DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

71
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
SIGNALIZATION

Cycle = One complete rotation through all

indications

Cycle Length (C) = Time to complete one-

full sequence of
indications

Interval = None of the light change

Yellow = yellow indication or change

interval

Yi = Yellow + All-red (AR)

Green (Gi) = green indication

Red (Ri) = red indication

Phases = Gi+Yi

72
Right-turn Treatment
Permitted
Phase
Protected
Phase

Y Y

Protected/
Permitted
Phase

Discharge at an Intersection

nth 3rd 2nd 1st

เส้นหยุดรอสัญญาณไฟจราจร

Vehicles Stop in Queue at an Intersection

73
 Time Headway
4

(seconds) hs = ระยะห่างของเวลาของรถยนต์ผ่านเส้นหยุดในอุดมคติ
so = ปริมาณการไหลที่จุดอิ่มตัวในอุดมคติ= 3,600/h s
3.5

3 ti = ค่าเสียเวลาเริ่มต้นของการเคลื่อนตัวของรถยนต์คันที่ i
t1
tL = ค่าเสียเวลาเริ่มต้นรวมของการเคลื่อนตัว = ti
2.5

t2
t3
t4
hs 2

1.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

รถยนต์คันที่ i จอดรอในแถว

Time Headway versus Vehicle in Queue

hs = saturation headway

e (i ) =start-up lost time of vehicle i

= actual headway of vehicle i –
saturation headway

li =  e(i) = start-up lost time per phase

t L = li  clearance

74
T = Time to clear all vehicles from
intersection
= tL  hs * Number of vehicles

gi = effective green time or effective

green time for vehicles to move
= Gi  Yi  tL

si = saturation flow rate for phase i

(pcphgpl)
3, 600
= saturation headway for phase i

si * g i
Capacity for phase i, ci = C

75
Example:
t L = 3 sec/phase
Gi = 18 sec
Yi = 5 sec
si = 1,800 pcphgpl
C = 60 sec
ci = ?

Sol:
si * gi  1,800*  18 + 5 - 3  
ci = =
C 60
= 600 pcphgpl

Time Budget Concept

L = lost time per cycle

= N * tL

N = number of phases

76
LH = lost time per hour
3, 600 3, 600* N * t L
= L* 
C C

TG = total effective green time

= TG  3, 600  LH
3, 600* N * t L
= 3, 600 
C

Vc = total vehicles can be processed by

the intersection (all approaches)

TG 1  3, 600* N * t L 
 3, 600  
= hs hs  C

N * tL
C
 Vc 
1  
 3, 600 / hs 

77
Example:

1,000 pcph 2-phase signal

1,800 pcph 1,200 pcph

1 2
1,500 pcph
Critical
volume for
phase 1 & 2

Example:

1,150 pcph 2-phase signal

1,800 pcph 1,300 pcph

1 2
900 pcph
Critical
hs  2.0sec volume for
li  2.0sec phase 1 & 2
clearance  1.0sec

78
Step 1:
Assumptions:
- one lane in each direction
- C = 40 sec
T 1 3, 600* N * t L 
Vc  G  3, 600  
hs hs  C
1 3, 600 * 2 *(2  1) 
 3, 600 
2  C 

If C = 40.0 sec, then

1 3, 600 * 2* (2  1) 
Vc  3, 600    1530 pcph
2 40

Therefore, the sum of the critical volume

for 2-Ф signal may not exceed 1530 pcph.

In this case, however, the sum of the

critical volume equals to 2950 pcph
(1800+1150). And this number is greater
than Vc (1530 pcph).

79
 The 2-Ф signal, C=40 and one-lane in
each direction, cannot handle this traffic
volume.

Step 2:
Assumptions:
- increase number of lanes in some directions
from one lane to two lanes to reduce the
critical volume
- C = 40 sec

Critical
volume for
1150 pcph
phase 2

900 pcph 650 pcph

900 pcph 650 pcph

900 pcph

Critical
volume for
phase 1

Sum of the critical volume = 900+1150

= 2050>1530 No

80
Step 3:
Assumptions:
- increase number of lanes in each direction
from one lane to two lanes to reduce the
critical volume
- C = 40 sec

