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Lecture Notes On Introduction To Science Technology and Society
Lecture Notes On Introduction To Science Technology and Society
What are Science, Technology and society, and why should people want to study
and learn it? Why should students, teachers, researchers and other professionals have
interest in the subject? Primarily, we need some background and understanding of the
significance of science and technology in the living past and their importance in the
modern world (Mosteiro,2004)
DEFINITIONS OF SCIENCE.
1. SCIENCE IS A PROCESS
a. Concerned with discovering relationships between observable
phenomena in terms of theories.
b. Systematized theoretical inquiries
c. It seeks for truth about nature.
d. It is determined by observation, hypothesis, measurement, analysis and
experimentation
e. It is the description and explanation of the development of knowledge
f. It is the study of the beginning and end of everything that exist.
g. Conceptualization of new ideas, from the abstract to the particular.
h. Kind of human cultural activity.
2. SCIENCE IS A PRODUCT
a. Systematized, organized body of knowledge based on facts or truths
observations.
b. A set of logical and empirical methods which provide for the
systematic observation of empirical phenomena.
c. Source of cognitive authority.
d. Concerned with verifiable concepts
e. A product of the mind
f. It is the variety of knowledge, people, skills, organizations, facilities,
techniques, physical resources, methods and technologies that taken
together and in relation with one another.
“Science is the attempts to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience correspond
to a logically uniform system of thought.” (A. Einstein 1940)3
What is Science? According to the definitions given by gore, Wolf, and Einstein, the
subject matter of science is nature. Every physical entity in the extra terrestrial and
terrestrial environment is a component of nature. The galaxies, the stars in the galaxy, the
planets and their moons, the asteroids and the comets, the air, water, and soil; the plants
and the animals, they are physical entities of Mother Nature. We are conscious of
nature’s reality because of the stimuli emanating from these entities which our sense
perceived.
Nature is very complex. The multitudes of entities comprising nature, and their complex
interactions, make nature innately complex. Therefore, the totality of stimuli emanating
from her is intuitively chaotic. Science represents the attempt of man to put order to this
chaotic perception of nature. Thus, Albert Einstein 3 defined science as “Man’s attempts
to make the chaotic diversity of his sense experience correspond to a logically uniform
system of thought.” And indeed, as G. Gore 1 wrote,” Science is the interpretation of
nature and man is the interpreter.” And as A. Wolf2 opined,” It is the spirit of man
brooding over the stream of natural events that has given birth to science,” Clearly,
science is the product of human curiosity.
Why are we curious? It is almost an instinct for us humans to try to understand what our
senses perceived because of our highly developed mental skills. These are the mental
skills to observe, infer, measure, classify, experiment, and to communicate. Through the
ages, our ancestors learned to use these skills in a methodical manner to investigate the
‘how,’ the ‘why,’ and the ‘when’ of natural events. This methodical manner to our mental
skills to satisfy human curiosity is the scientific method.
Using the scientific method, generation after generation pf scientist gradually discovered
the natural laws that govern natural processes. As each generation described with an ever
increasing accuracy the events and circumstances that prevail in nature, what was once
perceived as chaotic becomes rational, and man saw the unity in the diversity of nature.
In other word, the scientific endeavors spanning several generations yielded a number of
natural laws. These laws reduce natural events in nature to orderly predictable events.
What sets the limitation of science? Science is a product of the human senses and the
human mind and that is why there could be no science in the absence of an intelligent
being like a human or any other intelligent creature like him. And therein lies the
limitation of science; the limitation of the human senses and the limitation of the human
mind. We can not investigate what our senses cannot perceive, and we can not explain
beyond what our human mind can understand. As a matter of fact, the optical and the
electron microscope, the optical and radio telescopes, and all the other new scientific
instruments are but the result of our attempts to extend our sense of perception.
How does science operate? Science is a self correcting and self-generating human
activity. Using the scientific method, each generation of scientist develop explanations of
natural phenomena but at the same time, within the same generation, there are scientists
who question the validity of the proposed explanations. And within the same generation,
there are scientists who arrive at some new observations which lead to the identification
of new and heretofore undescribed phenomena. In this manner science is self-correcting
and self-generating, it is never stagnant.
How does the Scientific Method operate? The scientific method is a mental process
which serves as the “tool” of scientist with which new discoveries are made Although the
scientific method is traditionally characterized as a rigid mental process consisting of (a)
observation, (b) problem identification, (c) hypothesis formulation, and (d) drawing of
conclusions as to the possible validity if the prediction, scientists are not in general
agreement as to exactly what constitutes scientific procedure.
In reality, this rigid process called the scientific method did prove useful in some
particular instances, like in biology where the problem is amenable to experimental
manipulation. But in some other cases, the problem may not be amenable to controlled
manipulation, like in the geological process of volcanic eruption and mountain building.
