Wine tasting

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Monk Testing Wine by Antonio Casanova y Estorach

( )
(c.1886)

Wine tasting is the sensory examination

and evaluation of wine. While the practice
of wine tasting is as ancient as its
production, a more formalized
methodology has slowly become
established from the 14th century
onwards. Modern, professional wine
tasters (such as sommeliers or buyers for
retailers) use a constantly evolving
specialized terminology which is used to
describe the range of perceived flavors,
aromas and general characteristics of a
wine. More informal, recreational tasting
may use similar terminology, usually
involving a much less analytical process
for a more general, personal
appreciation.[1]

Results contradicting the reliability of wine

tasting in both experts and consumers
have surfaced through scientific blind wine
tasting, such as inconsistency in
identifying wines based on region and
price.[2]

History
The Sumerian stories of Gilgamesh in the
3rd millennium BCE differentiate the
popular beers of Mesopotamia, as well as
wines from Zagros Mountains or
Lebanon.[3] In the fourth century BCE,
Plato listed the main flavors of wine, and
classified the aromas as "species", or
families.

Aristotle proposed a sensory tasting

defined by the four elements (air, water,
fire, and earth) further deepened by the
Roman noblewoman Lucretia in the first
century BCE.

Although the practice of tasting is as old

as the history of wine, the term "tasting"
first appeared in 1519.[4] The methodology
of wine tasting was formalized by the 18th
century when Linnaeus, Poncelet, and
others brought an understanding of
tasting up to date.

In 2004, Richard Axel and Linda B. Buck,

won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for their
contribution to the knowledge of the
senses of taste and smell.[5]

Tasting stages

Ready tasting room of port wine in a wine cellar of a

producer
The results of the four recognized stages
to wine tasting:

appearance
"in glass" the aroma of the wine
"in mouth" sensations
"finish" (aftertaste)[6]

– are combined in order to establish the

following properties of a wine:

complexity and character

potential (suitability for aging or
drinking)
possible faults
A wine's overall quality assessment, based
on this examination, follows further careful
description and comparison with
recognized standards, both with respect to
other wines in its price range and
according to known factors pertaining to
the region or vintage; if it is typical of the
region or diverges in style; if it uses certain
wine-making techniques, such as barrel
fermentation or malolactic fermentation,
or any other remarkable or unusual
characteristics.[7]
Wine tasting at Castello di Amorosa, Napa Valley

Whereas wines are regularly tasted in

isolation, a wine's quality assessment is
more objective when performed alongside
several other wines, in what are known as
tasting "flights". Wines may be deliberately
selected for their vintage ("horizontal"
tasting) or proceed from a single winery
("vertical" tasting), to better compare
vineyard and vintages, respectively.
Alternatively, in order to promote an
unbiased analysis, bottles and even
glasses may be disguised in a "blind"
tasting, to rule out any prejudicial
awareness of either vintage or winery.

Blind tasting
To ensure impartial judgment of a wine, it
should be served blind – that is, without
the taster(s) having seen the label or bottle
shape. Blind tasting may also involve
serving the wine from a black wine glass
to mask the color of the wine. A taster's
judgment can be prejudiced by knowing
details of a wine, such as geographic
origin, price, reputation, color, or other
considerations.
Scientific research has long demonstrated
the power of suggestion in perception as
well as the strong effects of expectancies.
For example, people expect more
expensive wine to have more desirable
characteristics than less expensive wine.
When given wine that they are falsely told
is expensive they virtually always report it
as tasting better than the very same wine
when they are told that it is inexpensive.[8]
French researcher Frédéric Brochet
"submitted a mid-range Bordeaux in two
different bottles, one labeled as a cheap
table wine, the other bearing a grand cru
etiquette." Tasters described the supposed
grand cru as "woody, complex, and round"
and the supposed cheap wine as "short,
light, and faulty."

