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 Environment and Behavior
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Personal Challenges, Communication Processes, and Team

Effectiveness in Military Special Patrol Teams Operating in a Polar
Environment
Anders Kjærgaard, Gloria R. Leon and Birgit A. Fink
Environment and Behavior published online 10 December 2013
DOI: 10.1177/0013916513512834

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EABXXX10.1177/0013916513512834Environment and BehaviorKjærgaard et al.

Article
Environment and Behavior
201X, Vol XX(X) 1­–23
Personal Challenges, © 2013 SAGE Publications
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DOI: 10.1177/0013916513512834
Processes, and Team eab.sagepub.com

Effectiveness in Military
Special Patrol Teams
Operating in a Polar
Environment

Anders Kjærgaard1, Gloria R. Leon2,

and Birgit A. Fink2

Abstract
The aim of this study was to obtain a better understanding of the personal
experiences and interpersonal factors that influence the performance of
small military teams deployed in an extreme and isolated environment for
an extended period of time. Twelve members of the Danish Sirius Patrol
operating in Greenland in 6 two-person teams were evaluated over the
course of a 7-week Fall and a 23-week Spring dogsledge journey by means of
a bi-weekly rating form and debriefing interviews. Ratings of positive affect
were significantly higher than negative affect over the course of the journeys
(p = .03); adaptive cognitive and behavioral coping strategies and generally
compatible interpersonal relationships were recorded. The importance of
appropriate communication for team effectiveness was emphasized, including
expectations about their work together and personal goals. The findings
also demonstrated the negative influence of unexpected interpersonal

1Aalborg University, Denmark

2University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA

Corresponding Author:
Gloria R. Leon, Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Elliott Hall, 75 E. River
Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
Email: leonx003@umn.edu

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2 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

events in the home environment on team member relationships and work

performance. Applications for long-duration space exploration are discussed.

Keywords
Sirius Patrol, expeditions, polar environment, space analog, communication
processes

Activities in polar environments have a particular set of challenges: the

extreme cold, wind and blizzard conditions, traversing over rough ice and
avoiding crevasses, low humidity, total darkness during the winter period,
and in the Arctic, polar bears and in some instances, managing sled dogs.
Military patrol and civilian expedition teams also have to deal with prolonged
isolation and the difficulties or impossibility of evacuation in case of injury
during the period of darkness. Moreover, optimal performance of personnel
in isolated and confined extreme environments (ICE) requires the coordina-
tion of team members and their compatibility in working together (Kahn &
Leon, 1994; Sandal, Leon, & Palinkas, 2006).
Similarities or possible differences in stressors experienced and coping
strategies used by military compared with civilian teams in dealing with both
the interpersonal and environmental challenges of an expedition are of inter-
est. Military teams have a specific command structure that is different from
the more collaborative decision processes engaged in by many expedition
groups. In addition, the major goals of military teams are based on a work
assignment rather than adventure/achievement related.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) distinguished between active problem-
focused coping in which the challenging situation is dealt with directly, and
emotion-focused coping based on an appraisal that nothing can be done to
change the situation. Examples of emotion-focused coping, palliative mea-
sures aimed at decreasing the negative emotional arousal, include engaging
in distracting activities, substance use, and seeking emotional support.
There is an emerging interest in the role of positive emotions in the coping
process, emphasizing the importance of meaning-focused coping strategies
and problem-focused behaviors, resulting in an increase in positive emotions
as well as a decrease in negative emotions (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004).
Meaning-focused coping is a cognitive mechanism such as positive reap-
praisal in which individuals draw on their values, beliefs, and goals to rein-
terpret the event to find a positive meaning in the adverse situation that they
are confronted with. Furthermore, the adaptive function of coping flexibility,
that is, the ability to modify coping strategies according to situational

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Kjærgaard et al. 3

demands, has been highlighted in terms of whether the stressful situation is

controllable or uncontrollable.
Across a number of expedition studies that varied in group composition, a
consistent finding has been the flexibility of expedition members in using a
range of coping strategies that are appropriate for the particular challenge
encountered (e.g., Leon, Atlis, Ones, & Magor, 2002; Leon, McNally, & Ben-
Porath, 1989; Leon, Sandal, Fink, & Ciofani, 2011). Furthermore, the emo-
tional support obtained through the relationship between the expeditioner and
dogs pulling the sledges has been commented on (Leon et al., 1989; Ursin,
Etienne, & Collet, 1990).
There is a significant degree of interdependence among teammates per-
forming over an extended period in an extreme environment. The manner in
which two-person teams communicate with each other, reach decisions dur-
ing the trek, and possible changes in these factors across the two deployments
also was a topic of interest. The impact of the type and extent of information
communicated to one’s teammate becomes highly salient when there are only
two people together for an extended period in an ICE environment.
Two-person expedition teams have varied in regard to whether a leader
was specified (Leon & Scheib, 2007; Stroud, 1993) or whether the dyad func-
tioned as equal partners with joint decision authority (Atlis, Leon, Sandal, &
Infante, 2004; Leon, Sandal, Fink, et al., 2011; Leon & Venables, in press).
Clearly, with co-equal partnership, the compatibility of the teammates has a
strong influence on whether this arrangement is optimal in meeting the objec-
tives of the expedition (Atlis et al., 2004).
Examination of the diaries and other materials of participants in early
polar expeditions indicated two types of leadership function: task leadership
at the beginning and supportive leadership at later stages of the expedition
(Stuster, 1996). However, depending on the overall interactions between the
leader and subordinates, decisions made by the leader may be accepted in a
positive manner (Kahn & Leon, 1994) or hotly disputed (Leon & Scheib,
2007). Even within the usual military command structure of a leader and fol-
lower, as with the current teams studied, when two people work together in
isolation from others over a long duration, status leveling is likely to evolve
and decisions made in a more interactive manner (Stuster, 1996).
In addition to the influence of interpersonal relationships with one’s team-
mates, the ICE environment presents its own influence and challenges.
Avoiding frostbite or hypothermia is a significant concern when operating in
environments with temperatures as low as −50°C or more combined with
high winds. The fingers are particularly sensitive to changes in temperature
(Brajkovic, Ducharme, & Frim, 2001; Koscheyev, Leon, & Coca, 2005);
motor performance declines, particularly finger dexterity and performance of

