Article

Waste Energy Recovery from Natural Gas

Distribution Network: CELSIUS Project
Demonstrator in Genoa
Davide Borelli † , Francesco Devia † , Margherita Marré Brunenghi † , Corrado Schenone *,† and
Alessandro Spoladore †
Received: 5 October 2015; Accepted: 14 December 2015; Published: 18 December 2015
Academic Editors: Francesco Asdrubali and Pietro Buzzini

DIME—Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica, Energetica, Gestionale e dei Trasporti,

Università degli Studi di Genova, Via All’Opera Pia 15/A, 16145 Genova, Italy; davide.borelli@unige.it (D.B.);
francesco.devia@unige.it (F.D.); margherita.marrebrunenghi@unige.it (M.M.B.);
alessandro.spoladore@edu.unige.it (A.S.)
* Correspondence: corrado.schenone@unige.it; Tel./Fax: +39-010-353-2577
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: Increasing energy efficiency by the smart recovery of waste energy is the scope of
the CELSIUS Project (Combined Efficient Large Scale Integrated Urban Systems). The CELSIUS
consortium includes a world-leading partnership of outstanding research, innovation and
implementation organizations, and gather competence and excellence from five European cities
with complementary baseline positions regarding the sustainable use of energy: Cologne, Genoa,
Gothenburg, London, and Rotterdam. Lasting four-years and coordinated by the City of
Gothenburg, the project faces with an holistic approach technical, economic, administrative, social,
legal and political issues concerning smart district heating and cooling, aiming to establish best
practice solutions. This will be done through the implementation of twelve new high-reaching
demonstration projects, which cover the most major aspects of innovative urban heating and cooling
for a smart city. The Genoa demonstrator was designed in order to recover energy from the pressure
drop between the main supply line and the city natural gas network. The potential mechanical
energy is converted to electricity by a turboexpander/generator system, which has been integrated
in a combined heat and power plant to supply a district heating network. The performed energy
analysis assessed natural gas saving and greenhouse gas reduction achieved through the smart
systems integration.

Keywords: smart city; district heating and cooling; waste energy recovery; EU strategy for GHG
reduction; natural gas network

1. Introduction
The European Union (EU) strongly pursues the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
in order to implement the Kyoto Protocol commitments, with a final target of 20% per year emissions
saved by 2020 [1]. To this purpose a better use of energy in urban areas assumes a crucial role,
since they are responsible for almost 80% of total GHG emissions but, at the same time, they play a
crucial role in the safeguarding of the environment and in creating more resilient urban conditions [2].
In particular, it is estimated that in European countries almost 40% of energy is consumed in buildings
and the 70% of this energy is deployed in heating and conditioning, so defining a leading sector in
the effort to get a sustainable use of power resources [3].
EU policies aim for energy efficiency improvement, renewable energy source (RES) usage
increase, and GHG emission reduction by 2020 through a large number of programs and regulatory

Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719; doi:10.3390/su71215841 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719

actions. Since the beginning of this century the EU has been implementing operating environmental
policies to confront climate change scenarios and support low-emissions activities. It is worth noting
from the document “A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy” [4],
that it anticipated the exigency of a common planning approach to energy efficiency and RES
exploitation, or the “Strategic Energy Review” [5], which introduced the well-know 20-20-20 strategy.
Moreover, the “Renewable Energy and Climate Change Package” [6], launched the Covenant of
Mayors initiative, all the way up to the “Roadmap for Moving to a Low-carbon Economy in 2050” [7]
until the “2030 Framework for Climate and Energy Policies” [8],. The EU strategy has been following
a general address at international level [9], aiming for an environmental policy for GHG reduction [10]
and energy saving [11], especially focusing on a more intense use of innovative technologies [12,13].
Nevertheless, turning general determination into operative policies is not easy; the transition
from a principles and objectives statement to implementation of actions may be complex. Indeed, the
real impact of improvement actions is not easy to assess, and their effectiveness needs to be carefully
analyzed [14]. It is therefore crucial to demonstrate innovative technologies able to facilitate saving
actions as well as to promote a deep involvement of citizens, stakeholders, and institutions, beginning
with municipalities, the basic unit of public administration in much of the world [15]. The “Smart
Cities and Communities” initiative within the 7th Framework Programme moves in this direction, by
operatively promoting carbon savings in cities through the efficient use of energy potentials and the
effective recovery of energy losses in urban areas.
The EU project CELSIUS “Combined Efficient Large Scale Integrated Urban Systems” aims to
demonstrate the possibility to boost energy efficiency through the smart integration of urban systems.
District heating and cooling (DHC) can be enhanced by a smart waste energy recovery strategy
involving different categories of plants and cities. Thus, twelve demonstration projects, covering
the most major aspects of innovative urban heating and cooling for a smart city were delivered in
Gothenburg, Cologne, London, Rotterdam, and Genoa [16].
In Genoa, the focus is about energy recovery from the pressure drop between the main supply
line and the city natural gas network. The potential mechanical energy is converted into electricity by
a turboexpander/generator system, which has been integrated in a combined heat and power (CHP)
plant in order to supply a district heating network. This smart integration of infrastructures makes
a large energy saving, with a recovery of up to 2.9 MWh/year of electricity by the turboexpander
and 500,000 Sm3 /year of NG saved overall, and with a corresponding reduction of CO2 emissions of
over 1000 tons per year. Project implementation, demonstrator performance, and outcome analysis
are reported in the present paper, together with time domain results for the energy network, aiming
to communicate the innovative solution implemented.

2. CELSIUS Project

2.1. Project Goals, Partnership and Roadmap

The CELSIUS project is a district heating-cooling demonstration and transfer knowledge project
which focuses on increased excellence in smart and integrated urban energy systems. It is a
co-funded project by European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological
development and demonstration (grant agreement No. 314441) in the framework of smart cities
projects. It supports the achievement of EU’s 20-20-20 goals by helping cities in addressing energy
resilience and security, energy poverty as well as reducing GHG emissions. By creating resilient low
carbon energy system, Celsius cities will be able to support energy needs and demand for citizens as
well as contribute to mitigate climate change.
The main partners consist of five city groups, with a combination of municipalities, research
centers and utility companies for each one. This combined groups represent a key factor as they gather
together the main actors involved in heating and cooling infrastructures and systems. CELSIUS cities
are the City of Gothenburg, City of Rotterdam, Cologne City, Comune di Genova and London City