Similarly, people have expectations about

wines because of their geographic origin,
producer, vintage, color, and many other
factors. For example, when Brochet served
a white wine he received all the usual
descriptions: "fresh, dry, honeyed, lively."
Later he served the same wine dyed red
and received the usual red terms: "intense,
spicy, supple, deep."[9]

One of the most famous instances of blind

testing is known as the Judgment of Paris,
a wine competition held in 1976 where
French judges blind-tested wines from
France and California. Against all
expectations, California wines bested
French wines according to the judges, a
result which would have been unlikely in a
non-blind contest. This event was depicted
in the 2008 movie Bottle Shock.

Price bias

Another well-publicized double-blind taste

test was conducted in 2011 by Prof.
Richard Wiseman of the University of
Hertfordshire. In a wine tasting experiment
using 400 participants, Wiseman found
that general members of the public were
unable to distinguish expensive wines
from inexpensive ones.[10] "People just
could not tell the difference between
cheap and expensive wine".[11]

Color bias

In 2001, the University of Bordeaux asked

54 undergraduate students to test two
glasses of wine: one red, one white. The
participants described the red as "jammy"
and commented on its crushed red fruit.
The participants failed to recognize that
both wines were from the same bottle. The
only difference was that one had been
colored red with a flavorless dye.[12][13]
Geographic origin bias

For 6 years, Texas A&M University invited

people to taste wines labeled "France",
"California", "Texas", and while nearly all
ranked the French as best, in fact, all three
were the same Texan wine. The contest is
built on the simple theory that if people do
not know what they are drinking, they
award points differently than if they do
know what they are drinking.[14]

Vertical and horizontal

tasting
Vertical and horizontal wine tastings are
wine tasting events that are arranged to
highlight differences between similar
wines.

In a vertical tasting, different vintages of

the same wine type from the same
winery are tasted. This emphasizes
differences between various vintages.
In a horizontal tasting, the wines are all
from the same vintage but are from
different wineries. Keeping wine variety
or type and wine region the same helps
emphasize differences in winery styles.

Tasting flights
Tasting flight is a term used by wine
tasters to describe a selection of wines,
usually between three and eight glasses,
but sometimes as many as fifty, presented
for the purpose of sampling and
comparison.

Tasting notes
A tasting note refers to a taster's written
testimony about the aroma, taste
identification, acidity, structure, texture,
and balance of a wine. Online wine
communities like Bottlenotes allow
members to maintain their tasting notes
online and for the reference of others.
Serving temperature
The temperature that a wine is served at
can greatly affect the way it tastes and
smells. Lower temperatures will
emphasize acidity and tannins while
muting the aromatics. Higher
temperatures will minimize acidity and
tannins while increasing the aromatics.
 Temperature Temperature
Wine type Examples
(Celsius) (Fahrenheit)