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4 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

fine motor tasks (Cheung, Montie, White, & Behm, 2003; Flouris et al.,
2006). On dogsledge expeditions, the effectiveness of taking care of the dogs
and setting up camp each night would likely be significantly affected by the
extreme cold.
Research on expedition teams as an analog for space travel or small team
exploration of a planetary surface has been proposed for some time (Lugg &
Shepanek, 1999; Stuster, 2005; Suedfeld, 2010; Ursin et al., 1990). There
currently is greater attention to issues related to the increasing autonomy of
Mars mission space crews as they travel further from Earth and the concomi-
tant decreasing influence of mission control. The need for space voyagers to
rely on each other for social interactions rather than communication with
family and friends on Earth are some of the challenges of the situation. The
use of different types of analogs to study the performance of simulated space
teams operating under autonomous conditions can be informative in planning
for space exploration missions (Kanas et al., 2010). Expedition teams can
serve as an analog for planetary exploration in the sense that a dyad or a small
group departs from a surface habitat to work together for an extended period
in an isolated, challenging, and potentially dangerous environment during
which the safety of each member is dependent on the other(s).
The present study assessed the performance of the special unit Danish
military Sirius Patrol, consisting of 6 two-man teams operating in Greenland
for extended periods by means of skis and dogsledges, primarily sleeping in
tents, and tasked with patrolling the Northeast perimeter of Greenland. The
teams travel in isolation for periods of up to 4 months in extreme cold and
winter darkness, and are trained to be self-sufficient in all of their activities
while on patrol. The period of time on the ice and the strategic monitoring
objectives of this military group are different from the usual civilian expedi-
tions, such as those that traverse from the Canadian North to the North Pole
in approximately 60 days. We viewed the self-sufficiency of the Sirius Patrol
teams while performing for an extended period in an extreme and isolated
environment as an analog for some of the circumstances and demands that
planetary expedition dyads might experience. Our goal was to extrapolate
from the findings recommendations for future space exploration.
A previous article reported on the personality, personal values, and per-
sonal growth characteristics of the team over the course of the patrol journeys
(Kjærgaard, Leon, Venables, & Fink, 2013). The team members demon-
strated positive personality traits, were low on neuroticism and high on bold-
ness, and reported personal growth as a result of their patrol activities. The
current article focuses on the experiences and challenges of the patrol teams
over the extended Fall and Spring journeys.

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Kjærgaard et al. 5

Based on the theoretical and empirically derived differences in types of

coping described in a previous section, we hypothesized that the Year 1 patrol
members would engage in a greater number of emotion-focused coping strat-
egies because they had lesser control of the situation than their Year 2 leader.
In addition, we hypothesized that the Year 1 group, based on their relative
inexperience and follower role, would report a greater proportion of negative
rather than positive events and less positive and more negative affect over the
period of the journeys in comparison with the Year 2 group. We were also
interested in assessing changes across the two deployments in communica-
tion and decision-making processes, and factors that enhanced the effective-
ness of the team’s work performance and interpersonal functioning. We also
assessed the perception of the effects of the extreme cold environment on
work performance.

Method
Participants
The Danish military special unit Sirius Patrol consists of 12 members in 6
two-man teams, all of whom applied for membership in the Patrol. In the cur-
rent study, there were five Year 1 (“New Guys”) and seven Year 2 (“Old
Guys”) patrol members. Six “Old Guys” were in the second year of their
assignment; one member had served at a previous time. The latter participant
was added to the team because only five Year 1 applicants made the selection
cutoff. All team members were at the rank of sergeant. The age of the partici-
pants ranged from 24 to 31 (Mdn = 28.5). The educational background of
participants was as follows: one had completed 10th grade, nine had com-
pleted high school or gymnasium (the latter the U.S. equivalent of 2 years of
college), and one had a university degree. Three Year 2 participants had pre-
vious combat experience as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) force in either Iraq or Afghanistan; one Year 1 and one Year 2 par-
ticipant had served previously in Kosovo. Participants read and signed con-
sent forms; one Year 2 patrol member declined participation.

Sirius Patrol Description

The special unit Sirius Patrol, established during World War II, has been in
existence for over 60 years. At the present time, their primary mission is to
maintain Danish sovereignty in Greenland by patrolling the uninhabited
national park consisting of approximately 18,000 km of coastline. The Patrol
headquarters is located at Daneborg Station on the northeast coast of

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6 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

Weekly Rating Weekly Rating Debriefing

Form Form Interview
Depot Station Station Station
Outlay Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance

July September November December January June

1 Nov. – 22 Dec. 20 Jan. – 5 June

Fall journey Spring journey

Figure 1.  Timeline of activities over the course of the 1-year Sirius Patrol duty
period.