575 pcph Critical

575 pcph
volume for
phase 2

900 pcph 650 pcph

900 pcph 650 pcph

450 pcph
450 pcph

Critical
volume for
phase 1

Sum of the critical volume = 900+575

= 1475<1530 OK

Summary
1. We should provide two lanes in each
direction.
2. Two-phase signal with C = 40 seconds

81
Or: Find the appropriate cycle length for the
following configuration:

Critical
volume for
1150 pcph
phase 2

900 pcph 650 pcph

900 pcph 650 pcph

900 pcph

Critical
volume for
phase 1

N * tL
C
 Vc 
1  
 3, 600 / hs 

2*3

 (1150  900) 
1 
 3600 / 2 

= - 15 (not possible)

 Cannot find an appropriate cycle length for

this intersection.

82
At v/c ratio

N * tL
C
 
1  
V c

 
 v *  3, 600 / h  
 c s


At PHF

N * tL
C
 
1  
Vc

 
 PHF * v *  3, 600 / h  
 c s


PHF

PHF = peak hour factor

total vehicles in an hour
= 4 * max. 15 - min count

V15

83
 600
500

Vehicles
400
200
0

0:15 0:30 0:45 1:00

Time

From the figure above, PHF could be

calculated as follows:

400  600  500  400

PHF 
4*600
1900
  0.79
2400

84
Example

Critical

575 pcph

575 pcph
volume for
phase 2

600 pcph 500 pcph

600 pcph 500 pcph

2-phase signal

450 pcph
450 pcph

Critical
volume for
phase 1
1 2

PHF = 0.80 ,v/c = 0.90, t L = 3, hs = 2

C  ?, g1  ?, g 2  ?

Vc=575+600=1175 pcph

N * tL
C
 
1  
V c

c  
 PHF * v *  3, 600 / h  
 s

2*3

1175
1
0.90*0.80*3600 / 2
6 6
   67
1  0.91 0.09
use C  70sec

85
 g = 70 - 2* 3 = 64sec
600
g1 = 64* = 32.7sec
1175
g 2 = 64 - g1 = 64 - 32.7 = 31.3sec

Effect of Right-turning Vehicles

- shared lane
Roadway geometry
- exclusive lane
- permitted right-turn
- protected right-turn Phase control

ERT= right-turn equivalent factor

Example:
In the same amount of time, the shared right-
turn lane discharges 10 thru vehicles plus 5
right-turning vehicles; the thru lane discharges
25 thru vehicles. What is the ERT?

10-T +5-RT = 25-T

5-RT = 15-T
RT = 3-T
E RT =3
86
Through Car Equivalents for Right-Turning Vehicles, ERT
Opposing Flow Number of Opposing Lanes
1 2 3
0 1.1 1.1 1.1
200 2.5 2 1.8
400 5 3 2.5
600 10* 5 4
800 13* 8 6
1000 15* 13* 10*
≥ 1200 15* 15* 15*
ERT(protected right turns) =1.05
* may indicate the RT capacity that is only
available through sneakers at the end of
the cycle

Through Car Equivalents for Left-Turning Vehicles, ELT

Number of Conflicting Equivalent Factors
Pedestrian (ped/hr)
None (0) 1.18
Low (50) 1.21
Moderate (200) 1.32
High (400) 1.52
Extreme (800) 2.13

87
Ring Diagram VS Phase Diagram

R1 R2

88
Example:

70 250 800 175

610
35

75
500
Cmin= 60 sec
185 700 220 75 Moderate # pedestrians
PHF = 0.90
v/c = 0.90
tL = 3 sec
hs= 2 sec
Phase Diagram:

App Mvt Vol Eq. Adj. Shared Lane Vol per lane
factor Vol Group
LT 70 1.32 92 702 351
EB TH 610 1 610 351
RT 35 4 140 140 140
LT 75 1.32 99 599 300
WB TH 500 1 500 300
RT 75 5 375 375 375
LT 185 1.32 244 944 472
NB TH 700 1 700 472
RT 220 1.05 231 231 231
LT 175 1.32 231 1031 516
SB TH 800 1 800 516
RT 250 1.05 263 263 263

89
 351
263 351
472 140
472 516 375 Critical
231 516 300
300

Critical volume = 263+516+375 = 1154 TCU

Critical (Ф1+Ф2+Ф3)