Light-bodied sweet Trockenbeerenauslese,

6–10 °C 43–50 °F
dessert wines Sauternes

Champagne, other sparkling

White sparkling wines 6–10 °C 43–50 °F
wine

Aromatic, light-bodied
Riesling, Sauvignon blanc 8–12 °C 46–54 °F
white

Sparkling Shiraz, some frizzante

Red sparkling wines 10–12 °C 50–54 °F
Lambrusco

Medium-bodied whites Chablis, Semillon 10–12 °C 50–54 °F

Full-bodied dessert
Oloroso Sherry, Madeira 8–12 °C 46–54 °F
wines

Light-bodied red wines Beaujolais, Provence rosé 10–12 °C 50–54 °F

Oaked Chardonnay, Rhone

Full-bodied white wines 12–16 °C 54–61 °F
whites

Medium-bodied red Grand Cru Burgundy,

14–17 °C 57–63 °F
wines Sangiovese

Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo

Full-bodied red wines 15–18 °C 59–64 °F
based wines

WSET recommendations

The Wine & Spirit Education Trust uses the

following recommendations for serving
temperatures:[15]
Sweet wines e.g. Sweet Muscats, Late-
harvest wines (well chilled) 6 °C (43 °F)
to 8 °C (46 °F)
Sparkling wines e.g. Prosecco,
Champagne (well chilled) 6 °C (43 °F) to
10 °C (50 °F)
Light/medium-bodied whites e.g. Fino
Sherry, Muscadet (chilled) 7 °C (45 °F) to
10 °C (50 °F)
Medium/full-bodied oaked whites e.g.
White Burgundy (lightly chilled) 10 °C
(50 °F) to 13 °C (55 °F)
Light-bodied reds e.g. Beaujolais,
Valpolicella, Bardolino (lightly chilled)
13 °C (55 °F)
 Medium/full-bodied reds e.g. Vintage
Port, Rioja, Bordeaux, Burgundy (room
temperature) 15 °C (59 °F) to 18 °C
(64 °F)

Glassware
The shape of a wineglass can have a
subtle impact on the perception of wine,
especially its bouquet.[16][17][18] Typically,
the ideal shape is considered to be wider
toward the bottom, with a narrower
aperture at the top (tulip or egg shaped).
Glasses which are widest at the top are
considered the least ideal. Many wine
tastings use ISO XL5 glasses, which are
"egg"-shaped. The effect of glass shape
does not appear to be related to whether
the glass is pleasing to look at.[18]

Wine color
Without having tasted the wines, one does
not know if, for example, a white is heavy
or light. Before taking a sip, the taster tries
to determine the order in which the wines
should be assessed by appearance and
nose alone. Heavy wines will be deeper in
color and generally more intense on the
nose. Sweeter wines, being denser, will
leave thick, viscous streaks (called legs or
tears) down the inside of the glass when
swirled.
Process

Judging color is the first step in tasting wine.

There are five basic steps in tasting wine:

color, swirl, smell, taste, and savor.[19]
These are also known as the "five S" steps:
see, swirl, sniff, sip, savor. During this
process, a taster must look for clarity,
varietal character, integration,
expressiveness, complexity, and
connectedness.[20]
A wine's color is better judged by putting it
against a white background. The wine
glass is put at an angle in order to see the
colors. Colors can give the taster clues to
the grape variety, and whether the wine
was aged in wood.

Characteristics assessed
during tasting

Varietal character describes how much a

wine presents its inherent grape
aromas.[20] A wine taster also looks for
integration, which is a state in which none
of the components of the wine (acid,
tannin, alcohol, etc.) is out of balance with
the other components. When a wine is well
balanced, the wine is said to have
achieved a harmonious fusion.[20]

Another important quality of the wine to

look for is its expressiveness.
Expressiveness is the quality the "wine
possesses when its aromas and flavors
are well-defined and clearly projected."[21]
The complexity of the wine is affected by
many factors, one of which may be the
multiplicity of its flavors. The
connectedness of the wine, a rather
abstract and difficult to ascertain quality,
describes the bond between the wine and
its land of origin (terroir).[20]
Connoisseur wine tasting

A wine's quality can be judged by its

bouquet and taste. The bouquet is the
total aromatic experience of the wine.
Assessing a wine's bouquet can also
reveal faults such as cork taint; oxidation
due to age, overexposure to oxygen, or
lack of preservatives; and wild yeast or
bacterial contamination, such as those
due to Acetobacter or Brettanomyces
yeasts. Although low levels of
Brettanomyces aromatic characteristics
can be a positive attribute, giving the wine
a distinctive character, generally it is
considered a wine spoilage yeast.
The bouquet of wine is best revealed by
gently swirling the wine in a wine glass to
expose it to more oxygen and release
more aromatic[22] etheric, ester, and
aldehyde molecules that comprise the
essential components of a wine's
bouquet.[19] Sparkling wine should not be
swirled to the point of releasing
bubbles.[23]

Pausing to experience a wine's bouquet

aids the wine taster in anticipating the
wine's flavors. The "nose" of a wine – its
bouquet or aroma – is the major
determinate of perceived flavor in the
mouth. Once inside the mouth, the
aromatics are further liberated by
exposure to body heat, and transferred
retronasally to the olfactory receptor site.
It is here that the complex taste
experience characteristic of a wine
actually commences.