Greenland at 74° latitude. On the Fall patrol, each team covers between 700
and 1,500 km, and on the Spring patrol, approximately 1,800 to 3,500 km.
The 6 two-man teams are usually composed of one first- and one second-year
group member; the Year 2 member is the designated leader of the team. In
summer, when the full group is at the Station, ship or plane/helicopters are
used to lay out supply depots along the routes. In early November, the teams
depart by dogsledges for 7 weeks on their specific assignments, returning to
the Station usually on December 22. The teams depart again in mid-January
until the beginning of June on the 23-week Spring journey. However, one
team remains at the Station for half of the patrol period; a second team
relieves the first team for the remainder of time. The teams call in their posi-
tions to the Daneborg Station team each evening; they also are able to call via
satellite phone to Denmark in case of emergency or for personal reasons.
However, the calls to Denmark are extremely expensive and personal calls
must be paid for by the patroller. Figure 1 presents the timeline of events over
the 1-year duty period.
The patrollers carry a tent, food, fuel, and all necessary supplies on sledges
weighing up to 450 kg, pulled by teams of approximately 13 dogs. A 5-day
stay in Iceland at the end of the first year for dental checkups is the only break
in the 26-month tour of duty in Greenland.
The extremely rigorous physical and psychological selection procedures
for the Sirius Patrol proceed in a step-wise fashion by means of tests, inter-
views, and behavioral observations, selecting down from 85 (in 2011) or
more applicants. The psychological evaluation component includes bio-
graphical information, tests of intelligence, technical and motor skills, psy-
chological adjustment, and English language facility. The final selection is
made after an 8-month preparation course for serving in Greenland, including
a 1-month period of winter training in Greenland. Normally five to six men

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Kjærgaard et al. 7

pass selection to complete the total group of 12. If only four or five applicants
are approved, as happens in some years including the present period, then a
former Sirius patrol member is contacted and asked to fill in the slot in the
role of an additional “old guy” team member.

Current Patrol Details

The temperature ranged from −12°C to −30°C during the Fall journey and
−3°C to −46°C during the Spring journey. Darkness, cold, and snow condi-
tions were particular challenges during the Fall journey. With the heavy snow,
the darkness, and the inexperience of the Year 1 partner, falls occurred quite
frequently. However, because of the heavy sledges, blizzards, terrain, and
other environmental conditions, both partners in each team suffered falls
from time to time. A fall incurred by one Year 2 participant resulted in an
extremely painful injury, but it did not necessitate evacuation from the ice nor
were falls by others serious enough to consider evacuation.
Heavy snow conditions were also a problem during the Spring journey,
particularly during March; at a later time, slush ice under the snow was a
challenge. The sun was visible for the first time on February 10. The schedule
changed at the beginning of May to night patrol and sleep during the day
because of the warming temperatures that made travel over areas of soft ice
and snow more difficult. Participants reported sleeping for longer periods of
time during the dark Fall journeys; appetite and food consumption decreased
with the relatively warmer weather and light conditions in the Spring.
Only five of the teams were on the ice during the journeys. One team
always manned the Station while the other teams were out on patrol. The
rotation schedule was as follows: Team 3 remained at Station for the first half
of the Fall and Spring journeys, 4 and 12 weeks, respectively. Team 4 returned
to Station for the second half of the Fall and Spring journey periods, 3 and 12
weeks, respectively. The other four teams spent the full Fall and Spring peri-
ods on the ice.

Measures
Weekly Rating Form. This 82-item rating form has been used in previous
expedition studies (e.g., Kahn & Leon, 1994; Leon et al., 2002; Leon, Kanfer,
Hoffman, & Dupre, 1991; Leon, Sandal, Fink, et al., 2011), modified as
needed for the specific circumstances of the patrols and the questions
addressed in this investigation, and translated into Danish using a back-
translation procedure. The individual sections are as follows: Feelings and
Emotions (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule [PANAS]; Watson, Clark,

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8 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

& Tellegen, 1988); Environmental and Physical Factors; Positive and Nega-
tive Event Checklist; Coping Checklist composed of coping strategies
reported over a 7-day period by a group of Army recruits undergoing basic
training (Ben-Porath, Leon, Rinehart, Gupton, & Sineps, 1991); Alertness,
Strategy/Decision Processes; and Other Important Events. Participants were
instructed to do the ratings focused on the situation on that particular day.

Debriefing interview.  This 61-item, semistructured interview was developed to

assess in greater detail the research questions posed in this investigation.
There was a particular emphasis on team interactions and decision processes,
possible changes in these factors over the course of the patrol periods, and
views on the factors that influence team effectiveness. The majority of ques-
tions focused on the just-completed Spring patrol.

Procedure
Each team member was pre-assigned a code number, and carried hard copies
of the Weekly Rating Form in their packs. The team members independently
completed the Weekly Rating Form in the evening on four designated dates
during the Fall patrol, and on a bi-weekly basis during the Spring patrol.
However, because one team always remained on duty at the station, full data
over the entire number of weeks of the Fall and Spring patrols are not avail-
able for all team members.
The debriefing interviews were conducted at Daneborg Station by two of
the investigators (G.R.L., B.A.F.) 3 weeks after the patrol teams returned
from the Spring journey. Each of the interviews lasted approximately 90 min.
Ten of the 11 patrollers participating in the study were available for the inter-
views. Participants were instructed to refrain from discussing their interview
with others until all of the interviews were completed. They were also reas-
sured that their specific answers will not be shared with other team members
or with anyone else associated with the Greenland Command.