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also including the Islington Council. They have already a proven track-record as well as a strong
commitment to increase energy efficiency. All of them are already members of the Covenant of
Mayors, the mainstream European movement involving local and regional authorities, voluntarily
committing to increasing energy efficiency and use of renewable energy sources in their territories.
Research centers are very well represented with members from Imperial College in London, London
School of Economics, Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Interactive Institute Ab, Technische
Universteit Delft, Fachhochschule Koln, and University of Genoa with specific excellence function
as within system integration, production, storage etc. with which they support the demonstrators.
The complementary utility companies are Gothenburg Energy for Gothenburg, RheinEnergie for
Cologne, UK Power Net for London, Warmtebedrijf Exploitatie and Noun for Rotterdam, and Genova
Reti Gas for Genova. They are a strong and committed group who will take major investments in this
project as of 55 millions of € and have collectively previously spent hundreds of millions of euros.
For CELSIUS these utility companies will build twelve new demonstrators and as well use more than
twenty already operational demonstrators to be able to present the full CELSIUS City concept.
An important part of the CELSIUS demonstration projects is devoted to illustrate how cities
can become more energy efficient by using the potential of DHC systems to capture and exploit the
wide-range of waste heat sources—heat being produced within the city and not being used but just
discharged into the local environment—that are available within cities [17]. The CELSIUS project
intends also to help cities to understand and embrace the role that the DHC system can play in a city’s
future energy system. Moreover, in addition to technical demonstration projects, CELSIUS assesses
financial, political, and social barriers to DHC networks, trying to develop solutions to overcome
them and developing new business models, in order to both value resource conservation and
encourage cities to develop more self-sufficient energy systems. To this extent, as part of this wider
engagement, the CELSIUS project aims to recruit fifty cities from across the EU that are interested in
the role the DHC system can play. These will form a network of “CELSIUS cities” and the CELSIUS
project will use its extensive range of knowledge and expertise—namely “CELSIUS toolbox”—in
all areas of intelligent DHC networks to help them better understand how the DHC system can
contribute to develop secure, affordable, and low carbon energy systems in their city [18,19].
To this extent, a part of the project would be dedicated to create an expert team, constituted of
a mix of utility company managers, technical expertise, and senior personnel. This group of selected
people will be involved from time to time in the support of the new city and will provide the necessary
know how, depending on the needs of the city itself. This contribution could range from the first steps
a city needs to take, in understanding the role that the DHC system could play, to gaining political
support within the city for it. Moreover, it can vary from developing a strategic position to help
towards planning, developing, specifying, constructing, extending, and/or optimizing intelligent
DHC systems within the selected cities.
To begin with, a selected group of seven cities (Athens, Riga, Ghent, Gdynia, Warsaw, Gdansk,
and Villadecans)—the Replication Cities (RC)—has been involved in the project. These cities are not
directly partners of the project, but have an interest to replicate CELSIUS solutions fitting specifically
to their needs, characteristics and city plans. They have already committed themselves via a Letter of
Support to be test pilots for the CELSIUS Roadmap.
The idea is to create a complete and general “vision”of a Celsius City, not only to provide just
a technical toolbox [20]. A roadmap that can summarize all the learning, expertise and technologies
gained by the five partner cities into an approach that can be used to support large-scale deployment
of energy infrastructure projects across the EU. This vision, spread out as much as possible, will
lead to create political acceptance of the important role intelligent DHC system have to play in
the EU’s present and future energy systems and to lobby for a supportive policy, legislative and
regulatory framework.

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2.2. Demonstrators
There is ever increasing urgency for Europe to make the transformation to a low-carbon and
resource efficient economy to meet climate and energy security targets and, more importantly, to
avoid catastrophic climate change.
Nowadays, almost 50% of the total energy consumed in the EU is used for the generation of
heat for either residential or industrial purposes and the majority of this energy is produced using
fossil fuels. With few exceptions, cooling is, achieved through processes driven either by electricity,
which is still mainly produced from fossil fuels, or waste heat, where generated and is often not even
captured or used for meeting heat demand elsewhere.
Several key challenges obstruct Europe’s cities to become the resource efficient and low carbon
cities they are required to be in the global economy of the 21st Century.
First of all, many European cities show a lack of thermal grid coverage. To reverse this trend,
it is needed the development of new ground-breaking and financially competitive thermal grids;
state-of-the-art solutions have already been implemented in some urban areas, but the lessons learnt
and experiences need to be shared more widely. At present, new efficient thermal networks tend to
be limited to small areas as this is the easier way in a city to start the building of district heating.
Another important challenge is represented by the huge amount of waste or secondary energy
generated but not captured and utilized for heating purposes nowadays in the EU. Waste heat
produced in the EU would actually be sufficient for heating the EU’s entire building stock. At the
same time, there is just not the heating distribution grid available to transfer it to where it is
demanded and thus it can be used. Therefore, it is currently necessary to demonstrate and develop
innovative technologies able of raising the recovery of waste energy. In addition, it is crucial to define,
implement, and test business models that evaluate an agreed fair price, for example in respect to
industrial waste heat providers, for delivering waste heat to a network or a final user.
In this sense, it is fruitful to capitalize existing experience and ongoing research activity, in
particular regarding Energy Networks Integration and Urban Energy Hubs. Celsius demonstrators
just operate in this direction, opening to on-field application of concepts as Distributed Energy
Resources optimization [21] and Urban Energy Hub [22]. This last approach analyzes the relations
between input and output energy flows and thus can be used to reduce energy consumption and
optimize waste energy recovery. The energy hub concept includes decentralized and local energy
technologies such as photovoltaic, biomass, or small hydro power, together with district heating
systems, building and district conversion, and storage technologies at neighborhood level [23].
These methods, as well as simulation tools for district scale energy systems [24], can be therefore
capitalized and applied in order to increase the efficiency of urban energy systems.
In order to use energy in the most sustainable way, it seems of crucial importance to reduce peak
loads and avoid unnecessary energy supply from fossil fuel driven processes. As the construction and
industrial sectors develop more energy efficient solutions, this will start to skew energy demand away
from heat, increasingly redirecting it towards cooling. In addition, more energy efficient buildings
will also have more dynamic energy demand profiles that will require intelligent storage and load
control in combination with energy management systems and increased awareness of the end user.
The solution seems to be intelligent process integration built on flexible systems that are ready
for a dynamic world using less energy, so that the energy supplied can ultimately come from energy
efficient and renewable energy technologies, such as CHP [25].
One of the main goals of CELSIUS project is to demonstrate a cost-effective and energy
efficient heating and cooling system for replication and massive role, while ensuring a healthy urban
environment. Nonethless recovering waste energy in an efficient and smart way seems crucial like
favouring the integration of renewable energy. A possible goal seems a total primary energy reduction
of 4500 TWh/year, and a reduction of 900 MMTCD (Million Metric Tonnes of Carbon Dioxide)
per year.

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The CELSIUS project will show the range of opportunities that exist for using DHC networks
to maximize the efficient use of primary and secondary energy sources in a city: this will be done
through a series of related and complementary demonstration projects. CELSIUS intends to play a
leading role in allowing cities to make a cost effective transition to a low carbon and resource efficient
economically competitive city.
The CELSIUS project will have twelve new demonstration projects (see Table 1) and, in addition,
twenty existing ones in Cologne, Genoa, Gothenburg, London, and Rotterdam. These cities will
evaluate and apply the technical, social, and economic feasibility of the CELSIUS vision and concept
and will use the experience and learning to compile a competitive and energy efficient CELSIUS
urban heating and cooling concept. The aim is that the product of the CELSIUS project, a toolbox, will
then be able to support any city in Europe to maximize the utilization of its primary and secondary
energy resources in an integrated way that minimizes its operational costs and carbon emissions
whilst maximizing its energy efficiency [26].

Table 1. Former CELSIUS new demonstrators list.

Name Code City

Using buildings as short term storage GO1 Gothenburg
District heating to white goods GO2 Gothenburg
District heating to ships GO3 Gothenburg
The Heat Hub RO1 Rotterdam
Industrial Ecology RO2 Rotterdam
Connection of existing industries RO3 Rotterdam
Integrating cooling solutions RO4 Rotterdam
Active Network Management and Demand Response LO1 London
Capture of two sources of waste heat and the integration of a thermal store LO2 London
The extension of the Bunhill “seed” network LO3 London
Sewage Water CO1 Cologne
Energy recovery from the natural gas distribution network GE1 Genoa

Through a collaboration with key-actors across the value chain—cities, utilities, industry,
innovative and energy-efficient technology suppliers, politicians, and financiers and the leading
European universities and research centers—CELSIUS will assure that the targets for the
demonstrators will be achieved. They will in fact contribute to developing the CELSIUS toolbox and
will be physically available for new replication cities in each stage of the implementation.