Thoroughly tasting a wine involves

perception of its array of taste and
mouthfeel attributes, which involve the
combination of textures, flavors, weight,
and overall "structure". Following
appreciation of its olfactory
characteristics, the wine taster savors a
wine by holding it in the mouth for a few
seconds to saturate the taste buds. By
pursing ones lips and breathing through
that small opening oxygen will pass over
the wine and release even more esters.
When the wine is allowed to pass slowly
through the mouth it presents the
connoisseur with the fullest gustatory
profile available to the human palate.

The acts of pausing and focusing through

each step distinguishes wine tasting from
simple quaffing. Through this process, the
full array of aromatic molecules is
captured and interpreted by approximately
15 million olfactory receptors,[22]
comprising a few hundred olfactory
receptor classes. When tasting several
wines in succession, however, key aspects
of this fuller experience (length and finish,
or aftertaste) must necessarily be
sacrificed through expectoration.

Although taste qualities are known to be

widely distributed throughout the oral
cavity, the concept of an anatomical
"tongue map" yet persists in the wine
tasting arena, in which different tastes are
believed to map to different areas of the
tongue. A widely accepted example is the
misperception that the tip of the tongue
uniquely tells how sweet a wine is and the
upper edges tell its acidity.[22]
Scoring wine
As part of the tasting process, and as a
way of comparing the merits of the various
wines, wines are given scores according to
a relatively set system. This may be either
by explicitly weighting different aspects, or
by global judgment (although the same
aspects would be considered). These
aspects are 1) the appearance of the wine,
2) the nose or smell, 3) the palate or taste,
and 4) overall.[24] Different systems weight
these differently (e.g., appearance 15%,
nose 35%, palate 50%). Typically, no
modern wine would score less than half on
any scale (which would effectively indicate
an obvious fault). It is more common for
wines to be scored out of 20 (including
half marks) in Europe and parts of
Australasia, and out of 100 in the US.
However, different critics tend to have their
own preferred system, and some gradings
are also given out of 5 (again with half
marks).[25]

Visiting wineries
Traveling to wine regions is one way of
increasing skill in tasting. Many wine
producers in wine regions all over the
world offer tastings of their wine.
Depending on the country or region,
tasting at the winery may incur a small
charge to allow the producer to cover
costs.

It is not considered rude to spit out wine at

a winery, even in the presence of the wine
maker or owner. Generally, a spittoon will
be provided. In some regions of the world,
tasters simply spit on the floor or onto
gravel surrounding barrels. It is polite to
inquire about where to spit before
beginning tasting.

Attending wine schools

A growing number of wine schools can be
found, offering wine tasting classes to the
public. These programs often help a wine
taster hone and develop their abilities in a
controlled setting. Some also offer
professional training for sommeliers and
winemakers. It is even possible to learn
how to assess wine methodically via e-
learning.[26]

Expectoration

Spitting into a spittoon at a wine tasting.

Because intoxication can affect the
consumer's judgment, wine tasters
generally spit the wine out after they have
assessed its quality at formal tastings,
where dozens of wines may be assessed.
However, since wine is absorbed through
the skin inside the mouth, tasting from
twenty to twenty-five samplings can still
produce an intoxicating effect, depending
on the alcoholic content of the wine.[27]

Sensory analysis
Tasting plays an important role in the
sensory analysis (also referred to as
organoleptic analysis) of wine. Employing
a trained or consumer panel, oenologists
may perform a variety of tests on the
taste, aroma, mouthfeel and appeal of
wines. Difference tests are important in
determining whether different
fermentation conditions or new vineyard
treatments alter the character of a wine,
something particularly important to
producers who aim for consistency.
Preference testing establishes consumer
preference, while descriptive analysis
determines the most prominent traits of
the wine, some of which grace back labels.
Blind tasting and other laboratory controls
help mitigate bias and assure statistically
significant results. Many large wine
companies now boast their own sensory
team, optimally consisting of a Ph.D.
sensory scientist, a flavor chemist and a
trained panel.