Analyses
SPSS 19.0 was used for analyses of the Weekly Rating Form data. The total
number of ratings a participant completed on the ice at each designated inter-
val varied from team to team because the Station was always manned by one
of the teams on a rotating basis. The teams that rotated to the Station did not
complete the Weekly Rating Form during the Station period. In addition, data
were not available for three participants during the Fall journey period. A
single score for each participant on each of the variables assessed was

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Kjærgaard et al. 9

calculated, a raw score based on the actual amount of data available for that
participant on a specific variable. Thus, for each participant, the PANAS
mood data were evaluated by summing and then averaging the positive affect
(PA) and the negative affect (NA) scores over the number of intervals that
contained a rating to obtain a single mean score for each participant. The
mean PA and NA scores for each participant were then averaged over the full
group of participants. We did not use a mean substitution procedure to handle
missing data, considering criticisms of this procedure (Graham, 2009).
The Events and Coping ratings for each participant were analyzed by the
percentage of time a particular rating was made in relation to the number of
weekly intervals in which the participant did a rating. The calculations were
carried out separately for the Fall and Spring journey periods. Next, for each
participant, the Fall and Spring percentages on each item were averaged over
the Fall and Spring periods; only the Spring ratings were included for the
three participants who did not complete the Fall ratings. Finally, for each
item, the group mean percentage of the times an item was ranked was
calculated.

Results
Weekly Rating Form
The PANAS mood data were analyzed by t tests with correction for unequal
variances. PANAS ratings range from 1 (not at all, very little) to 5 (extremely).
PA and NA scores for the full group of participants were compared over the
course of the two patrol journeys. The findings demonstrated that PA was
significantly higher than NA—PA: M (SD) = 2.89 (.52); NA: M (SD) = 1.30
(.24); t(10) = 10.24; p = .03. Comparing Fall to Spring journey ratings, there
were no significant differences in PA and NA, respectively, between the two
patrol periods. The PANAS data were then analyzed according to group. The
Year 1 group was significantly higher in PA over the course of the patrol
periods—Year 1: M (SD) = 3.25 (.45); Year 2: M (SD) = 2.52 (.31); t(6.9) =
3.02; p = .02. There were no significant differences in NA score by group—
Year 1: M (SD) = 1.28 (.26); Year 2: M (SD) = 1.33 (.25).
To compare groups on the percentage of Event ratings endorsed, t tests
were conducted. Applying a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons,
the only significant difference found could have occurred by chance. Overall,
a high proportion of positive events was endorsed: “Enjoyment of the Arctic
environment,” “Satisfaction that I am able to cope with the challenges,”
“Feeling of camaraderie/closeness with teammate,” “Enjoyment being with
the dogs,” “Satisfaction in making good progress today,” and “Satisfaction

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10 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

Table 1.  Mean Percentage of Significant Events Endorsed Over the Course of the
Fall and Spring Journeys According to Group.
Group

  (%)a

Item Year 1 (n = 5) Year 2 (n = 6) t p

Problems with gear and equipment 41.39 (30.63) 41.18 (27.80) 0.12 ns
Feeling of camaraderie/closeness with the 88.40 (13.14) 81.85 (15.48) 0.75 ns
teammate
Concern about the well-being of my teammate 36.46 (18.53) 40.82 (40.61) −0.22 ns
Enjoyment of the Arctic environment 93.00 (13.04) 77.27 (26.14) 1.22 ns
Concern about how effective my teammate 26.86 (26.24) 19.67 (31.80) 0.40 ns
and I are working together
Feeling down/low or stressed because my 7.80 (7.36) 6.69 (10.85) 0.19 ns
teammate is feeling that way
Tension or argument with my teammate 10.40 (16.83) 17.60 (22.67) −0.59 ns
Satisfaction in making good progress today 89.40 (12.52) 60.95 (13.43) 3.61 .006
Satisfaction that equipment is working properly 60.40 (28.14) 66.95 (19.31) −0.46 ns
Satisfaction that I am able to cope with the 91.20 (12.03) 77.96 (19.05) 1.34 ns
challenges
Concerns about the effectiveness or safety of 6.33 (9.60) 12.71 (16.29) −0.77 ns
decision I made today
Fear of being injured 3.00 (4.47) 6.42 (9.75) −0.72 ns
Enjoyment being with the dogs 87.54 (17.13) 73.32 (15.33) 1.45 ns
Problems with one or more of the dogs 57.26 (27.50) 41.19 (16.67) 1.20 ns
Worried about family, friends 25.33 (26.91) 18.36 (31.36) 0.39 ns
Loneliness, homesickness 19.13 (21.42) 23.64 (26.26) −0.31 ns
Personal hygiene (wanting to be cleaner) 9.53 (16.30) 8.11 (13.88) 0.16 ns
Lack of privacy, personal time 21.60 (21.51) 19.31 (23.82) 0.17 ns
Worried about encountering bad weather 9.67 (21.62) 29.75 (29.67) −1.26 ns
Frostbite 5.00 (8.66) 17.02 (18.40) −1.34 ns

Note. ns = not significant.

aMean % of rating periods in which a particular item was endorsed.

that equipment is working properly.” “Tension or argument with my team-

mate” and “Concerns about the effectiveness or safety of decisions I made
today” were among the relatively lowest proportion of items rated. The mean
percentage of events endorsed by the Year 1 and Year 2 groups over the
course of the two journeys is presented in Table 1.
To analyze the percentage of Coping ratings endorsed, t tests were used,
applying a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. The participants
were quite flexible in terms of endorsing a large number of ways they dealt
with stressful events. Moreover, the majority of coping methods indicated,
both cognitive and problem oriented, were highly adaptive for the situations

