎞
It can be shown that YN ≈ λN ⎜⎜ ' ⎟⎟ and YR ≈ λR ⎜⎜ " ⎟⎟
⎝ T2 ⎠ ⎝ T3 ⎠
Also, λN and λR can be related to the stage isentropic efficiency
1 (1)
ηS ≈
1 Ca ⎡ λR sec2 β3 + (T3 T2 )λN sec2 α2 ⎤
1+
2 U ⎢⎣ tan β3 + tan α2 − (U Ca ) ⎥⎦
Cascade Nomenclature
PEMP
RMD 2501

Estimation of Stage Performance
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Estimate (Yp)N and (Yp)R from the gas angles of the proposed design
by using the loss data in conjunction with the interpolation formula,
⎧⎪
[ ]
⎫⎪⎛ t/c ⎞ β2 /β3
2
⎛ β2 ⎞ (2)
Yp = ⎨Y p(β2=0 ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Y p(β2 = β 3 ) − Y p(β2 =0 ) ⎬⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ β3 ⎠ ⎪⎭⎝ 0.2 ⎠
• This equation represents a correction for a change in inlet angle at a

constant outlet angle, so that Yp(β2=0) and Yp(β2=β3) are the values for a
nozzle and impulse
impulse-type
type blade having the same outlet gas angle β3 as
the actual blade. Equation also includes a correction for t/c if it
differs from 0.2, a reduction in t/c leading to reduced profile loss for
all blades other than nozzle-type
no le t pe blades (β2= 0). 0) The degree of
acceleration of the flow in the blading decreases with the degree of
reaction as β2 / β3→1, and the influence of blade thickness becomes
more markedk d as th
the acceleration
l ti is i diminished.
di i i h d TheTh correction
ti isi
considered reliable only for 0.15 < t/c < 0.25.
PEMP
Profile Loss Coefficient RMD 2501
Profile loss coefficient for conven-

tional blading with t/c = 0.20

PEMP
Correction for Incidence RMD 2501
If the blades operate at a non-zero

incidence at the design point, a
correction
ti to
t Yp wouldld be
b required.
i d
This correction is really only
important when estimating
performance at part load.
It involves using correlations of
cascade data to find the stalling
incidence is for the given blade (i.e.
incidence at which Yp is twice the loss
Variation of profile loss with
for i = 0);
) and then usingg a curve of
incidence for typical turbine
Yp/Yp(i=0) verses i/is to find Yp for the blading (adapted from Ainley
given i and the value of Yp(i=0). and Mathieson 1951)

PEMP
Loss Correlations – Profile Loss RMD 2501
Ainley and Mathieson correlated the profile losses

of turbine blade rows against space/chord ratio s/l,
fluid outlet angle α2, blade maximum
thi k
thickness/chord
/ h d ratio
ti t/l andd blade
bl d inlet
i l t angle.
l The
Th
variation of Yp=Yp (i=0) against s/l is shown here for
nozzles and impulse blading at various flow outlet
angles.
g For other types
yp of blading g intermediate
between nozzle blades and impulse blades the
following expression is employed:
where all the Yp’s are taken at the same space/chord

ratio and flow outlet angle.
Profile loss coefficients of turbine nozzle

and impulse blades at zero incidence
(t/l = 20%; Re = 2 x105; M < 0.6) (adapted
from Ainley and Mathieson 1951).

PEMP
Loss Correlations – Secondary Flow Loss RMD 2501
Secondary Flow Loss

The secondary losses arise from complex three-dimensional flows set up as a
result of the end wall boundary layers passing through the cascade.
cascade
1. Ainley’s Correlation:
where λ is a parameter
parameter, which is a function of the flow acceleration
through the blade row. For incompressible flow,
hence
where Z is the aerodynamic loading coefficient.
2.. Dunham
u a and
a d Came
Ca e Correlation:
Co e a o :
Thi represents significant

This i ifi iimprovement over Ai
Ainley’s
l ’ correlation
l i

PEMP
Loss Correlations – Secondary Flow Loss RMD 2501
Secondary Flow Loss

Recently, more advanced methods of predicting losses in turbine blade rows
have been suggested which take into account the thickness of the entering
boundary layers on the annulus walls.
3. Came’s Correlation:
This is a modified form of Dunham’s correlation, and represents the net

secondary loss coefficient for one end wall only and where Y1 is a mass-
averaged inlet boundary layer total pressure loss coefficient. It is evident that the
increased accuracy obtained by using this relation requires the additional effort
of calculating the wall boundary layer development.

Secondary and Tip Clearance Losses
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Secondary and tip-clearance loss data for Ys and Yk have been

correlated using the concepts of lift and drag coefficient. (ref.
notes on axiall compressor).
)
C L = 2(s/c )(tan β2 + tan β3 ) cos βm

where
βm = tan −1 [(tan β3 − tan β2 )/ 2]
• It is convenient to treat Ys and Yk simultaneously. The proposed

correlation is
2
⎡ ⎛ k ⎞⎤ ⎡ C L ⎤ ⎡ cos 2 β 3 ⎤
Ys + Yk = ⎢λ + B⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎢ 3 ⎥ (3)
⎣ ⎝ h ⎠⎦ ⎣ s / c ⎥⎦ ⎣ cos β m⎦

Definition of B, h and k
PEMP
RMD 2501

Definition of λ and f
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Th
The degree
d off acceleration
l i is i indicated
i di d by
b the
h ratioi off the
h areas A3cosββ3 /
A2cosβ2 normal to the flow direction.
⎧⎪⎛ A cosβ ⎞ 2 ⎛ r ⎞⎫⎪
• The qquantityy λ is approximately
pp yg y λ = f ⎨⎜⎜ 3
given by: 3
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 + r ⎟⎟⎬
⎪⎩⎝ A 2 cosβ 2 ⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎠⎪⎭
Variation of λ with f