Under such unmanageable events, the traditional scientific procedure is unrealistic.
In the development and proving of hypotheses, scientists use inductive and deductive
logic, but they do not tend to think exclusively in one way or the other at different times.
In practice, they use the interplay of inductive and deductive logic. Inductive logic
proceeds from the specifies and arrives at a generalization. On the contrary, deductive
proceeds from the general to the specific. To be sure, the following examples are in order.
It should be pointed out however that inductive generalization never attain absolute
certainty. They only attain higher degrees of probability. For example, the probability that
all green mangoes are sour and tangy based on 25 samples has a lower degree of certainty
than if the sample size is increased to 20 mangoes. But even if the sample size is
increased tom 1000 green mangoes, still there is no absolute certainty that all green
mangoes are sour and tangy. The number of green mangoes is infinite and no one can be
absolutely certain the next green mango to be tasted will not be sweet. Thus science can
only seek for the most probable truth and never for the absolute truth. A.W. Ghent
developed a conceptual scheme to illustrate the role of inductive and deductive logic in
the conduct of scientific investigation.
The scheme shows that scientific procedure begins with an educated guesswork about the
probable explanation to a perceived problem. The guesswork is an educated guess based
on previously known facts related to the problem. The scientists then make a prediction
based on the guesswork; this is the hypothesis. Thus, hypothesis formulation involves
deductive reasoning and goes this way,’ If(an assumption is made based on the
guesswork), then (the prediction that is expected if the assumption is valid). The
prediction is actually the anticipated event to happen if the assumption is correct.
Experiments or factual observations are then made to prove the validity of the hypothesis.
Usually, the result of the experiment/observations may overlap only slightly with those
predicted by the hypothesis. Nevertheless, the result allows the investigator to arrive
inductively at new and more realistic concept (guesswork) about the explanation as the
problem.
From the improved guesswork, a new and more realistic hypothesis is made by deductive
logic. Experimentation/observations are then made to test the new hypothesis which
normally results in a much improved guesswork. Thus, the interplay of deductive and
inductive reasoning contributes to increasingly realistic concept of explanation to a
problem. I other words, the interplay yields increasingly reliable factual knowledge less
and less of guesswork.
Is technology a part of science? The little we understood about nature we were able to
use to develop technologies that enabled us to survive and progress; and to be the most
dominant animal species on earth. But technology is not science. Science only seeks to
understand nature, no more no less; technology is but the application of what science has
discovered, for better for worst. That is why usefulness is not a prerequisite to the
generation of knowledge; on the contrary, usefulness is the primary prerequisite to the
generation of technology.
DEFINITIONS OF TECHNOLOGY
On the same view, technology is defined as both a PROCESS and a PRODUCT
1. TECHNOLOGY AS A PROCESS
a. It is the application of science.
b. The practice, description, and terminology of applied sciences.
c. The intelligent organization and manipulation of materials for useful
purposes.
d. The means employed to provide for human needs and wants.
e. Focused on inventing new or better tools and materials or new and
better ways of doing things.
f. A way of using findings of science to produce new things for a better
way of living.
g. Search for concrete solutions that work and give wanted results.
h. It is characteristically calculative and imitative, tends to be
dangerously manipulative.
i. Form of human cultural activity.
2. TECHNOLOGY AS A PRODUCT
a. A system of know-how, skills, techniques and processes.
b. It is like a language, rituals, values, commerce and arts, it is an
intrinsic part of a cultural system and it both shapes and reflects the
system values.
c. It is the product of the scientific concept.
d. The complex combination of knowledge, materials and methods.
e. Material products of human making or fabrication.
f. Total societal enterprise.
Technology Policy.
1. retain a long-term commitment to research education, and innovation.
2. create a business environment in which the innovative and competitive efforts
of the private sector can flourish
3. encourage the development, commercialization, and the use of civilian
technology
4. create a world-class infrastructure for the twenty-first century to support
industry and promote commerce
5. develop a world-class workforce capable of participating in a rapidly changing
knowledge-based economy.
02 March 2000
Global developments underscore the important role of science and technology world
trade has been liberalized, exerting pressure for innovation; economic activity has
become knowledge-intensive, requiring competence in the emerging technologies
elaborately transformed manufactured products, developed through the individual
countries’ system of innovation, have become the major items in world trade, making the
capability to add value the basis for competitiveness, it is, thus, appropriate that
assessment be made of the state of science and technology in the Philippines.
In an increasingly technological world, we are told that the competitive edge lies with
those nations or companies who are either first or best; to open or conquer new markets,
or pioneer in the development of next generation products that will shape our lives the
way telecommunications and antibiotics have.