N * tL
C
 
1  
Vc

c 
 PHF * v *  3, 600 / h  
 s

3*3

1154
1
0.90*0.90*3600 / 2
6
  43  60sec
1  0.791

use C  60sec

g=60-3*3=51 sec
263
g1 =51* =11.6 sec
1154
516
g 2 =51* =22.8 sec
1154
375
g 3 =51*  16.6 sec
1154

90
 INITIAL SIGNAL TIMING PLAN

Step 1: Development of a phase plan and

sequence.
Step 2: Timing of ‘yellow’ and ‘All-Red’
intervals for each phase.
Step 3: Determination of cycle length.
Step 4: Allocation of available effective green
to various phase (splitting green)
Step 5: Checking pedestrian crossing
requirements.

Development of a Phase Plan

- There is no simple approach to develop a

phase plan.
- Use the professional judgments.
- The most important issue is to deal with
right-turning vehicles.
o The treatment of RT could be:
 Protected RT phase
 Permitted RT phase
 Compound signal phase
 Prohibition of RT
- Few things to keep in mind:
o Phasing to minimize hazard may
increase delay.

91
 o Increasing number of phases will
increase the lost time per hour (LH).
o MUTCD (Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices) Requirements.
o Phase plan needs to be consistent with
the intersection geometry.
- Symbols

through

permitted

permitted

permitted in its own

lane

protected

92
Protected Right-turn Phase
When do we need a protected RT phase?

- RT volume * opposing through lane

volume >50,000.
- Protected right-turn phase is rarely used
when RT volume <100 vph.
- Protected right-turn phase is always used
when RT volume >250 vph.
- Other considerations:
o Local policy
o Opposing flows
o # lanes
o Intersection geometry
o Accident rate

Exclusive Phase for Pedestrians

Pedestrian
Phase

93
Example:

100 30 400 60
1,200
300

150
40 500 50 1,000
250

- No Pedestrian
- v/c = 0.9
- PHF = 0.90
- t L = 3 seconds/phase
- h s = 2 seconds
- Cmin = 60 seconds

Step 1: check for protected RT-phase

EB: VRT = 300>200 yes: protected RT

WB: VRT = 150<200 no:

cross product= 150*1200/3 = 60,000>50,000 yes: protected RT

SB: VRT = 30<200 no:

cross product= 30*500/2 = 7,500<50,000 no:

94
NB: VRT = 50<200 no:
cross product= 50*400/2 = 10,000<50,000 no:

 Protected RT for WB & EB

Permitted RT for SB & NB

App Mvt Vol Eq. factor Adj. Vol Shared Lane Group
LT 100 1.18 118 118 (1 lane)
EB TH 1200 1 1200 1200 (3 lanes)
RT 300 1.05 315 315 (1 lane)
LT 250 1.18 295 295 (1 lane)
WB TH 1000 1 1000 1000 (3 lanes)
RT 150 1.05 158 158 (1 lane)
LT 30 1.18 35
SB TH 400 1 400 675 (2 lanes)
RT 60 4 240
LT 40 1.18 47
NB TH 500 1 500 697 (2 lanes)
RT 50 3 150

338 338 158

118 158
400 333 315
400 333
400 333
315 Unbalanced
295
349 349 flow

95
So, a possible phase diagram for this
intersection is:

Overlapping
Phase

Ring Diagram for the above phase diagram is:

158
g4
g1
315
118
333 g2
158+400=558 400
295 315+333=648 (critical)
349
g3
338
338 349 (critical)

There are three phases on the critical path. So,

this phase plan has 3 phases. Sum of the
critical volume = 648 (EW)+349 (NS)= 997.

96
 N * tL
C
 
1  
Vc

c 
 PHF * v *  3, 600 / h  
 s

3*3

997
1
0.90*0.90*3600 / 2
9
  28.5sec  60
1  0.684
use C  60sec

g  C  N * t L  60  3*3  51 sec

315
g1  *51  16.1 sec
997

333
g2  *51  17.0 sec
997

349
g3  *51  17.9 sec
997

g4  ?

1st barrier = g1 +g 2 = 16.1+17 = 33.1 seconds

158*33.1
g4 =  9.4 sec
558

97
Convert ring-diagram to phase diagram:

g: 9.4 6.4 17.3 17.9 ∑gi=51 sec

98
Change Interval, y
85% tile of
approach speed
Driver
(m/s)
perception/
reaction
time
(ITE: 1 sec)

V85
y  tp 
2a  2 gG

Deceleration rate
of vehicles
(~3.05 m/s2)

Acceleration due to Grade

gravity (9.8 m/s2) (decimal)

Note: MUTCD recommends 3-6 seconds for yellow

duration.