Grape varieties
Wine grape varieties are variously
evaluated according to a wide range of
descriptors which draw comparisons with
other, non-grape flavors and aromas.[28][29]
The following table provides a brief and by
no means exhaustive summary of typical
descriptors for the better-known varietals.
Red grape variety Common sensory descriptors

Cabernet Franc tobacco, green bell pepper, raspberry, freshly mown grass

Cabernet Sauvignon blackcurrants, eucalyptus, chocolate, tobacco

Gamay pomegranate, strawberry

Grenache smoky, pepper, raspberry

Malbec violet, plums, tart red fruit, earthy minerality

Merlot black cherry, plums, tomato

Mourvèdre thyme, clove, cinnamon, black pepper, violet, blackberry

leather, tar, stewed prunes, chocolate, liquorice, roses,

Nebbiolo
prunes

Norton red fruit, elderberries

Petite Sirah (Durif) earthy, black pepper, dark fruits

Petit Verdot violets (later), pencil shavings

Pinot noir raspberry, cherry, violets, "farmyard" (with age), truffles

Pinotage bramble fruits, earthy, smoky

Sangiovese herbs, black cherry, leathery, earthy

Syrah (Shiraz) tobacco, black/white pepper, blackberry, smoke

Tempranillo vanilla, strawberry, tobacco

Teroldego spices, chocolate, red fruits

Zinfandel black cherry, pepper, mixed spices, mint, anise

White grape variety Common sensory descriptors

Albariño lemon, minerals, apricot, peach

Breidecker apple, pear

butter, melon, apple, pineapple, vanilla (if oaked, e.g. vinified or

Chardonnay
aged in new oak aging barrels)

Chenin blanc wet wool, beeswax, honey, apple, almond

Gewürztraminer rose petals, lychee, spice

Grüner Veltliner green apple, citrus

Marsanne almond, honeysuckle, marzipan

Melon de Bourgogne lime, salt, green apple

Muscato honey, grapes, lime

Palomino honeydew, citrus, raw nuts

Pinot gris (Pinot grigio) white peach, pear, apricot

Prosecco apple, honey, musk, citrus

Riesling citrus fruits, peach, honey, petrol

gooseberry, lime, asparagus, cut grass, bell pepper (capsicum),

Sauvignon blanc
grapefruit, passionfruit, cat pee (tasters' term for guava)[30]