Admittedly, the Philippines still has to reach a level of excellence in terms of scientific
discoveries and innovation and wealth creation. Whatever it has of a national system for
innovation is weak. It educational system, something to be proud of before, a showing
signs of decline. There are examples if world-class companies, but also a long trail of
mediocrity in industries that are demonstrably in terminal decline. It has been noted that
economic activity in the global scene is becoming increasingly knowledge-intensive.
Studies between 1964 and 1987, importation of raw materials and non-fuel minerals in
the world market decreased from 17% to 6% of total imports, while more elaborate
products like machinery and transport equipment increased from 19% to 33% of total
imports over the same period.
towards a newly industrializing economy around the turn of the century maybe
serve an international clientele. This translates to having the policy and regulatory
environment, the human capability, and the physical infrastructure to enable us to deliver
such goods and services at the right price, quality and time. These necessities a
movement from what Alvin Toffler calls the “first wave” technologies to the “third wave”
The capability to add value to goods or services is now the basis for competitiveness.
The higher the value added, more and new wealth is created, bringing greater returns to
the economy. It is now clear that economic development is not achieved by increased
It is in this light that I submit that without S and T capacity, no country will be able to
formulate policies and strategies for achieving sustainable development; absorb, adapt,
and improve imported technology; or expect to develop its production potential, even in
But the journey is going to be tough. Although economic arguments linking R and D
investment to wealth creation have largely been won, even though science is higher on
the government’s list of priorities, government funding for R and D has remained steady,
A Mr. John gibbon, the former presidential assistant for S and T of the US, has said that
the ROI of R and D is in the order of 50%. He also gives the following advice;
“S and T is the seed corn, and we have to resist the temptation to eat that seed torn
rather that to plant and nourish it.’
Due to severe resource limitations, we in the developing countries are already eating our
seed corn. Only about 4 percent of the world’s expenditure on R and D and about 14% of
the world’s supply of scientist and engineers are in developing countries where more than
80% of the world’s people live
. And yet the world’s population is now increasing at the rate if three people per second
(IDRC) While one hectare of productive land is being lost every 8.23 seconds (IDRC).
All evidence points to a continuation of this trend; 6 billion people will be living on earth
by the year 2000. The equivalent of a new Bangladesh with 100 million inhabitants will
be created annually (IDRC).
To explain the Asian crisis, many observers only focus on depth and currency problems.
What is overlooked is that most ASEAN corporations fail to deliver world-class returns
on capital. Knowledgeable observers trace this partly to a week S and T base, even in
Korea which has barely reached the innovation stage.
Asian conglomerates returns on capital employed average 5 to 8%, while eastern
multinationals in the same markets average 25 to 35%. Thus we are pertness to assault
that challenge the real productive competence of or nation. To reinforce this observation,
we note that even as early as 1942, Joseph A. Schumpeter in his book Capitalisms,
Socialism and democracy said:
“But in capitalist reality, as distinguish from its textbook picture, it is not (price)
completion which counts but the completion from the commodity, the new technology, the
source, of supply, the new type of organization… completion which… strikes not at the
margins… of the existing firms but at their foundations and their very lives.’
Obviously, the path we have not assiduously taken is the path towards innovation.
Evidence is now clear that technological innovation raises productivity and cuts work
time. For example, it took 82.86 hours to produce one vehicle in 1962; this was reduced
to 37.12 hours in 1970.
PROMOTING INNOVATION
Establishing a strategic enabling environment for innovation, and eventually
competitiveness, especially in tech transfer and acquisition are both recognized as vital
elements in coping with poverty and globalization.
What Mr. Nichols refers to is the urgent need to eliminate speculation and guesswork in
our activities. The information to minimize uncertainty is derived from scientific work.
Science underpins risk management decisions involving many aspects of national life.
The containment and eradication of threats to human, animal and plant health, weather
forecasting, and correct time information are some examples of minimizing uncertainty.
It is also science and technology that provides the basis for preventing non-tariff trade
barriers fostered by protectionist lobby, from strangling world trade. These technical
barriers include unusual requirements to technical regulations covering packaging and
labeling.
How do we translate this into solid, long lasting interventions?
Focus efforts on the new opportunities before us, recognizing that government can play a
key role helping private firms develop and profit from innovation.”
There are either roles that the government is expected to play. These include:
- ensuring a strong base of fundamental science
- providing a business environment that fosters innovation and investment.
- Investment in research that is critical to the economic and social needs of the
nation but cannot attract private sector support ensuring S and T security.
maintaining a certain level of self reliance to allow us to add value to new
knowledge and technologies transferred. The message is that we should recognize
that the market, left entirely to its own devices, is unlikely to guarantee an optimal
level of research. R and D is characterized by high rates of market failure and high
start-up costs.