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Kjærgaard et al. 11

Table 2.  Mean Percentage of Coping Mechanisms Endorsed Over the Course of
the Fall and Spring Journeys According to Group.
Group

  (%)a

Item Year 1 (n = 5) Year 2 (n = 6) t p

Told myself, “Take it one day at a time. Live with it, 44.33 (37.89) 60.33 (37.92) −0.70 ns
accept it”
Kept my feelings to myself 34.66 (27.67) 38.82 (36.85) −0.21 ns
Discussed task concerns with the teammate 35.14 (20.45) 52.37 (23.80) −1.27 ns
Discussed personal/emotional concerns with the 27.34 (21.53) 28.33 (23.28) −0.07 ns
teammate
Tried harder. Pushed myself to do my best, told myself 38.33 (40.07) 44.37 (30.67) −0.28 ns
I can do it
Prayed 1.00 (2.24) 15.00 (34.35) −0.90 ns
Saw the situation in a very positive way, what I’m 82.74 (13.42) 41.07 (30.17) 2.84 .02
learning and getting out of it
Kept a positive attitude. Humor, joking around, having 81.74 (24.80) 44.78 (15.70) 3.01 .01
fun
Cried 0.00 (0.00) 1.17 (2.86) −0.91 ns
Relaxed, meditated, listened to music, daydreamed 39.47 (33.74) 55.71 (31.82) −0.82 ns
Kept the goal in sight. Thought about finishing the 52.72 (23.02) 72.22 (37.78) −1.00 ns
journey and why I’m here
Thought of something pleasant such as good times 79.93 (24.36) 74.81 (26.89) 0.33 ns
to come
Tried to figure out how to solve the situation that’s 38.87 (41.83) 55.97 (27.60) −0.82 ns
bothering me
Negative feelings about myself 6.00 (13.42) 14.75 (32.15) −0.57 ns
Negative feelings about my teammate 17.00 (30.33) 16.18 (26.11) 0.05 ns
Yelled, stomped, threw things around 3.33 (7.45) 17.94 (17.32) −1.74 ns

Note. ns = not significant.

aMean % of rating periods in which a particular item was endorsed.

they were experiencing: “Thought of something pleasant such as good times

to come,” “Kept a positive attitude. Humor, joking around, having fun,”
“Saw the situation in a very positive way, what I’m learning and getting out
of it,” “Kept the goal in sight. Thought about finishing the journey and why
I’m here,” and “Told myself, take it one day at a time.” There was a trend for
Year 1 participants to exhibit higher endorsement rates for two of the cogni-
tive items focused on maintaining a positive attitude and viewing the situa-
tion in a positive way. The mean percentage of coping items endorsed by the
Year 1 and Year 2 groups over the course of the two journeys is presented in
Table 2.

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12 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

Debriefing Interview Findings

Excerpts from the debriefing interviews are presented to reflect the motiva-
tions, and positive and negative events experienced by the participants.
Comments about the importance of adequate communication with their team-
mate, the process of decision making and its evolution over the course of the
patrol journeys, and views on the factors that influenced team effectiveness
are also presented. Implications for long-duration space flight were addressed
as well. The specific excerpts chosen represent the views of the range of par-
ticipants or demonstrate a particular point. To preserve anonymity, the fol-
lowing quotations were not designated by code number; excerpts illustrating
a specific theme are listed in numerical order to indicate a different
respondent.

Major Motivation
Participants varied in the designation of their major motivation for wanting to
join the Sirius Patrol, for example, the allure of nature, the Arctic environ-
ment, the cold, working with the dogs, an adventure dream from childhood,
the challenge and/or prestige of the Sirius Patrol:

E. 1 Nature. To get out with dogs and one man. And the cold. E. 2 It has been a
children’s dream since I was little . . . long time back my family met a guy from
Sirius, and I was inspired. E. 3 Challenge, test myself . . . experience of being
all alone (isolated) . . . just 12 men. . . . Taking care of all the problems that
show up. E. 4 Trying to push my limit . . . test myself. E. 5 Challenge myself
physically and mentally . . . The biggest challenge is the mental part.

Positive Experiences
The beauty of the environment, seeing the sun for the first time at the end of
the period of total darkness, working with the dogs, having decision author-
ity, and learning the routines (Year 1 participants) were some of the experi-
ences mentioned.

E. 1 This year it was me being in charge of the sled team as the oldest guy . . .
was responsible for decisions being made. Quite fun. E. 2 When it is hard, and
it suddenly gets better and better. You can feel the dogs are more powerful each
day. You can feel you are over the worst. E. 3 Just coping with this, great
experience just to be in nature, and achieving things with the dogs and the team
. . . My partner taught me to deal with things, take the confrontation when it is
on. E. 4 When we have been outside and we got the routines, and you know

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Kjærgaard et al. 13

what you have to do . . . it is easy to be out there. E. 5 You can trust each other,
and relax in the tent.