3. The Genoa’s Demonstrator

The district of Genoa Gavette is located in the north of the city (Latitude: 44.435|Longitude:
8.959). The area includes different industrial activities, residential buildings and offices. From the
energy point of view, the whole district requires a high amount of heat and a discrete electrical
demand throughout the year (Figure 1).
The high concentration of energy demand, as is described in the following paragraphs, provides
the economic basis for a possible innovative improvement of production systems.
Major area’s industries concern the distribution of natural gas, accomplished by two different
activities: through a central expander, for the distribution through the town piping network, and
through a compressor station for the refueling of vehicles.
Additional needs come from the electrical and thermal demands to supply a central fire
department, a school, mechanical workshops, dressing rooms, and offices of companies operating
in the nearby areas such as public transport and distribution of domestic water and gas.

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 3. The Genoa’s Demonstrator
The district of Genoa Gavette is located in the north of the city (Latitude: 44.435|Longitude:
8.959). The area includes different industrial activities, residential buildings and offices. From the
energy point of view, the whole district requires a high amount of heat and a discrete electrical
Sustainability 2015, demand throughout the year (Figure 1).
7, 16703–16719
The high concentration of energy demand, as is described in the following paragraphs, provides
the economic basis for a possible innovative improvement of production systems.

Figure 1. Aerial representation of the Gavette district.

Figure
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page 1. Aerial representation of the Gavette district.
5
Major area’s
3.1. The Local Energy industries
Demand and concern the distribution
Waste Energy of natural gas, accomplished by two different
Potential
activities: through a central expander, for the distribution through the town piping network, and
through
The local a compressor
energy need of station
the for the refueling
district is nowof provided
vehicles. by the natural gas station. The use of gas
Additional needs come from the electrical and thermal demands to supply a central fire
in Genoa is closely linked to the building heating’s sector, as there is a prevalent use of gas instead of
department, a school, mechanical workshops, dressing rooms, and offices of companies operating in
gasoline or other fossil fuels. The industrial use is rather limited since there is only small activity with
the nearby areas such as public transport and distribution of domestic water and gas.
small energy demands. Thus, gas volumes processed by the plant (Figure 2) have a strong seasonal
3.1. The Local
variation closely Energy
related toDemand and Waste
the periods whenEnergythePotential
heating systems are turned on (according to Genoa
heating regulation,
The local from 1 November
energy to 15 is
need of the district April).
now provided by the natural gas station. The use of gas
in Genoa gas
The natural is closely linked to the
is captured building
from the heating’s
nationalsector, as therenetwork
transport is a prevalent at ausepressure
of gas instead
of 24of bar ; it is
g
gasoline or other fossil fuels. The industrial use is rather limited since there is only small activity with
then processed in order to reduce the pressure to 5 bar g necessary for its
small energy demands. Thus, gas volumes processed by the plant (Figure 2) have a strong seasonal
distribution at the city level.
The expansion process is actually developed using throttling valves,
variation closely related to the periods when the heating systems are turned on (according to Genoa in according with the
Joule-Thompson principle, in order for this system to accomplish an isenthalpic transformation
heating regulation, from 1 November to 15 April).
dissipating the Thepressure
natural gasenergy
is captured from the national
contained in the transport
fluid. Thenetwork at a pressure
expansion of 24 barwould
process g; it is then
result in an
processed in order to reduce the pressure to 5 barg necessary for its distribution at the city level.
excessive reduction of the temperature of the expanded gas affecting the
The expansion process is actually developed using throttling valves, in according with the Joule-
safety of the plant due to
the risk ofThompson
freezingprinciple,
of the moving
in order for parts and to
this system to the possible
accomplish formation
an isenthalpic of hydrates
transformation and ice. Thus, in
dissipating
the Gavettetheplant
pressure theenergy
gas must be suitably
contained in the fluid.heated before itsprocess
The expansion expansionwould(a process
result in an commonly
excessive known
reduction of
as Gas Preheating the temperature
Process). With theof the expanded
actual gas affecting
throttling the safety
valves, the gas of the plant due to the
temperature drops risk down
of about
˝ ˝ freezing of the moving parts and to the possible formation of hydrates and 3 ice. Thus, in the Gavette
7 C–10 C, so needing a specific preheating heat of about 15 kJ/Sm commonly
plant the gas must be suitably heated before its expansion (a processNG
. known as Gas
Energy requirements, both electrical and thermal, of the other
Preheating Process). With the actual throttling valves, the gas temperature drops down activities ofabout
the 7district
°C– can be
3
observed,10 in°C,
order to study
so needing the trends
a specific through
preheating heat ofdata 15 kJ/ Smfrom
aboutcoming NG .
the various energy meters currently
in use. FigureEnergy
3 shows the trend
requirements, of electrical
both the totaland daily district’s
thermal, thermal
of the other demand
activities of the for building’s
district can be heating
observed,
and Domestic HotinWaterorder to study the
(DHW) trends through
purposes, data coming
varying with thefrom the various
average energy meters currently
environmental temperature and
in use. Figure 3 shows the trend of the total daily district’s thermal demand for building’s heating
the heating season. Figure 4 proposes instead the values of the electric district’s demand which, on
and Domestic Hot Water (DHW) purposes, varying with the average environmental temperature and
the contrary, is constant
the heating season.throughout
Figure 4 proposes the year.
insteadIn theorder
valuesto of pursue
the electric a district’s
better time demand granularity,
which, on a further
model to the
simulate the demand time history could have been adopted [27],
contrary, is constant throughout the year. In order to pursue a better time granularity, a further but this refinement was
model to simulate the
considered beyond the current targets. demand time history could have been adopted [27], but this refinement was
considered beyond the current targets.
Actually, the thermal demand is supplied by two liquid water natural gas boilers while the
Actually, the thermal demand is supplied by two liquid water natural gas boilers while the
national grid provides
national electricity.
grid provides electricity.

30
25
Natural gas demand

20
Million Sm3

15
10
5
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 2. Monthly volumes of natural gas (NG) processed in the expansion plant.
Figure 2. Monthly volumes of natural gas (NG) processed in the expansion plant.

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Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page

Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page

18

[MWh/day]
16
18

[MWh/day]
14
16
12
14
10
12
demand

108
demand

86
heat heat

64
DHNDHN

42
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0 5 Average
10 daily temperature
15 °C
20 25 30
Average daily temperature °C
Heating ON regression curve Heating OFF regression curve
measured data
Heating ON regression curve measured data
Heating OFF regression curve
Heating ON measured data Heating OFF measured data
Figure Figure
3. Variation
3. Variation ofof
the the aggregated
aggregated dailythermal
daily building building
demandthermal demand
with the average daily with the average
temperature.
daily temperature.
Figure 3. Variation of the aggregated daily building thermal demand with the average daily temperature.
140
140
120
120
demand