What is clear is that the future belongs to the knowledge workers. Technology has given
them the tools to build a world in constant transformation. We can only stand in awe at
the changes brought about the following:
- transistor
- photocopier
- fax
- PC
These intellectual resources can be used to transform business and create new models for
global competition. It is about change. And its future depends on the ability to
accommodate dramatic, often unexpected change.
“The science and technology base of the laboratories provide what I call this
infrastructure for solving problems of great complexity. It is this infrastructure that I
propose to bring to bear on the question of the competitiveness of our industries and
business. This should be done in partnership with business and universities… business
can provide the market pull on the talents of the laboratories that will assure their work
is relevant”
HIGH TECH AND POVERTY
The conventional short term, but politically attractive gains of poverty alleviation
programs are indeed very tempting. They are valuable approaches, but they have their
limitations in that we are not liberated from the vicious cycle of squalor and want.
Human societies that have, by and large, found some solutions to liberate major portion
of their population from poverty have anchored their programs on productivity. And this
is where modern science and technology can make significant contribution. The solutions
will not be easy to discern and we have to go beyond our ivory towers. We have to get to
the jugular.
We have a few in our ranks who believe that high technology is not for poor. It is this
mindset that continues to undermine our efforts to get to the jugular; to replace the
paradigm of regarding the poor as the Cinderella of national development to the paradigm
that is more strategic, knowledge-based, scientific long-term.
But suffice it to say that we scientists must in fact be part of the solution and not the
problem.
Our national efforts towards poverty alleviation need, among others, trained people who
are familiar with the frontiers of subjects and thus can help assess the potentials of new
processes and technologies. Nations must retain capacity to identify and absorb emerging
technologies, which are the most solid instruments for human development.
ON COMPETITIVENESS
While it is clear to many that industry and services must be competitive, agriculture,
because of its role of food security, is perceived as something that need not or cannot be
competitive, like the armed forces or the national police. But agriculture deals with
tradable items and is directly linked to the vagaries of the global market. Furthermore,
agriculture, If closely examined is as information-intensive as a manufacturing operation.
It is high time we eliminate guesswork in standards of products, which, in fact, demand
precision. Unfortunately, government is saddled by a number of constraints, such as
outdated missions, effectiveness that is compromised by bureaucratic constraints, and the
inability to attract the best scientific talent, the most experienced management, or state-
of-the-art equipment.
One way to overcome constraints is for the agricultural community to take advantage of
the developments in biotechnology and information technology.
Another important function of this knowledge base in the effective management of the
tense is relationship between sustainability and productivity. The harmonious relationship
between maintaining adequate levels of productivity and preserving the integrity of our
environment can only be enhanced if we have an adequate understanding of the impact of
human activity on how nature operates. This includes studies on the regenerative capacity
of natural ecosystems and the earth’s capacity to absorb waste. And at no other time in
the history of science are more and more secrets of nature being unlocked than now. Thus
availability of the powerful tools of information technology should be exploited to serve
the purposes of defining sustainable productivity, especially at the farm level.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In closing, I would like to reiterate the call to act quickly and purposively for the Filipino
people, we acknowledge that time is the least that we have of, and for that reason, we
must continually redirect our resources to task and select programs and interventions that
bode the most direct impact on improving the lives of Filipinos afflicted poverty.
We must train Filipinos who are adaptable to a broad range of new technologies. In this
knowledge-driven competitive environment, Filipinos workers must possess the talent,
skill, and willingness to learn in order to be able to make innovation a vital partner in
poverty alleviation.
In the ultimate, it is the competence and skill of our workforce that will enable as to
manage knowledge. Scattered bodies of knowledge can be brought together so that
people who use them can work faster and better. This will also enable us to establish
structural intellectual assets, such as information system, knowledge of market channels
and customer relationships, and management focus; turn individual know how into a
property of the group. Unraveling lines of authority and laying out new ones will be the
main task of the new knowledge workers.
What is clear is that the future belongs to the knowledge workers. Technology has given
them the tool to build a world in constant transformation. It is therefore imperative to
train a workforce we greater reasoning and mathematical skills who can master the
complexities of new process technologies.
Above all else, the only way we can ever cope and flourish in the face of today’s
challenges is by adhering to the highest standards of excellence. We wish to promote the
ethic of excellence, a most democratic ideal in which only requirement is to bring out the
best in all of us. Effective leaders learn how to delegate as a matter of course. But they do
not delegate the one thing that only they can do with excellence, the one thing that will
make a difference, the one thing that will set standards, the one thing they want to be
remembered for. They just do it.
Having said these let ends with a oft-repeated statement that the shortcut to development
is never science and technology alone, but in development itself.