99
Example:

If the average 85% tile of approach speed is 20 m/s on a

zero grade intersection, what is the recommended yellow
duration?

V85
y  tp 
2a  2 gG
20
 1.0 
2*3.05  2*9.8*0
20
 1  4.3 sec
6.05

100
All-Red Interval
All-red (AR) is an estimated duration to allow a vehicle
that has just entered the intersection legally on a yellow
interval to clear the intersection before given the green to
a conflicting movement.

Case I: Where there is no pedestrian traffic.

Distance from the

departure stop line to Length of a
the far side of the vehicle
farthest conflicting (~4-6 m)
traffic lane.

W L
AR 
V15

15% tile of approach

speed

101
Case II: Where there is a likelihood of pedestrian
crossing.
Distance from the departure
stop line to the far side of
the farthest conflicting
pedestrian crosswalk.
W + L P 
AR = max  , 
 V15 V15 

Case III: Where significant pedestrian traffic exists, or

crosswalk protected by pedestrian signal.

PL
AR 
V15

When 85th % or 15th % tile of speed is not available, then:

 Use 85th % tile as “mean speed +1 SD”

 Use 15th % tile as “mean speed -1SD”
 If SD is not available, use SDas “5mph or 8 km/hr”

102
 STOP & GO DECISION
speed = 0

speed = So x

(a) safe stopping during clearance interval

speed = So speed = 0

W
d

(b) motorist safely clears the intersection

speed = So

Dilemma d
zone x

(c) decision not to stop during clearance interval

If d<x, there is dilemma zone. In this area, a

motorist can neither safely stop nor completely
cross in a time allowed.

103
From figure (a), time required for a motorist to
safely stop is (ts);
S0
ts =
d max + 32.2g

and brake is (x);

S02
x= (1)
2d max +64.4g

from picture (b), time necessary for motor

vehicle to safely clear the intersection is (tc);
Length of
vehicle
d W  L
tc 
S0 (2)
To ensure that the motor vehicle clears the
intersection, then ‘x’ will be equal to‘d’. the
required yellow plus all-red intervals, Y, can
be determined by substituting ‘x’ (eq. 1) into
eq.2 and adding the motorist’s perception-
reaction time. That is:

S0 W L
Yrequired  t  
2d max  64.4 g S0
Perception-
reaction time

104
 PEDESTRIAN CONSIDERATIONS

Pedestrian signal indications shall be

installed in conjunction with vehicular
traffic signals under any of these
conditions.

 When traffic signal is installed under

the pedestrian volume or school
crossing warrant.

 When an exclusive interval or phase

is provided or made available for
pedestrian movement.

 When vehicular indications are not

visible to pedestrians (one-way
street, t-intersection)

 School crossing

105
TIME REQUIRED BY PEDESTRIANS

 Minimum crossing time, Gp, equals to the

start-up time and walking time for
pedestrians, that is:

G p = Start - up time + walking time

Dx
= (4 to 7 sec) +
Sp
Distance from curb to
Average walking the midpoint of the
speed (4fps) farthest lane

HCM2000 recommends Gp as follows:

W
G p = 7.0 + +Y
4.0

Minimum required green duration ‘Gmin’:

Gmin  G p  Y

106
MEASURE OF EFFECTIVENESS (MOE)

Stopped delay
 Delay Approach delay ~ 1.3 stop delay
Travel time delay
Control delay (HCM 2000)

 Number of stop

 Fuel consumption

 Queue length queue max

max backup queue

qmax

red signal

max backup queue

beginning of the
green signal

107
Delay Measures Have a signal
(speed drops)
Desired
Path
Distance

Actual
Path
D2

D2=D1 + deceleration time

D3 + acceleration time

vehicles
stop at the
stop line
during a red
phase

D1 Time

D1 = stopped time delay

D2 = approach delay
D3 = travel time delay

108
 DELAY, WAITING TIME, AND QUEUE

UNIFORM ARRIVAL
Vehicle (i) At this point,
queue has
been clear.