100
MWh/month
demand

100
80
MWh/month
Electrical

80
60
Electrical

60
40
40
20
200
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 4. Monthly aggregated electric energy demand of the district.
4. Monthly
FigureFigure aggregated
4. Monthly aggregated electric energy
electric energy demand
demand of theof the district.
district.
3.2. The Demonstrator Design
3.2. The Demonstrator Design
As abovementioned, CELSIUS provides the realization of plants to demonstrate and promote
3.2. The Demonstrator Design
innovative technologies on renewable and waste energies.
As abovementioned, CELSIUS provides the realization of plants to demonstrate and promote
The Genoa’s demonstrator
As abovementioned, CELSIUS will be built in
provides thetherealization
Gavette district
of and will promote
plants improvements
to demonstrate and promote
innovative technologies on renewable and waste energies.
along the entire energy chain: from production through distribution to the final users (Figure 5).
innovative technologies on renewable and waste energies.
The Genoa’s demonstrator will be built in the Gavette district and will promote improvements
The strength of the project is the recovery of energy from the pressure drop required for the
along the entire
The Genoa’s energy chain:
demonstrator from
will production
beInbuilt through
in tothe distribution to the final users (Figure 5).
distribution of natural gas [28–30]. parallel theGavette district
current expansion and
valves will promote
a turboexpander improvements
will
The strength of the project is the recovery of energy from the pressure drop required for the
along the distribution
entire energy
be introduced, chain:
with from
the aim production
of converting part of through distribution
the mechanical energy ofto thethe
gasfinal users
into electricity
of natural gas [28–30]. In parallel to the current expansion valves a turboexpander will
(Figure
that 5).
can be
The strength consumed
of the by users of the district or sell in the national electric market (Figure 6).
be introduced, withproject
the aim ofisconverting
the recoverypart of theof energy
mechanical from
energytheof pressure
the gas into drop required
electricity that for the
The turbo expansion of natural gas is still rarely used in distribution systems at town levels, due
distribution
canofbe natural
consumedgas [28–30].
by users of theIn parallel
district or selltoin the currentelectric
the national expansion valves6).
market (Figure a turboexpander will
to the high costs of the machines.
be introduced,The
The
turbo
with theexpansion
aim of
technological
of natural gas part
converting
level
is stillof
rarely
theused
of this radial turbomachinery
in distribution
mechanical
is very energy
systems at town
of the
high. Though gas
the
levels, due
into electricity
temperatures that
to the high costs of the machines.
can be consumed
involved arebysubstantially
users of the district
lower than aorgassell in the
turbine, manynational electric
other issues market
are due (Figure
to the type
The technological level of this radial turbomachinery is very high. Though the temperatures
6).
of working
The turbo
involved are substantially lower than a gas turbine, many other issues are due to the type of workinglevels, due
expansion of natural gas is still rarely used in distribution systems at town
to the high costs of the machines. 7
The technological level of this radial turbomachinery
7 is very high. Though the temperatures
involved are substantially lower than a gas turbine, many other issues are due to the type of working
fluid, the natural gas. In particular, any leakage of gas must be recirculated in the distribution circuit
to avoid the creation of an explosive environment.
It is worth noting that that the turboexpander must ensure the proper pressure distribution of
the downstream line. The operating characteristics of the machine must therefore be adaptable to
different load conditions, such as gas flow rate and inlet pressure, in order to maintain the outlet
pressure in a close range of variation. The machine then adjusts the downstream pressure, keeping

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high conversion yields, through a stator angle control and the rotation speed. An expansion valve
is often placed upstream of 7,the
Sustainability 2015, turbomachine, as an additional tool to control the gas flow evolving
page–page

and to reduce thefluid,

pressure
the natural fluctuations. Due
gas. In particular, any to the
leakage of gashigh
must benominal speed
recirculated in of rotation,
the distribution circuit it is possible to
support the axis oftothe
avoidmachine
the creation through
of an explosive environment.
magnetic bearings, as in the case for the Genoa demonstrator.
It is worth noting that that the turboexpander must ensure the proper pressure distribution of
The correct sizing
the downstreamof the line.turboexpander is crucial
The operating characteristics for maximizing
of the machine must therefore bethe energy
adaptable to recovered and
different load conditions, such as gas flow rate and inlet pressure, in order to maintain the outlet
minimizing the payback period. In this kind of delicate procedure, a good knowledge of the seasonal
pressure in a close range of variation. The machine then adjusts the downstream pressure, keeping
and most importantly the hourly
high conversion yields,trends
through aof theangle
stator gascontrol
flowanddemand
the rotationare required,
speed. An expansion invalve
addition
is to the steady
often placed upstream of the turbomachine, as an additional tool to control the gas flow evolving and
characteristics of the plant such as operating pressures, in order to maximize the flow expanded by
to reduce the pressure fluctuations. Due to the high nominal speed of rotation, it is possible to support
the turboexpansion the line
axis ofinstead
the machineof the conventional
through magnetic bearings, as valves line.
in the case for the Genoa demonstrator.
The correct sizing of the turboexpander is crucial for maximizing the energy recovered and
The characteristic curve of the selected turboexpander is standard for that category of
minimizing the payback period. In this kind of delicate procedure, a good knowledge of the seasonal
machineries and presents the following features:
and most importantly the hourly trends of the gas flow demand are required, in addition to the steady
characteristics of the plant such as operating pressures, in order to maximize the flow expanded by
the turboexpansion line instead of the conventional valves line.
‚ if the gas demand exceeds the maximum value (about 120% of the design mass flow), it means
The characteristic curve of the selected turboexpander is standard for that category of
that the conventional valves
machineries and line
presents processes
the following the surplus;
features:

‚ •
if the gas demand is lower than the minimum
if the gas demand exceeds the maximum the 120%
value (about machine stops,
of the design due itto
mass flow), the low conversion
means
that the conventional valves line processes the surplus;
performance,• and the whole flow leads through the valves line.
if the gas demand is lower than the minimum the machine stops, due to the low conversion
performance, and the whole flow leads through the valves line.

Figure 5. Demonstrator’s energy flows.

Figure 5. Demonstrator’s energy flows.
Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page

Figure 6. Sketch of the natural gas expansion plant: (1) Throttling valves line gas preheater;
Figure 6. Sketch of thevalve;
(2) Throttling natural gas expansion
(3) Turboexpander plant:
line preheater; (1)
(4) Flow Throttling
regulation valve; (5)valves line gas preheater;
Turboexpander.
(2) Throttling valve; (3) Turboexpander line preheater; (4) Flow regulation valve; (5) Turboexpander.
The turboexpander is capable of delivering a nominal power of 550 kWe. The design working
flow rate is 22,500 Sm3/h, a value that is slightly lower than the average hourly flow rate of the system,
corresponding to a minimum flow rate of about 3500 Sm3/h ensuring that the machine operates a long
time even when demand is low. 16710
Proper sizing of the unit must ensure an effective use of the machine throughout the year; a
check can be carried out by verifying some natural gas line operative parameters:
• the turboexpander operation ratio, defined as the ratio between the monthly NG mass elaborated
and the processable one in nominal conditions, which must be as close as possible to the unit in
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719

The turboexpander is capable of delivering a nominal power of 550 kWe . The design working
flow rate is 22,500 Sm3 /h, a value that is slightly lower than the average hourly flow rate of the
system, corresponding to a minimum flow rate of about 3500 Sm3 /h ensuring that the machine
operates a long time even when demand is low.
Proper sizing of the unit must ensure an effective use of the machine throughout the year; a check
can be carried out by verifying some natural gas line operative parameters:

‚ the turboexpander operation ratio, defined as the ratio between the monthly NG mass elaborated
and the processable one in nominal conditions, which must be as close as possible to the unit in
order to maximize the hours of steady state operation of the machine;
‚ the throttling valves versus turboexpander flow rate ratio, defined as the ratio between the monthly
mass of gas processed by the conventional gas line and the one processed by the turbomachine,
which must be as low as possible, ideally zero, to minimize the unrecovered energy.