Most Stressful
A significant situation commented on in the debriefing interviews was the
stresses that occurred related to “girlfriend problems.” Five of the 12 patrol-
lers (both Year 1 and Year 2 participants) reported that there was a breakup in
the relationship during their duty with the Patrol. This situation resulted in
significant distress—a theme that came up repeatedly during the interviews:
“E. 1 Have a little girl friend trouble at home. It took a lot of my time, spent
too much time worrying.” One patroller indicated that an additional stress
was the fact that his partner did not respond when he was talking about his
girlfriend problems.
The termination of the relationship influenced not only the person involved
but also his partner. One patroller indicated that dealing with his partner’s
girlfriend problems was the most stressful situation he encountered on the
journeys. Several of the partners indicated that while they were sympathetic,
this recurring topic became “old” and that there was no more they could say
that would help the situation: “E. 1 You’re just two guys, and the subject is
just empty at some point. Things get repeated.” Other more serious problems
were noted: “E. 2 There was a period when his mind was somewhere else . . .
he could not concentrate. There was a point when he was not that effective.”
Other aspects of communication eliciting stress were mentioned as well:
“E. 1 My partner and me had periods when we were very silent to each other
. . . These periods with lack of communication were stressful.
The length of time the partners were together also had an influence:

E. 1 Last month before we came back to the station . . . You don’t speak much
to each other anymore. Subjects are worn out, you get annoyed with the little
stuff. Not being stressed physically, but mentally. You are together 24 hours a
day, just the two of you.

Additional stressors mentioned as the most significant related to the dogs.

Participants mentioned concerns about actual and potential injuries to the
dogs because of the snow and ice conditions, feeling stressed because they
had to push the dogs too hard, or difficulties in watching over the dogs: “E. 1
Very hard on the dogs. Concerned about the health of the dogs. E. 2 There
was not a lot you could do about the dogs.”
The relationship of the patroller with the dogs was assessed regarding pos-
sible tendencies to take out frustrations on the dogs:

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14 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

E. 1 When dogs are fighting, you hit a little harder than you would do at home,
and you feel much worse afterwards . . . not their fault that there is a lot of snow
this year. E. 2 Sometimes you can get too rough on them, it sticks with you
afterwards.

Communication Processes and Team Effectiveness

Judgments about team effectiveness were highly related to factors regarding
communication processes:

E. 1 Cooperation, communication are most important. E. 2 It’s very very

important to open your mouth if something is wrong, no matter how small it is
. . . Minor problems get so big in the end. E. 3 There is a balance of what to say
and not to say . . . have to be with guys for a lot of time. E. 4 Swallow a lot of
camels to make it go. E. 5 There were periods when we did not work well
together because of the lack of communication. It definitely affected me.

Communication of Expectations, Goals, and Team Functioning

The expectations held by each of the participants about the working relation-
ship with his partner and the goals to be achieved were viewed as important
in ensuring the smooth functioning of the team:

E. 1 Talking to each other . . . Communication . . . Before you go on both trips,

it is a good thing to talk about expectations. Your partner must also have the
opportunity to say what he expects. E. 2 Communication. The fact that you can
work together, and the fact that one of you is capable to make decisions, and
one is willing to take the compromise. E. 3 Really important to have the same
expectations . . . You just don’t know what people are thinking . . . talking to
each other in this team with only two persons is the most important. E. 4 Talk
about the goals as well . . . Important to reach these agreements before you go,
otherwise it causes disagreement.

Tolerance and Flexibility

Tolerance of interpersonal differences and flexibility were also mentioned as
important aspects of team effectiveness:

E. 1 Tolerance . . . and patience. E. 2 Forgiveness, be prepared to learn the

whole time, be open to new experiences, don’t just shut down. E. 3 Be flexible.
Not to get irritated . . . about the small things . . . accept the differences.

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Kjærgaard et al. 15

Leadership/Decision Processes
The relationship between the Year 1 (new guy) and the Year 2 (old guy)
patrollers regarding decision authority changed over the course of the Fall
and Spring journeys. The inexperienced patroller initially acceded to the
decisions of his more experienced partner; in some teams, with time and
experience, there was greater collaboration in the decisions made:

(Year 2 participant). In the spring when you go and your partner gets better and
better, I felt like he got his own opinion. You can feel that suddenly he has own
way. Sometimes it is for the better, sometimes it is tricky.

(Year 1 participant). When you are a new guy, you just say yes, do your work,
and let the old guy control it in the start . . . Later . . . you have to say yes
sometimes, even when you mean no to get it working. At night you have to be
in the tent together.

(Year 1 participant). One of the things you have to learn when you get up here
is that you spend a year learning. The guys are waiting to control and make
decisions in their second year. You have to accept that.

Routines
Settling into a routine through working together was viewed by Year 1 patrol-
lers as an important factor in team effectiveness:

E. 1 Many of the routines are nice, because you know what to do. When you
and your partner do it the same way, it is freedom. You can rely on each other,
you don’t have to be worried. E. 2 The longer you go, the much more easier the
routines get.

With an established routine and good weather conditions, several partici-

pants indicated that they were able to engage in pleasant daydreaming, and
were surprised that the day on the ice ended so quickly:

E. 1 Sometimes we had breaks for an hour, and I was amazed at how fast it was
going. You get good at daydreaming . . . Sometimes you are so deep in thoughts,
you wake up and think how did I get here, it is so beautiful here in the landscape,
and the dogs.

Effects of Environment on Performance

The darkness had a significant effect on motivation and performance:

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16 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

E. 1 From November 5th the sun does not come up over the horizon. The fact
that you have to get up every morning needs a lot of motivation. The energy has
to come from inside of you, you don’t get the energy from the environment. E.
2 When you are a new man and you don’t know how to ride a sled, you have to
learn it. You don’t see anything, you don’t see the dogs, just about nothing.