Arrival Q(t)
vehicles
(slope = v)
W(i) Departing
V
vehicles
Q(t) =Qmax (slope = s)

 g tc
1   C
 C

G R G
Time

Webster’s Uniform Delay

  g 
R = 1-    C
  C 

V = v  R +tc  = stc

stc = vR + vtc

vR = stc - vtc = (s - v)tc

109
  v   vc   g 
tc =   R =   * 1- 
s-v s-v  C 

 vs   g
V=  * C * 1- 
s-v  C

Total Uniform Delay (UDa):

1
UDa = * base* height
2

1
= * R* V
2

1  g     vs   g 
= *  1-  * C *    * C* 1- C  
2  C    s - v  

2
1  g   vs 
= * C 2 * 1-  * 
2  C   s - v 

110
Average Uniform Delay (UDa/vc = D):

1  g   vs  
2

 * C * 1-  *  
2

2  C   s - v  
D=  
 vC 
 

2
C  g  s 
= * 1-  * 
2  C   s - v 

2
 g
1-
C  C 
= * seconds/vehicle
2 s-v
 s 

Example:

v = 1,500 vph; s = 3,600 vphg (2 lanes); C = 100 seconds

v
= 0.65; D = ?
c

111
 v 1500
c= = = 2308
0.65 0.65

g c* C 2308* 100
from c = s* Þg = = = 64.1sec
C s 3600

g c 2308
or = = = 0.641
C s 3600

2
 g
1-
C  C   1- 0.641
2
100
D= * = *
2 s-v 2  3600 - 1500 
 s   3600 

6.444
= = 11.05 sec/veh
0.583

Note: Webster’s delay is a steady state model.

Uniform delay  uniform arrival
(good when v/c ≤ 0.80)
Delay

0.8 1.0 v/c

112
Delay Situations
vehicle (i)
arrival vehicles

Departing
vehicles

Uniform
delay

time
(a) no overflow
vehicle (i)
arrival vehicles

overflow Departing
vehicles

Uniform
delay

This type of delay is

called ‘random delay’.
time
(b) overflow due to stochastic variation in arrivals
vehicle (i)
arrival vehicles

overflow

Departing
vehicles

Uniform
delay

time
(c) overflow due to long-term shortage of capacity

113
OVERFLOW DELAY

slope = v
Cumulative vehicles

overflow
delay
slope = c

uniform
delay

G R G R G R G R

Time
T

1
ODtotal = * T *  vT - cT 
2
1
= * T 2 * v - c
2

ODtotal
average OD =
cT
1 2
* T * v - c
= 2
cT
1 v 
= * T *  - 1
2 c 

114
 OD between T1 and T2 :

 T +T  v 
average ODT1 to T2 =  1 2   - 1 
 2  c 

Example:
Chronic over-saturated during typical 2 hours
PM-peak has a flow rate of 1100 vph, s=2000,
C=120, and g/C= 0.52. What is average delay
for this intersection?

Average delay for the entire 2-hr period

g
from c = s* = 2000* 0.52 = 1040 vph
C
Or
2
 g
1-
v 1100 C  C 
and = = 1.05 > 1.0 (over - saturated) average UD = *
c 1040 2  v
1- s 
2
2  g
 g c 1-
C  C 
1- = *
C  C  2  c
average UD = * 1- s 
2 s-v
 s  C g
= 1- 
2  C
1- 0.52 = 28.8 sec/veh
2
120
= *
2  2000 - 1040 
 2000 

115
 1 v  3600 sec/hr
average OD (2 hrs) = * T *  - 1 
2 c 
1
= * 2* 60* 60*  1.05 - 1
2
= 180 sec/veh
total avearge delay = 28.8 + 180 = 208.8 sec/veh

Average delay for the last 15-min period

total average delay = UDa + ODlast 15-min

 T +T   v 
= 28.8 +  1 2   - 1
 2  c 
 6300 +7200 
= 28.8 +    1.05 - 1
 2 
= 28.8 + 337.5
= 366.3 sec/veh

Average delay for the first 15-min period

total average delay = UDa + OD first 15-min

 T +T   v 
= 28.8 +  1 2   - 1
 2  c 
 0 + 900 
= 28.8 +    1.05 - 1
 2 
= 28.8 + 22.5
= 51.3 sec/veh

116
LEAD-LAG GREEN

 Lead green or lead phase  right-turn

movement gets the green light before the
through movement.