The monthly trends of the aforementioned parameters are displayed in Figure 7. Note that the
coefficient of use of the turboexpander assumes values close to unity during high demand periods,
when the turboexpander is able to process approximately from a half to two thirds of the entire
gas volumes. On the contrary, the minimum values correspond to low demand periods, when the
turboexpander operates approximately from 30%–50% of its potential whilst processing almost all
the required gas.
Despite the implementation of the turboexpander, preheating of the gas is necessary whenever
an expansion, through dissipative valves, occurs. In fact, the turbo expansion process can cause
critical cooling of the gas, thus the fluid must be heated up to about 75 ˝ C by introducing a
heat demand, per kg of gas processed, approximately six times higher than the conventional
isenthalpic expansion.
In order to improve the effectiveness of the whole process, a CHP unit is introduced, connected to
the thermal network in series to the current boilers [31,32]. The thermal production plant must supply
heat to different users; below the diverse heat demands and temperature requirements are reported:

‚ gas preheating for the turboexpander line, about 600 kWth at 85 ˝ C;

‚ gas preheating for the throttling valves line, about 200 kWth at a minimum temperature of 40 ˝ C;
‚ building’s district heating substations for the Fire station, offices and workshops; the thermal
plant can, in the demonstrator configuration, supply only 900 kWth , where the demand peak is
1500 kWth , to the district heating network (DHN) due to the low diameter of the piping system.

The unit is sized to meet, in the steady state, the heat demand of the turboexpander line;
in transient conditions the surplus heat produced by the CHP can be used by other thermal users.
The CHP chosen is an internal combustion turbocharged engine fueled with natural gas capable
of delivering, in nominal conditions, 550 kWe and to recover about 630 kWth from the engine coolant,
the intercooling process and the exhaust.
In analogy with the design of the turboexpander, the correct sizing of the unit can be verified by
analyzing some typical operating parameters of the heat production system as:

‚ the CHP operation ratio, defined as the ratio of energy actually produced and that ideally
producible in nominal conditions;
‚ the boilers versus CHP ratio, defined as the ratio of the heat produced by boilers compared to the
CHP one.

The monthly trend of these two parameters is shown in Figure 8; it is worth noting that the CHP
coefficient of use reaches high values, greater than 80%, in the ranges where heat demand is high.
In this condition, the machine is able to supply about half of the total load.
The CHP coefficient of use decreases down to values in a range from 40% to 55% during low
load conditions, although responding to all the heat demand without any boiler’s activation.

16711
 CHP one.
The
Themonthly
monthlytrendtrendofofthese
thesetwo
twoparameters
parametersisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure8;8;ititisisworth
worthnoting
notingthat
thatthe
theCHP
CHP
coefficient
coefficientof ofuse
usereaches
reacheshigh
highvalues,
values,greater
greaterthan
than80%,
80%,ininthe
theranges
rangeswhere
whereheatheatdemand
demandisishigh.
high.In
In
this condition, the machine is able to supply about half of the total
this condition, the machine is able to supply about half of the total load. load.
The
TheCHP
Sustainability 2015,coefficient
CHP coefficient
7, of
ofuse
16703–16719 usedecreases
decreasesdown
downto tovalues
valuesininaarange
rangefrom
from40%–55%
40%–55%during
duringlowlowload
load
conditions, although responding to all the heat demand without any boiler’s
conditions, although responding to all the heat demand without any boiler’s activation. activation.

Figure
Figure 7.7.Natural
Figure7. Natural gas
Naturalgas lines
gaslines operational
linesoperational parameters.
operationalparameters.
parameters.

Figure 8.8.Thermal
Figure8. production
Thermalproduction side
productionside operational
sideoperational parameters.
operationalparameters.
parameters.
Figure Thermal
10
10
4. Energy Analysis of the Demonstrator
In order to assess the behavior and the performances of the demonstrator, a physical-
mathematical model was formulated to simulate the dynamic operations of the entire district,
based on Matlab-Simulink software [33]. The model is, when possible, simply implemented starting
from the standard elements proposed by Matlab-Simulink for each component, associated to the
appropriate mass and energy balances.
In other cases, (for example to simulate the behavior of complex machines such as the
turboexpander or the CHP) to obtain more accurate and reliable models, the measured characteristic
curves of the components are implemented. All components are then connected and the control
system is added for the regulation parameters as, for example, the power supplied by the thermal
units, the NG flow to the turboexpander and the variable speed pumps of the DHN. The model
requires several input parameters: some of them are directly measured data (as for the hourly demand
of natural gas and the average outside temperature) while others (such as for the thermal demand of
the DHN) are derived from a post-processing of the measurements (see Section 3.2).
The model outputs can be temperature, pressure, mass flow, power, and energy with different
sample times; for example, Figure 9 shows a main model output: the NG hourly flow rate share
between the two parallel expansion systems for five different characteristic days. It is observed that

16712
 curves of the components are implemented. All components are then connected and the control
system is added for the regulation parameters as, for example, the power supplied by the thermal
units, the NG flow to the turboexpander and the variable speed pumps of the DHN. The model
requires several input parameters: some of them are directly measured data (as for the hourly
demand of natural gas and the average outside temperature) while others (such as for the thermal
demand
Sustainability of the
2015, DHN) are derived from a post-processing of the measurements (see Section 3.2).
7, 16703–16719
The model outputs can be temperature, pressure, mass flow, power, and energy with different
sample times; for example, Figure 9 shows a main model output: the NG hourly flow rate share
in the days characterized
between the two parallel byexpansion
a low gas request
systems forthe
fivelaminating system is activated
different characteristic days. It is for a limited
observed that time,
duringin the days and
peaks, characterized
when thebyflow a low gasisrequest
rate lowerthethanlaminating
the limitssystem
of theis activated
machine.forUsing
a limited time,
daily average
during peaks, and when the flow rate is lower than the limits of the machine.
values, it is not possible to achieve this behavior which would involve in less precise results. Using daily average
values, it is not
To discuss thepossible
energy to achieveofthis
aspects thebehavior
system which would of
a campaign involve in less precise
simulations results.
was undertaken in order
To discuss the energy aspects of the system a campaign of simulations was undertaken in order
to characterize an entire year of operation; the model results are first processed to obtain monthly
to characterize an entire year of operation; the model results are first processed to obtain monthly
behavior, and second to obtain summary annual reports.
behavior, and second to obtain summary annual reports.
A description
A description of the thermodynamic
of the thermodynamic and numericalmodel
and numerical model ofof
thethe
CHPCHPandand of turboexpander
of the the turboexpander
can becanfound
be found in [34,35].
in [34,35].

Figure 9. NG flow rate sharing between turboexpander and valves for different characteristic days.
Figure 9. NG flow rate sharing between turboexpander and valves for different characteristic days.
4.1. Monthly Analysis
4.1. Monthly Analysis
This paragraph describes the energy aspects of the system observing the monthly trends of the
This plant
main paragraph describes the energy aspects of the system observing the monthly trends of the
parameters.
main plant parameters.
The trend of the gas distribution between the turboexpander system is shown in Figure 10, where
11
the gas pressure energy is recovered by the machine and by the throttling valves, where energy is
wasted. the high seasonality of gas demand is clearly shown, with high gas demands in the heating
season, when the machine collects the waste energy from about half of the monthly gas demand.
During the warmer months, when the volumes of gas required are lower, the machine is able to
elaborate almost all the monthly gas demand inducing a higher performance in the energy recovery.
The trends of the thermal demand of the entire plant are represented in Figure 11, formed by the
heat consumption of the DHN and by the two gas preheating devices. The DHN thermal demand
has a strong seasonal trend and is definitely linked to the weather conditions.
It is worth noting that, although the volume of gas drawn by the two expansion systems
remains the same, they require different kinds of energies. The thermal preheating demand of the
turbo-expander system is always the greater thermal load, assessing between 50% in winter and 80%
in summer of the total thermal load. An overview of the thermal production system is shown in
Figure 12. The CHP unit and the boilers are connected in series and the latter have the purpose of
covering the peaks when the heat demand exceeds the CHP capability. It is worth noting that, thanks
to the high thermal loads required by the gas preheating of the turboexpander line present also in the
hottest periods, the CHP unit operates with good coefficients of use throughout the whole year.