Correction for Trailing Edge Thickness
PEMP
RMD 2501
Correction to be applied if the trailing edge

thickness/pitch ratio (te /s) differs from 0.02

PEMP
Correction for M and Re RMD 2501
• Cascade data and other loss correlations are strictly applicable only to
designs where Mach numbers are such that no shock losses are incurred
in the blade passages.
p g
• If the outlet relative Mach number is greater than unity, then the following
correction should be applied to Yp obtained from equation (2):
[ ][
Yp corr = Y p from eqn(2) × 1 + 60(M − 1)
2
]
(M is exit relative Mach number for rotor blades and exit absolute Mach number
for nozzles)
• If the mean Reynolds number of the turbine based on blade chord differs
much from 2x105, then an approximate
pp correction to the overall
isentropic efficiency is given by:
−0.2
⎛ Re ⎞
(1 − ηt ) = ⎜ 5 ⎟
(1 − ηt )Re=2×10 5
⎝ 2 × 10 ⎠
PEMP
Correction for λ and B RMD 2501
• The Ainley-Mathieson correlations outlined here predict efficiencies to

within +3% of measured values.
• The method becomes applicable to a wide range of turbines,
turbines including small gas
turbines, if the following corrections suggested by Dunham and Came are
incorporated.
• C l l λ by
Calculate b the
h expression
i
⎛ c ⎞ cos β 3 β3 = α2 and β2 = α1
λ = 0.0334⎜ ⎟
⎝ h ⎠ cos β 2 for nozzles
• Replace B(k/h) by the expression

0.78
⎛ c ⎞⎛ k ⎞ B = 0.47 for radial tip clearance
B⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.37 for side clearance on
⎝ h ⎠⎝ c ⎠ shrouded blades

PEMP
Estimation of Turbine Performance RMD 2501
1. Estimate (Yp)N and (Yp)R from eqn.(2) applying corrections for

incidence, Mach number and trailing thickness
2. Estimate (Ys+Yk) from eqn.(3) applying corrections for the
parameters B and λ
3. Calculate total losses YN and YR
YN YR
4. Calculate λN = and λR =
(T02 T2' ) (T 03 rel T3" )
5 Calculate turbine stage efficiency from eqn.(1)
5. eqn (1)
6. Apply Re correction if required
7 Repeat
7. R t the
th calculations
l l ti for
f off-design
ff d i conditions
diti

Turbine Performance
PEMP
RMD 2501

Session Summary
PEMP
RMD 2501
• Basic construction and application of axial turbines is

discussed.
discussed
• Aerothermodynamics of turbines is explained through T-s
diagram and velocity triangles.
• S l i off whirl
Selection hi l distribution
di ib i is i discussed
di d based
b d on the
h radial
di l
equilibrium theory.
• Loss mechanism in turbine blade rows and various loss
correlations are discussed.
• Turbine blade loading criteria and performance characteristics
are explained in detail.
detail

PEMP
RMD 2501
Thank you

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Session delivered by:

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 1

Session Objectives RMD 2501

This session is intended to introduce the following:

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 2

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 3

Axial turbines can

….. but the basic design

Axial turbines can also be classified as:

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 5

Expansion Process on T-S Diagram RMD 2501

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 6

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 7

In a turbine, the fluid does work on the rotor.

W&t = (Wt m& ) = (U 2Cw 2 − U 3Cw3 ) = (h02 − h03 ) Watts s /kg

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 8

Actual enthalpy drop h01 − h02

Now consider a 1 ½ stage turbine with the following nomenclature

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 10

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 11

Using the above nomenclature

Temperature and pressure ratios can be expressed in terms of reaction, R

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 12

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 13

 Temperature drop is higher for low/zero reaction turbines, hence the

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 14

Consider an impulse stage (R ~ 0).

and all the static ppressure drop

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 16

• At a given α1, ψ increases linearly

Plot of the equation

for a 50% reaction turbine

 Apart from total-to-total

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 18

 For a reversible impulse stage

 Similarly, for a reversible 50% reaction stage

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 19

 Efficiency of a turbine depends on the loading coefficient and

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 21

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 22

Since c p ΔT0 s ≈ c p ΔTs

From the definition of reaction, when R = 0, we have h2 = h3 and β3 = β2. As h02rel =

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 25

 Consider Ca3=Ca2 and C3=C1 repeating stages.

Choice of Reaction RMD 2501

 For the same total enthalpy drop (h01- h02) in a stage, an

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 28

Effect of Reaction on Efficiency RMD 2501

High shock losses and viscous losses at

Data from Turbine

3-D Flows in Turbine Blade Rows RMD 2501

Some of the three dimensional inviscid effects are due to:

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 30

Radial equilibrium flow through

A fluid element in radial

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 31

The basic assumption

1 ∂p Cθ2 Radial equilibrium equation indicating that

For incompressible flow:

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 33

Similarly, for compressible flow: h0 = h +

10 © M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies 34

Temperature drop is higher for low/zero reaction turbines, hence the

Apart from total-to-total

For a reversible impulse stage

Similarly, for a reversible 50% reaction stage

Efficiency of a turbine depends on the loading coefficient and

Consider Ca3=Ca2 and C3=C1 repeating stages.

For the same total enthalpy drop (h01- h02) in a stage, an

Efficiency contours superimposed on Ψ - Φ plot

Blade loading primarily depends upon two parameters:

Zweifel suggested a value of 0.8 for the coefficient Z.

Turbine passage flows are complex and three-dimensional.

Full line connects stagnation

Loss coefficient for the nozzle blade

Both λ and Y express the proportion of the leaving energy

Similarly, loss coefficient for the rotor blade

If the blades operate at a non-zero