 Lag green or lag phase  right-turn

movement gets the green light after the
through movement.

Signal Timing Design

 SIDRA  Australia
 Signal 2000  USA Based on the
 Synchro  USA Highway Capacity
Manual 2000
 HCS 2000  USA ( )

117
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES

A travel time study determines the amount of

time required to travel from one point to
another on a given route. In conducting such a
study, information may also be collected on
the locations, durations and causes of delays.

A delay study determines the amount of time

lost by a vehicle due to cause beyond the
control of the driver.

Applications:
 Indication of the level of service (LOS) 
for this class, we will concern only the
LOS of intersections.
 Identification of problem locations
 Performance of before-and-after studies to
evaluate the effectiveness of the traffic
improvement

118
  Determination of travel time on specific
links for use in trip assignment model
 Performance of economic studies in the
evaluation of traffic operation alternatives

Methods for Conducting Travel Time and

Delay Studies
I) Requiring a Test Vehicle
 Floating-car technique: In this method, the
test car is driven by an observer along the
test section so that the test car floats with the
traffic. The driver of the test vehicle
attempts to pass as many vehicles as those
that pass his/her test vehicle. The average
time is called ‘the travel time’. The
minimum of test runs can be determined as
follows:

119
 t distribution at
significant level Standard
(α) deviation of
the observed
runs (km/hr)

t * SD 
N    , N 1 
 d 
Sample size Acceptable
error in the
speed estimate
(km/hr)

d values
 before-and-after studies: ±1.5 to ±5 km/hr
 traffic operation, economic evaluation, and
trend studies: ±3 to ± 5 km/hr
 highway needs and planning studies: ±5 to
±8 km/hr

 Average speed technique: do the same as the

floating-car technique, except that the driver
of the test car need to drive at the same
speed as the average speed of the traffic

120
 stream based on his/her opinion. The
minimum number of test runs can be
determined as the previous method.

II) Not Requiring a Test Vehicle

 License plate observations
 Interviews

121
 Actuated Control

Detector Locations

presence
back loop detector
stop line

d
D

extension
Two sets of loops detector
to measure vehicle
speed

Terminologies

 Minimum green time is a sufficient

enough time for vehicles potentially stored
between the detector and the stop line to
enter the intersection (about 6-8 seconds).

d 
Gmin = li + hs * Integer  
L

122
 where,
li = total start - up lost time (seconds)
hs = saturation headway (seconds)
L = car length + clearance (m)
d = distance from detector to stop line (m)

 Unit extension is used to check and give

enough time for another vehicle to travel
from the detector to enter the intersection.

3.60* D
extention period for one vehicle =
S
where,
D = distance from the extension unit to the stop line (m)
S = approach speed (km/hr)

total green period

minimum extension
green period period

point at which the last

vehicle passes the
extension detector

 Maximum green time is a maximum green

time for each phase.

123
 o By working out an optimal cycle
length and phase splits as if the
controllers were pre-timed.
o Increase the green time computed by a
factor of 1.25 to 1.50 if the controller
is actuated.

 Recall switch: each phase has a recall

switch. When the recall switch is ‘on’, the
green is recalled from a terminating phase.
And the green is retained on the previous
phase until a ‘call’ is received if the signal
switch is ‘off’.

 Yellow and all-red clearance interval is

retained as fixed time in the controller as
fixed time controller.

VOLUME DENSITY CONTROL

This type of controllers is recommended when

approach speed ≥ 45 mph or 70 km/hr.
Advantage: The initial green allocated can
vary to reflect the number of vehicles;
eliminating the need to assume that the entire
area between the detector and the stop line is
filled.

124
 RIGHT TURNS ON PROTECTED-
PERMITTED PHASES

Case I: Leading right-turn phase, no queue at

the end of neither protected nor permitted
phase.
Q

r g gg gu

r= red light
g= green light for RT only (protected phase)
gg= green light when opposing thru blocks RT
gu= green light when RT vehicles to filter thru opposing
thru

Case II: Leading right-turn, queue at the

beginning of the permitted phase not the
protected phase.
Q
Q

r g gg gu

125
Case III: Leading right-turn phase, queue at
the end of permitted phase but not at the end of
protected phase.
Q
Q

r g gg gu
Note: It is not possible to solve the problem if there
is some queues at the end of both protected-
permitted phases.