16713
 has aa strong
has strong seasonal
seasonal trend
trend and
and isis definitely
definitely linked
linked to to the
the weather
weather conditions.
conditions.
It is
It is worth
worth noting
noting that,
that, although
although the the volume
volume of of gas
gas drawn
drawn by by the
the two
two expansion
expansion systems
systems remains
remains
the same,
the same, they they require
require different
different kinds
kinds ofof energies.
energies. The The thermal
thermal preheating
preheating demand
demand of of the
the turbo-
turbo-
expander system
expander system is is always
always thethe greater
greater thermal
thermal load,
load, assessing
assessing between
between 50% 50% inin winter
winter and
and 80%
80% inin
summer of
summer of the
the total
total thermal
thermal load.
load. An
An overview
overview of of the
the thermal
thermal production
production system
system is is shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 12.
12.
SustainabilityThe
2015,
The CHP
CHP 7, 16703–16719
unit and
unit and thethe boilers
boilers are
are connected
connected in in series
series and
and the the latter
latter have
have the
the purpose
purpose of of covering
covering thethe
peaks when
peaks when the the heat
heat demand
demand exceeds
exceeds the
the CHP
CHP capability.
capability. It It is
is worth
worth noting
noting that,
that, thanks
thanks to to the
the high
high
thermal loads
thermal loads required
required by by the
the gas
gas preheating
preheating of of the
the turboexpander
turboexpander line line present
present also
also in
in the
the hottest
hottest
periods,
The chart
periods, the
inthe CHP unit
Figure
CHP unit operates the
13 operates
shows withtrends
with good coefficients
good coefficients
of electricity of use
of use throughout
throughout the
production. the whole
wholeelectric
The year.
year. energy produced
The chart
chart inin Figure
Figure 13
follows a seasonal The trend as 13 shows the
shows
well, andthe trends
trends of
more of electricity
electricity production.
than half production. The electric
The
of it is produced electric energy
energy produced
from produced
the turboexpander
follows aa seasonal
follows seasonal trend
trend as
as well,
well, and
and more
more than
than half
half ofof itit is
is produced
producedfrom from the
the turboexpander
turboexpander through through
through aaa recovery
recovery
recovery process, process,
process, whilewhile
while the
the remaining
the remaining
remaining part is
part stillpart
is still produced
produced
is still produced
by the
by the withby
CHP with
CHP high
high
the
fuelCHP
fuel
with high fuel
conversion
conversion
conversion performances.
performances.
performances.

30
30
flow
mass flow

25
25
20
Sm33

20
gas mass

Million Sm

15
15
share
share
Million

10
Natural gas

10
55
Natural

00
Jan
Jan Feb
Feb Mar Apr
Mar Apr May
May Jun
Jun Jul
Jul Aug Sep
Aug Sep Oct Nov
Oct Nov Dec
Dec
Turboexpander
Turboexpander Throttling valves
Throttling valves

Figure
Figure 10.Natural
10.
Figure 10. Natural Gas
Natural Gas
Gas flow
flow
flow share.
share.
share.

500
500
400
400
demand
MWh/month
Heat demand
MWh/month

300
300
200
200
Heat

100
100
00
Jan
Jan Feb
Feb Mar
Mar Apr May
Apr May Jun
Jun Jul
Jul Aug
Aug Sep
Sep Oct
Oct Nov Dec
Nov Dec
Turboexpander preheating
Turboexpander preheating DHN
DHN Throttling valves
Throttling valves preheating
preheating

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Thermal
Thermal demand
demand share.
share.
Sustainability
Sustainability2015,
2015,7,7,page–page
page–page Figure 11. Thermal demand share.

600
600
500
500
production
Heat production
MWh/month
MWh/month

400
400 12
12
300
300
200
200
Heat

100
100
00
Jan
Jan Feb
Feb Mar
Mar Apr
Apr May
May Jun
Jun Jul
Jul Aug
Aug Sep
Sep Oct
Oct Nov
Nov Dec
Dec
CHP
CHP Boilers
Boilers

Figure 12.
Figure
Figure Thermal
12.
12.Thermal production
Thermalproduction
production share.
share.
share.

500
500
production
Electrical production

400
400
MWh/month
MWh/month

300
300
Electrical

200
200

100
100

00
Jan
Jan Feb
Feb Mar
Mar Apr
Apr May
May Jun
Jun Jul
Jul Aug
Aug Sep
Sep Oct
Oct Nov
Nov Dec
Dec
CHP
CHP Turboexpander
Turboexpander

Figure 13.
Figure
Figure Electrical
13.
13.Electrical production
Electricalproduction
production share.
share.
share.

4.2.
4.2.Annual
AnnualAnalysis
Analysis
This
Thisparagraph
paragraphdescribes
describesthe
theenergy
energybalance16714
balance of
ofthe
thesystem
systemononaayearly
yearlybasis.
basis.
Table
Table22shows
showsthe
theenergy,
energy,ininGWh
GWhper peryear,
year,consumed
consumedand andproduced,
produced,in inthe
themain
mainprocesses
processesof
of
the
the plant.
plant. Table
Table 33 shows
shows the
the percentage
percentage of
of the
the ratio
ratio of
of energy
energy utilization
utilization divided
divided by
by energy
energy
production
productionboth
bothfor
forthe
thethermal
thermaland
andfor
forthe
theelectrical
electricalpart.
part.
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719

4.2. Annual Analysis

This paragraph describes the energy balance of the system on a yearly basis.
Table 2 shows the energy, in GWh per year, consumed and produced, in the main processes of the
plant. Table 3 shows the percentage of the ratio of energy utilization divided by energy production
both for the thermal and for the electrical part.

Table 2. Yearly energy consumption and production.

Energy Flow Nomenclature GWh/year

CHP Fuel consumption Fchp 6.6
CHP heat production Hchp 3.5
CHP electricity production Echp 2.3
Boilers fuel consumption Fboiler 1.9
Boilers heat production Hboiler 1.8
Turboexpander heat consumption Hturbo 3.1
Turboexpander electricity production Eturbo 2.9
Throttling valves heat consumption Hvalves 0.4
DHN heat consumption Hdhn 1.8
District electricity consumption Eself 3.7

SustainabilitySustainability
2015, 7, page–page
2015, 7, page–page
Table
SustainabilitySustainability
2015, 7, 3. 7,Yearly
page–page
2015, thermal/electrical
page–page energies sources/sinks.
Table 3. Yearly
Tablethermal/electrical energies sources/sinks.
3. Yearly thermal/electrical energies sources/sinks.
Table 3. Yearly
Tablethermal/electrical energies sources/sinks.
3. Yearly thermal/electrical energies sources/sinks.
Sources
Sources Sources Sinks Sinks
Sinks
Sources Sources Sinks Sinks