The severe cold had an influence on the effort required to perform daily
chores and the attention paid to one’s physical state:

E. 1 It is more difficult to do some tasks in the cold. You have to motivate

yourself by just saying you have to do it. E. 2 When it is cold you have to focus
more on yourself, get your body working. It takes some of your strength. Your
energy level goes lower. E. 3 When we started out it was −45°C. You can really
feel that you were hungry all the time. E. 4 When it was very cold, −40°C, the
dogs won’t work as hard. Your hands and feet are really affected, and the same
applies for the dogs.

What the Patroller Learned About Himself

Participants indicated significant personal growth through their experiences
in the Sirius Patrol:

E. 1 I learned a lot about myself . . . being more open minded, tolerant. E. 2 We

all have problems, if you just remember to enjoy every day, then the problems
won’t last. E. 3 I found out that I can do pretty much what I want to if I put the
energy in.

Space Implications
Comments regarding the application of experiences with the Sirius Patrol to
space missions centered around the importance of effective communication,
social skills, dealing with problems before they become too large, selection
procedures, and adequate prior training together:

E. 1 Just think through what you expect, and do make this conversation about
expectations of each other. Then you have kind of an agreement. E. 2 You have
to find a good balance between eating the problems and making problems out
of everything. E. 3 Everything relates to social ability . . . ability to talk to
persons. E. 4 Remove all the small problems, before they get big. You also have
to be honest, and think it is not always the other guy who is wrong. E. 5 You
need to find the same type of persons . . . Look more at personality profiles. E.
6 More prior training together.

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Kjærgaard et al. 17

Discussion
The findings of this study demonstrate the adaptive functioning of the patrol
members in response to the challenges and demands of performing in an ICE
environment. The results are consistent with Gunderson’s (1974) designation
of emotional stability, task motivation, and social compatibility as the com-
ponents of effective performance. Moreover, the findings showed no differ-
ences on the variables of interest comparing this military group with civilian
expedition teams, suggesting that the influence of the ICE environment has a
stronger effect on intra- and interpersonal processes than the specific com-
mand structure and goals of the trek.
In contrast to our hypothesis, there were no significant differences between
Year 1 and Year 2 groups in reports of positive versus negative events expe-
rienced, or in the majority of coping strategies used. For both groups, over the
Fall and Spring journeys, the coping and event ratings indicated flexibility in
using helpful cognitive, emotional, and task-focused coping strategies, and
generally compatible interactions between teammates. These findings may
reflect the success of the personnel selection process, as well as the greater
influence of social-emotional task orientation as groups work together over
an extended period (Stuster, 1996).
The motivations that induced the participants to apply to the Sirius Patrol
also appear to have been important in coping with the physical as well as
intra- and interpersonal demands of the journeys, that is, the fruition of a
childhood dream to be part of the Patrol, allure of the polar environment, and
the challenge of effectively working together with a teammate and dogs over
an extended period. These findings are consistent with the personal values
endorsed by the Year 1 and Year 2 groups: self-determination, universalism (a
feeling of being one with nature and humanity), and stimulation, reflected in
a love of adventure (Kjærgaard et al., 2013).
Similar to other types of expedition groups (e.g., Atlis et al., 2004; Leon
et al., 1989; Leon, Sandal, & Larsen, 2011), participants reported using an
array of adaptive coping mechanisms to deal with the stressors experienced,
both problem focused—for example, trying to figure out how to solve the
problem encountered, trying harder, keeping the goal in sight—and emotion
focused—for example, thinking of something pleasant such as good times to
come. The relatively higher endorsement rates by the Year 1 group for the
items “Saw the situation in a positive, way, what I’m learning and getting out
of it” and “Kept a positive attitude” reflect meaning-based coping. “Humor,
joking around, having fun” appears to reflect their first experience on the ice,
as well as possible normal range personality differences.

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18 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

The significant events that the patrollers endorsed were also predomi-
nantly positive, for example, satisfaction in being able to cope with the chal-
lenges, camaraderie/closeness with one’s partner, enjoyment of the Arctic
environment and being with the dogs, and satisfaction in making good prog-
ress today. They also indicated personal growth as a result of being a member
of the Patrol.
In contrast to the emphasis of earlier research on the negative aspects of
performing in extreme environments (cf. Sandal et al., 2006, for a review),
the present findings reflect the positive psychology movement’s emphasis on
salutogenesis (Antonovsky, 1979) and personal growth (Tedeschi & Calhoun,
1996), in this case, the growth-enhancing effects of living and working in a
challenging environment (Palinkas & Suedfeld, 2008; Suedfeld & Steel,
2000). The team members’ perception of a significant increase in personal
growth as a result of successfully surmounting the challenges of the environ-
ment and their work assignment (Kjærgaard et al., 2013) is consistent with
theoretical formulations and the empirical findings of personal growth fol-
lowing the experience of traumatic situations such as the Holocaust (Kahana,
1992), as well as growth-enhancing experiences through performance in
other extreme and challenging environments, including space (Suedfeld,
Brcic, Johnson, & Gushin, 2012).
A hostile competitive interaction pattern among male expeditioners has
been noted in a number of all-male teams (e.g., Koscheyev, Lartzev, Rode, &
Malakhov, 1992; Stroud, 1993). However, similar to the findings from a two-
man North Pole expedition team (Leon, Sandal, Fink, et al., 2011), the par-
ticipants in the current study interacted with each other primarily in a
cooperative manner.
The Weekly Rating Form data also were consistent with the personality
data indicating a well-adjusted group of participants, above the standardized
mean on the Neuroticism–Extroversion–Openness Personality Inventory–
Revised (NEO PI-R) positive factors, and below the mean on neuroticism
(Kjærgaard et al., 2013). Contrary to our hypothesis, the significantly higher
positive mood in the Year 1 group may reflect enthusiasm about their first
experience on these polar journeys, while the leadership responsibilities and
the lesser novelty of the environment for the Year 2 group may have moder-
ated positive mood. In addition, possible differences in trait characteristics
between groups may have been a factor; the Year 2 NEO PI-R mean T scores
were higher on neuroticism and consistently lower on the four other NEO
factors.
A major theme that repeatedly emerged from the debriefing interviews
was the critical importance of effective communication. The participants
repeatedly mentioned aspects of communication that either enhanced their