Case IV: Lagging right-turn phase, no queue

at the end of permitted phase.
Q

r gg gu g

126
Case V: Lagging RT phase, queue at the end of
the permitted phase.
Q
Queue at the end
of the permitted
phase

r gg gu g

127
 BANDWIDTH CONCEPT

Bandwidth (BW) is a window of green

through which platoons can move or
maximum green time fro vehicles go through
all intersections without stopping.
Offset is a difference of the starting time
of references intervals between master node
and the subjected node.
Distance (m)

1500 m

Approach speed

1
1000 m

BW

500 m

0m
Time (sec)
Time Space Diagram

128
 Block length
L
t 
Offset  ideal S
Approach
Speed
Good progression  width of the bandwidth

Example:
300 m 300 m 300 m 500 m

Signal #1 #2 #3 #4 #5

Average speed = 20 m/s

 EB

Signal Relatively to Ideal Offset

# signal #
5 1 500  300  300  300
 70sec
20
4 1 300  300  300
 45sec
20
3 1 300  300
 30sec
20
2 1 300
 15sec
20
1 1 0
 0sec
20

129
How to get information in the table above? For
example, signal #4, the reference interval of
this intersection will be started 45 seconds
after the reference interval of signal #1 starts.

Effect of Queued Vehicles

L
Adjusted ideal offset = S   Q * h  loss 

Q = #of queued vehicles per lane (vehicles)

h = discharge headway of queued vehicles
(seconds/vehcle) (could be used as hs)
loss = lost time associated with vehicles
starting from the rest at the first
downstream signal

Bandwidth & Efficiency of Progression

BW
Efficiency  *100%
C
Note:
 40+% is considered as a good progression
 BW is limited by the green in the direction of
interest.

130
Non-Stop Volume

The number of vehicles pass through all

intersection without stopping =

BW Headway in
non-stop mode
hns ≤ hs

Total number of non-stop vehicles per

approach per hour =

3600 BW
*N *
C h
# of through
lanes

131
 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

Capacity:
Freeway &highway: The capacity of these
types of facilities is the maximum hourly flow
rate at which vehicles or persons can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point or
section of a roadway under prevailing
conditions during a 15-min time period.

Signalized intersections: the capacity at a

signalized intersection is given for each lane
group and is defined as the maximum flow rate
of flow for the subject lane group that can go
through the intersection under prevailing
traffic conditions during a 15-min period.

132
Level of Service (LOS):
Level of service qualitatively measures both
the operating conditions within a traffic
system and how these conditions are perceived
by drivers and passengers.

133
134
 Differences between Time Budget and
HCM

Time budget: Built-in assumption to simplify

the process.
HCM: Based on lane group equilibrium and
using prevailing saturation flow rates,
i.e. ideal adjusted for prevailing
conditions.

135
 ROAD ACCIDENTS

Methods of Summarizing Accident Data

 Type of Accidents
- rear-end
- right-angle
- left-turn
- fixed object
- sideswipes
- pedestrian-related
- run off road
- bicycle-related
- parked vehicle
 Severity (difficult to weight and cost
estimate)
- Fatality
- Personal injury
- Property damage only

136
 Contributing Circumstances
- Human factors
- Environmental factors
- Vehicle-related factors
 Environmental Conditions
- Lighting conditions
- Roadway surface conditions
 Time Periods
- Hour
- Day
- Week
- Month

Accident Rates
The accident rate is determined on the basic of
exposure data, such as traffic volume, and the
length of roadway section being considered.
Commonly used rates are rate per million of

137
entering vehicles and rate per 100 million
vehicle-kilometers.
Total number of accidents
or number of accidents by
type occurring in 1 year at
the location

A * 1,000,000
rate per million of entering vehicles =
V

Average daily traffic

(ADT) * 365

138
 OVERPASS INTERSECTION

Design Factors
 Direction of the overpass
 Stopping sight distance (SSD)
 Maximum grad
 Drainage
 Joint between the overpass and street
for a smooth driving and safety
 Economical Analysis
Advantages
 Reduce the number of vehicles at the
intersection  reduce the delay
 Reduce the average travel time of
vehicles
 Reduce the average delay of vehicles
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Traffic problem at the downstream
intersection since vehicles get to another
intersection to fast.