ThermalThermal
Thermal
Thermal
Thermal

Electrical Electrical
ElectricalElectrical Electrical

The energy Theconsumption

energy consumption of the whole district
of the whole is about
district1.8 is GWh/year
about 1.8 GWh/year of heat and of1.5
heat GWh/year
and 1.5 GWh/year
The energyThe consumption
energy consumption of the whole district
of the whole is about
district1.8 is GWh/year
about 1.8 GWh/year of heat andof1.5 heat GWh/year
and 1.5 GWh/year
of electricity. The turboexpander
of electricity. The turboexpander is able to produce
is able toabout produce 2.9 GWh/year
about 2.9 GWh/year of electricity whilst it need
of electricity whilst it need
The energy of electricity.
of
consumption The turboexpander
electricity. The
of the is
turboexpander
whole able to produce
is
districtable to about
is produce
about 2.9 GWh/year
about
1.8 2.9 GWh/year
GWh/yearof electricity ofof whilst
electricity
heat it and
need
whilst1.5it need
GWh/year
3.1 GWh/year 3.1 GWh/year of heat, which roughly corresponds to 58% of the total heat demand of theIt district. It
of heat, which roughly corresponds to 58% of the total heat demand of the district.
3.1 GWh/year of heat, which
3.1 GWh/year of heat, roughly
whichcorresponds to 58% of the
roughly corresponds to 58% totalofheat the demand
total heatofdemandthe district. of theIt district. It
of electricity. isisThe
worth turboexpander
noting
is worth
worth noting
is worth
that,
that,
in thethat,
noting
in thethat,
noting
is able
turboexpander,
in to produce
the efficiency
the turboexpander,
turboexpander, the efficiency
in the turboexpander,
about
the
the of
efficiency 2.9
of conversion
conversion
efficiency
ofGWh/year
of heat into
conversion of
heat
of heat intoofelectricity
of conversion
electricity
ofelectricity is more whilst
into electricity
heat into is
is more it need
more is more
electricity
than 0.90. than 0.90.
3.1 GWh/year than of0.90.
heat,thanwhich
0.90. roughly corresponds to 58% of the total heat demand of the district. It is
The CHP The supplies
CHP 62% supplies of the 62% yearly
of the heat demand
yearly heat and demand it represents 46% of the
and it represents 46% electrical
of the electrical
The CHP The supplies
CHP 62% supplies of the 62% yearly
of the heat demand
yearly heat and demand it represents 46% of the
and it represents
worth notingproduction,
that, inproduction,
the
with aturboexpander,
total fuela process
with total fuel the
efficiency
process efficiency
of about 0.86.
efficiency of of
about conversion
0.86. of heat 46% electrical
into of the electrical
electricity is more
production, with a total
production, withfuelaprocess
total fuel efficiency
process of about 0.86.
efficiency of about 0.86.
than 0.90. The two electricity production
The two electricity units, the units,
production CHP and the CHP the turboexpander,
and the turboexpander, are largelyare able to meet
largely able to meet
The two electricity productionproduction
The two electricity units, the CHP units,and the theCHP turboexpander,
and the turboexpander, are largelyare able to meet
largely able to meet
the district’sthedemands
district’s as they generate
demands as theyagenerate
surplus of about 3.7
a surplus of GWh/year.
about 3.7 GWh/year.
The CHP the supplies
district’s
About 38%About
62%
thedemands
district’s
of the38%
asof they
demands the
heatofrequired
asyearly
generate theyagenerate
is provided
heat
surplus
by
of demand
about 3.7
a surplus
auxiliary
and
ofGWh/year.
about
boilers:
3.7 it
it can
represents
GWh/year.
be noticed
the heat required is provided by auxiliary boilers: it can be noticed that the boilers’ that the
46%
boilers’
of the electrical
About 38%About of the38% heatof required
the heatisrequired
provided isby auxiliary
provided byboilers:
auxiliary it can be noticed
boilers: it can be that the boilers’
noticed that the boilers’
production, with a total
share would
share would
sharebefuel
reduced
would
be reduced
share
process
beifreduced
would beifreduced
a larger efficiency
a larger if
ifCHP
CHP
unit CHP
a larger
unit had
a larger
of been
had
CHPbeen
about had0.86.
unit installed.
unit installed.
been This
had been This
would
installed.
would
installed.
result
This would
result
This
in increasing the
result in increasing
in increasing
would the
result in increasing
the
the
The twoproduction
electricity
production
electric energy
production
production
electric
production
electric
energy
electric
and,
and,
thus,and,
energy
units,
thus, and,
energy
in decreasing
in the
thus, CHP
decreasing
thus,
the share the
in decreasing
and
the
in decreasing sharethe of self-consumption
of
share of self-consumption
turboexpander,
theself-consumption
share of self-consumption
(currently(currently
are largely
(currently
about
about
(currently
about to meet
able
about
30%). This30%). appearsThistoappears
be a profitable effect because,
to be a profitable effectatbecause,
present,atinpresent,Italy, the in electricity, that is soldthat
Italy, the electricity, to is sold to
30%). This30%).
the district’s demands appears
as This
theytoappears
begenerate
a profitable effect
to be a profitable because,
effect atbecause,
present,3.7 atinpresent,
Italy, theinelectricity, that is soldthat
Italy, the electricity, to is sold to
the national thegrid, is poorly
national is poorly aremunerated
grid,remunerated surplus
and the profits of
andabout (per
the unit of
profits GWh/year.
(perfuelunitburned)
of fueltend to decrease
burned) tend toby decrease by
the national thegrid, is poorly
national grid,remunerated
is poorly remunerated and the profits and the (perprofits
unit of(per fuelunitburned)
of fueltend to decrease
burned) tend toby decrease by
About 38% of the
increasing
increasing
theheat
the sharerequired
share of
increasing
increasing
theenergy
of
share of
theenergy
share sold.ofisenergy
sold. provided
energy sold. by auxiliary boilers: it can be noticed that the boilers’
sold.
Other important information
Other important deduced from
information deduced the annual
from the energy
annual analysis
energyare the fuel
analysis aresavings.
the fuelThe savings. The
share would key be reduced
Other important
pointkeywhich
if a important
Other
pointhas
larger
information
which been has
CHP deduced
information
considered
unitfrom
been considered
hadthebeen
deduced
to make to
frominstalled.
annual
a powerful
energy
the annual
make a powerful
analysis This
energy
comparison
are would
the fuelare
analysis result
savings.
between between
comparison
the fuelThein increasing
savings.
different different
The the
key pointkey whichpointhaswhich been has considered
been consideredto make to a powerful
make a powerful comparison between different
comparison between different
production electric energy
configurations
configurations
of plant
configurations and,
of plant isofthe
configurations
thus,
isofthe plantamount
amount
plant
isin thedecreasing
ofamount
fuel saved,
is theofamount
fuel saved,
of fuel
of fuel
asthesaved,
as saved,
share
suggested
suggested
ofrules
by
as suggested self-consumption
by rules for
as suggested
for
by the
rules
by the
rules
high-efficiency (currently about
for the high-efficiency
high-efficiency
for the high-efficiency
cogeneration
30%). This appears to [36].aThe
cogeneration
be cogeneration
[36]. The cogeneration
profitable system
effect is system
because,compared with
isatcompared two equivalent
present, with intwo conventional
equivalent
Italy, systems that
conventional
the electricity, systems is sold to
cogeneration [36]. The
cogeneration cogeneration
[36]. The cogeneration system is compared
system is with
compared two equivalent
with two conventional
equivalent systems systems
conventional
which produce whichthe same amount
produce the sameofamount energy of and electricity
energy and whichand
and electricity have the efficiency
which of the whole
have the efficiency of the whole
which is
the national grid, produce
whichthe
poorly same
produce amount
remunerated the same ofamount
energy
and and
ofthe electricity
energyprofits and
and electricity
(per which unit have
and of the
which efficiency
fuel have the of
burned) the whole
efficiencytend of the
to whole
decrease by
national energy
national production.
energy production.The cogeneration system, compared
The cogeneration system, comparedwith two equivalent conventional
with two equivalent conventional
national energynational production.
energy production.The cogeneration system, compared
The cogeneration with two equivalent
system, compared conventional
with two equivalent conventional
increasing thesystems,
shareproduces
systems, of energy
systems,
produces
systems,
the same
produces
the sold.the
same
produces
amount
amount
sameofamount
the sameofamount
energy of
energy of
and
and
electricity
energy
electricity
energy
and has the
and electricity
and has the
and electricity
andefficiency
and efficiency
of the whole
has the efficiency
of the whole
has the efficiency
of the whole
of the whole
national energy
national production.
energy production.
national energynational production.
energy production.
The energy The energy scheme of the cogeneration system flows and of the conventional ones in
scheme of the cogeneration system flows and of the conventional ones is shown is shown in
The energy Thescheme
energy of scheme
the cogeneration system flows
of the cogeneration systemand flows
of theand conventional ones is shown
of the conventional onesin is shown in
Figures 14Figures
and 15 14 applied
and 15toappliedthe Gavette to thearea.
Gavette 16715area.
Figures 14Figures
and 15 applied
14 and 15 toapplied
the Gavette to the area.
Gavette area.
 Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719