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Kjærgaard et al. 19

relationship with their partner or had a negative effect on interpersonal rela-

tionships and work effectiveness. In addition, several participants stressed
the importance of the partners discussing together both prior to and during
the journey their work and interpersonal expectations, and their personal
goals in terms of what they would like to accomplish during the journey.
These expectations varied from the point at which a Year 1 member might
assume a more dominant decision-making role, change distribution of work
tasks, and acquire specific patrol-related skills. Many viewed this task-ori-
ented communication as the most important aspect of effective team
performance.
While communication with one’s partner about distressing personal issues
can be a significant source of bonding, the repetitive nature of these emo-
tional communications in a confined environment with just two individuals
can also become a source of stress for the recipient. Although studies of crews
confined in simulators indicated that over time there was an increase in the
personal nature and depth of self-disclosure (Suedfeld & Steel, 2000), this
process may not necessarily be adaptive. Seeking social support as a coping
mechanism was associated with poorer psychological adaptation during polar
expeditions (Leon et al., 1991) and long-duration submarine missions
(Sandal, Endresen, Vaernes, & Ursin, 1999).
In general, maintaining contact with significant persons in the home envi-
ronment can be a positive experience. However, an extremely stressful per-
sonal problem that occurred with a number of the participants was the breakup
of a relationship with a girlfriend, resulting in emotional distress to the patrol-
ler and difficulties in concentrating on the demands of the journey. Therefore,
this situation had an emotional and performance impact not only on the team-
mate involved, but also on his partner in terms of the quality of their relation-
ship and the effectiveness of their work performance.
Routine and strategic decision making is another process that necessarily
involves communication between team members. For some teams, the pro-
cess of decision making reflected status leveling over time, that is, the leader
assuming a more egalitarian role during later phases of the expedition
(Stuster, 1996). With greater experience from the Fall to the Spring journeys,
status leveling was evident in terms of a transition in decision authority to a
more consultative relationship.
The cold and dark environment the participants were operating in also had
an influence on their overall experience, particularly feelings of low energy
in the morning and increased effort needed to begin the daily patrol. However,
there was no evidence of significant problems in hand/finger dexterity in the
cold, although several participants indicated having cold fingers at times and
some occasions of frostbite. It is likely that prior winter training and

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20 Environment and Behavior XX(X)

experience in the use of cold weather clothing as well as physical exercises to

maintain adequate blood circulation to the extremities enabled the patrollers
to protect themselves in extreme temperatures.
A limitation of this study in regard to the collection of longitudinal data on
the ice is the fact that different teams, one during the Fall and two during the
Spring journey, spent half of the time at the Station. Furthermore, logistical
problems sporadically interfered with the completion of the Weekly Rating
Form. Therefore, accurate assessment of time phases in mood (Bechtel &
Berning, 1991) could not be carried out. Our strategy was to use the full
extent of data available on the ice to derive a score for each individual on the
different variables assessed. The debriefing interviews provided an opportu-
nity to supplement the rating data obtained during the journeys to gain a bet-
ter understanding of possible changes over time on the different variables
examined in this study.
The findings of this investigation have a number of applications to long-
duration space missions, irrespective of the age differences between the
patroller and older astronaut age groups. The most salient factors are the criti-
cal importance of adequate and continuing communication among team
members, including the expression of expectations and goals in the setting in
which they are operating, and appropriate social skills in interacting with
each other. Moreover, comments that over time it is the mental and not the
physical factor that makes a team effective underscore the importance of
motivational factors and positive coping skills to perform optimally in an
isolated and extreme environment.
It is, therefore, highly important that selection and training efforts for
future long-duration missions beyond low Earth orbit include a substantial
focus on communication effectiveness. In addition, the development and
application of countermeasures for the potentially negative influence of cir-
cumstances in the home environment on team member functioning needs
more careful consideration.

Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the advice and interest of Torben Eriksen, whose idea
stimulated this entire project. The excellent support of the Greenland Command
through all stages of the study was invaluable. We thank Andreas Frandsen, Martin
Hammershøj Olesen, Karen Srinivasan, and Noah Venables for their help, and espe-
cially, the members of the Sirius Patrol for their excellent cooperation.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Kjærgaard et al. 21

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.

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Author Biographies
Anders Kjærgaard, MA, is now a staff psychologist at the Rehabilitation Centre for
Torture Survivors and Traumatized Refugees in Odense Denmark. His research inter-
ests focus on posttraumatic growth following extreme situations and enhancing per-
sonnel selection.
Gloria R. Leon, PhD, is professor emerita in the Department of Psychology at the
University of Minnesota. Her research interests include stress and coping in extreme
situations with application for long-duration space missions.
Birgit A. Fink, MS, is a research coordinator in the Department of Psychiatry at the
University of Minnesota. Her research includes the effects of cold environmental
conditions on cognitive performance and personality.

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