Sémillon honey, orange, lime

Trebbiano (Ugni blanc) lime, herbs

Verdicchio apple, minerals, citrus, lemon, almond

Vermentino pear, cream, green fruits

Viognier peach, pear, nutmeg, apricot

See also
 Aroma wheel
Tea tasting
Typicity
Wine accessory
Wine and food matching

References
1. Peynaud, Émile (1996) The Taste of Wine:
The Art and Science of Wine Appreciation,
London: Macdonald Orbis, p1
2. Hodgson, Robert T., "How Expert are
"Expert" Wine Judges?" , Journal of Wine
Economics, Vol. 4; Issue 02 (Winter 2009),
pp. 233–241.
3. Émile Peynaud, The taste of wine , p.1
Dunod, 2013 Google books link
4. "Tasting: Definition and etymology" .
cnrtl.fr. Retrieved 2016-12-12.
5. Cell. 65 (1): 175–87. 1991 Apr 5.
PMID 1840504 . Check date values in:
|date= (help); Missing or empty |title=
(help)
6. Ronald S. Jackson, Wine Tasting: A
Professional Handbook, pp 2–3
7. Peynaud, Émile (1996) The Taste of Wine:
The Art and Science of Wine Appreciation,
London: Macdonald Orbis, p2
8. Chemical Object Representation in the
Field of Consciousness – Frédéric Brochet
9. Wine Snob Scandal – Brochet's work on
dyed wine
10. Georgiou, Maroulla (Apr 15, 2011).
"Expensive and inexpensive wines taste the
same, research shows" . Phys.Org.
11. Sample, Ian (April 14, 2011). "Expensive
wine and cheap plonk taste the same to
most people" . The Guardian.
12. Wine-tasting: it's junk science; The
Guardian; June 22, 2013.
13. The Colour of Odors; Morrot, Brochet
and Dubourdeiu; 28 August 2001
14. Liquid Assets - A fair competition; The
Austin Chronicle; April 8, 2005.
15. Wine & Spirits Education Trust "Wine
and Spirits: Understanding Wine Quality" pg
66, Second Revised Edition (2012), London,
ISBN 9781905819157
16. Huttenbrink, K., Schmidt, C., Delwiche,
J., & Hummel, T. (2001). The aroma of red
wine is modified by the form of the wine
glass. Laryno-Rhino-Otologie, 80(2), 96–
100.
17. Delwiche, J., & Pelchat, M. (2002).
Influence of glass shape on wine aroma.
Journal of Sensory Studies, 17(1), 19–28.
18. Hummel, T., Delwiche, J., Schmidt, C., &
Huttenbrink, K. (2003). Effects of the form
of glasses on the perception of wine
flavors: a study in untrained subjects.
Appetite, 41(2), 197–202.
19. Zraly, Kevin. Windows on the World:
Complete Wine Course; Sterling Publishing,
2005.
20. MacNeil, Karen. The Wine Bible;
Workman Publishing, New York (2001).
21. MacNeil, Karen. The Wine Bible;
Workman Publishing, New York, p.5 (2001).
22. Gluckstern, Willie (1998). The Wine
Avenger. Simon & Schuster, Inc.
23. "Eviter les erreurs Encyclopédie des
Vignes au plaisir" (in French). Maisons-
champagne.com.
24. Professional Friends of Wine
25. Wine-Searcher
26. Wine Campus offers an Honours Brevet
via e-learning
27. Walton, Stuart (2005). Cook's
Encyclopedia of Wine. Anness Publishing
Limited 2002, 2005. pp. 10, 11. ISBN 0-
7607-4220-0.
28. Varietal Profiles | Professional Friends
of Wine
29. Grape Varieties Explained
30. "Sauvignon Blanc | Wine grapes" .
JancisRobinson.com. Retrieved 7 January
2016.

Further reading
Jefford, Andrew (2008). Andrew
Jefford's Wine Course. London: Ryland
Peters & Small. ISBN 978-1-84597-723-
8.
Schuster, Michael (2009). Essential
Winetasting: The Complete Practical
Winetasting Course. London: Mitchell
Beazley. ISBN 978-1-84533-498-7.
Broadbent, Michael (2003). Michael
Broadbent's Wine Tasting. London:
Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 1-84000-854-7.
Emile Peynaud; Jacques Blouin (14
October 1996). The Taste of Wine: The
Art Science of Wine Appreciation . John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-11376-8.
Robinson, Jancis (1999). Tasting
Pleasure. New York: Penguin Books.
ISBN 0-14-027001-9.
Simon, Pat (2000). Wine-tasters' Logic.
London: Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 978-0-
571-20287-4.
Supp, Eckhard (2005). Der Brockhaus -
Wein. Mannheim: F.A. Brockhaus.
ISBN 3-7653-0281-3.
Taber, George M. (2005). Judgment of
Paris: California vs. France and the
Historic 1976 Paris Tasting that
Revolutionized Wine. New York: Scribner
Book Company. ISBN 0-7432-4751-5.
 Walton, Stuart (2005). Cook's
Encyclopedia of Wine. China: Anness
Publishing Limited 2002, 2005. ISBN 0-
7607-4220-0.
Jackson, Ronald S. (2002). Wine Tasting:
A Professional Handbook. United States:
Academic Press; 1st edition 2002.
ISBN 0-12-379076-X.
Hurley, Jon (2005). A Matter of Taste: a
History of Wine Drinking in Britain. United
Kingdom: Tempus; 1st edition 2005.
ISBN 0-7524-3402-0.

External links
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