Other important information deduced from the annual energy analysis are the fuel savings.
The key point which has been considered to make a powerful comparison between different
configurations of plant is the amount of fuel saved, as suggested by rules for the high-efficiency
cogeneration [36]. The cogeneration system is compared with two equivalent conventional systems
which produce the same amount of energy and electricity and which have the efficiency of the whole
national energy production. The cogeneration system, compared with two equivalent conventional
systems, produces the same amount of energy and electricity and has the efficiency of the whole
national energy production.
The energy scheme of the cogeneration system flows and of the conventional ones is shown in
Sustainability 14
Figures and
2015, 15 applied to the Gavette area.
7, page–page

Sustainability 2015, 7, page–page

Figure
Figure14.
14.Gavette’s
Gavette’s power plant.
power plant.
Figure 14. Gavette’s power plant.

Figure 15. Equivalent conventional plants.

Figure 15. Equivalent conventional plants.
The fuel saving, Fsaving , can be calculate from Equation (1), where Fchp and Fboilers are the
The fuel saving,
estimated Fsaving , canof be
fuel consumption calculate
the district’s line, Fep and
from Equation
production (1), Fwhere
tp are theFchp and Ffuel's
equivalent boilers are the
estimated consumption
fuel consumption of the district’s
Figure 15.
of the conventional production
Equivalent
electric line,
conventional
and thermal Plants. F and
plants.
ep Ftp are the equivalent fuel's
consumption of the conventional electric F and
= F thermal
+ F − (FPlants.
+F )
saving ep tp chp boilers (1)
The fuel saving, Fsaving , can be calculate from Equation (1), where Fchp and Fboilers are the
Fsaving “ Fepis`
The useful effect of the demonstrator Ftp by
given thechp
´ pF sum`ofFboilers
the electric
q energy generated by the (1)
estimated fuel
CHP, Echp , and the turboexpander,
consumption Eturboproduction
of the district’s , and from theline, Fepoutgoing
net heat Ftp the
and from are H out
the equivalent
system, fuel's
The useful effect of the demonstrator is given by the sum of the electric energy generated by
consumption(Equation (2)).
of the conventional electric and thermal Plants.
the CHP, Echp ,The
andlasttheoneturboexpander, Eturbo
is the heat generated by, the
and from
CHP, H chp
theplus
net the
heat
oneoutgoing
generated from
by thethe system, Hout
boilers,
H boiler : the heat absorbed F
(Equation (2)). bysaving = Fep + Ftppreheating
the turboexpander − ( Fchpsystem,
+ Fboilers ) , is not taken into account
H turbo (1)
because it is an internal heat exchange and it is not provided to/from outside. In fact, it does not cross
The useful effect ofofthe
the boundary the demonstrator
control volume. is given by the sum of the electric energy generated by the
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CHP, H out =E
Echp , and the turboexpander, chp + H boiler − H turbo = 2.2GWh / year
Hturbo system, H out
, and from the net heat outgoing from the (2)
(Equation (2)). The conventional equivalent plant must have the same electrical, Eep , and thermal, H tp
Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719

The last one is the heat generated by the CHP, Hchp plus the one generated by the boilers, Hboiler :
the heat absorbed by the turboexpander preheating system, Hturbo , is not taken into account because
it is an internal heat exchange and it is not provided to/from outside. In fact, it does not cross the
boundary of the control volume.

Hout “ Hchp ` Hboiler ´ Hturbo “ 2.2GWh{year (2)

The conventional equivalent plant must have the same electrical, Eep , and thermal, Htp useful
effects of the cogenerative one (Equations (3) and (4)).
National law introduces average performance of generation for each type of burned fuel [37].
For the natural gas the standard electric performance, ηel,ri f , is 0.46 and the thermal, ηth,ri f , is 0.90.
The equivalent standard plants fuel consumption can be than calculated by Equations (5) and (6).

Eep “ Echp ` Eturbo (3)

Htp “ Hout (4)

Eep
Fep “ “ 11.3GWh{year (5)
ηel,ri f
Htp
Fth “ “ 2.4GWh{year (6)
ηth,ri f
By means of this procedure, it has been possible to estimate by Equation (7) a Primary Energy
Saving index (PES) of about 38% equal to 5.3 GWh/year of fuel energy (from Equation (1)).

Fchp ` Fboiler
PES “ 1 ´ (7)
Fep ` Ftp

In terms of natural gas consumption, the upgraded plant can save more than 500,000 Sm3NG per
year equally to more than 1000 tons of equivalent CO2 saved emission.

5. Conclusions
The EU’s plan for generating low carbon energy and mitigating climate change, calls for
considerable investment to enable the rapid conversion of the EU’s existing energy plants into
21st century systems, capable of guaranteeing both energy security into the future and, in doing
so, creating a more sustainable world. In order to minimize GHG emissions in urban areas a key
action is the massive exploitation of the unused energy potential through the effective and efficient
recovery of energy losses. Therefore, the smart integration of waste energy to raise energy efficiency
and carbon savings in cities is the aim of the CELSIUS Project (Combined Efficient Large Scale
Integrated Urban Systems), which is the biggest winning project within the EU call "FP7 Smart Cities
& Communities 2011".
The CELSIUS demonstrator built in Genoa aims to recover waste energy by the natural gas
mass flow rate, expanding from the main supply line to the city natural gas network through a
turbine/generator system. Moreover, the turboexpander has been combined in a CHP plant that
supplies a district heating network, in order to save energy and reduce CO2 emissions by means of
smart systems integration.
By using a numerical simulator, it was possible to analyze the behaviour of the whole energy
system and to predict energy flows and figures over different time scenarios. Dynamic modeling
showed that the demonstrator is able to save a considerable amount of fuel and to generate profit
from the sale of electricity and heat. A total amount of produced electricity of almost 5 GWh/year will
be generated, with a recovery of 2.9 GWh/year from the turboexpander. The CHP plant will produce
2.3 GWh/year of electricity and 3.5 GWh/year of heat. More than 500,000 Sm3 /year of Natural Gas

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Sustainability 2015, 7, 16703–16719

saving, corresponding to over 1000 tons of CO2 /year, is estimated with a Primary Energy Saving
index up to 35% if compared with conventional separated production of heat and electricity by NG.
The goal of achieving full energy independence of the district and reduction of local emission
of GHG, in accordance with the targets of the Covenant of Mayors and of the related Sustainable
Energy Action Plan, is now definitely closer. Moreover, a powerful tool for the design and control
of energy systems has been developed, with a flexible approach that can be adapted to the grid
extension/evolution.

Acknowledgments: This work was developed in the frame of the collaborative project CELSIUS (Combined
Efficient Large-Scale Integrated Urban Systems). This project received funding from the European Union’s
Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under grant
agreement No. 314441.
Author Contributions: All the authors equally contributed to this work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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