139
 RAMP CONTROL

Problem addressed: (due to the freeway

congestion)
 Congestion occurs when demand exceeds
capacity  bottleneck.
 Bottleneck could occur if the demand is
increased or the capacity is reduced to
level less than demand.
 Congestion routinely expected at
predictable locations during specific
periods of time called ‘recurring
congestion’.
 Congestion due to random or less
predictable events called ‘non-recurring
congestion’, i.e. accidents.

140
 0n-ramp
(D2)

Demand Capacity
upstream downstream
(D1) (C)

If D1+D2<C, no congestion.

If demand increases
or congestion
capacity decreases

141
Congestion Measurement

 Expressed in terms of flow, density, and

speed (based on the relationship between
v, q, and k).

q v

k q

congested
sides

142
Ramp Metering

Principle: Limit the number of vehicles

entering the freeway so that the demand is
not greater than the capacity.

Purpose of Having Ramp Metering

The objective of ramp metering is to maintain

uninterrupted flow on freeway as long as
possible by transferring delay to vehicles on
ramps.

Results of Having a Ramp Metering

 Vehicles wait at the ramp

 Vehicles choose another location to
enter
 Vehicles enter another time-of-day
 Vehicles use another route
 Vehicles use another mode (primary
purpose)

143
Benefits

 Higher and more predictable LOS

 Improve safety and efficiency
 Safety of merging operation
 Smooth the input of traffic low weaving
 Maximum utilization of total corridor
capacity

Keys of Success

 Additional capacity should be available on

alternative routes
 Adequate storage space should exist at the
entrance ramp
 Public acceptance

144
Types of Entrance Control

Closure
 Adequate storage is not available
 When freeway upstream of ramp operates
at capacity
 Could occur in recurring or non-recurring
congestion, i.e. closure due to incidents

Ramp Metering
 Minimum green time ~ 3 seconds
 Maximum flow rate ~750-900 vphpl
 Minimum flow rate ~ 180-240 vphpl
 Pretimed metering fixed raes, no
influenced by the mainline volume

145
Metering for Congestion
Ru/s

Du/s Cd/s

 If Du/s +Ru/s < Cd/s, the congestion will not

occur.
 If Du/s > Cd/s, the metering will not help.
 If Du/s < Cd/s and if Du/s +Ru/s > Cd/s, the
metering could be meter at the rate of
Du/s +Ru/s - Cd/s.

146
 Traffic Responsive Metering
 Check-in detectors: the meter will remain
red until a vehicle is detected at the stop
line.
 Checkout detectors (passage): to ensure
single vehicle entry, so green will be
terminated as soon as vehicle passes over
the checkout detector.
 Queue detectors: to prevent ramp traffic
from blocking frontage roads.

queue
on-ramp detector
frontage
road

ramp
meter
check-in
detector

freeway mainline

checkout
detector

147
 SYSTEM OPERATION

Single & Platoon Metering

Single Metering: Time to permit one-vehicle to
enter per green interval.

Example: If the metering rate is 600 vph, what

are the green and red intervals?
3600 sec/hr
600 vph  = 6 sec/veh
600 veh/hr
so, G = 3 sec and R = 3 sec

Platoon Metering: Time to permit two or more

vehicles per cycle. This type of control should
be used when the metering rate is greater than
900 vph.

148
Example: A ramp metering has a metering
rate of 1080 vph and releases 2 veh/cycle.
What is the cycle length of this ramp
metering?
1080 veh/hr
1080 vph  = 18 veh/min
60 min/hr

60
or 9 cycles /min  C = = 6.67sec
9

Integrated Ramp Control

 Application of ramp control to a series of
entrance ramps where the interdependency
of entrance operations is taken into
account.
 Control of each ramp depends on the
demand capacity considerations of the
entire system rather than demand-capacity
constraints at each individual ramp.

149
Calculated steps for Solving the Integrated
Ramp Control Problem
Step 1: Start with the most upstream on-ramp.
Step 2: Determine the total demand for
freeway section immediately
downstream of the ramp, Du/s+R.
Step 3: If Du/s+R < Cu/s, skip (Step 4) goto
(Step 5).
If Du/s+R > Cu/s, use ramp metering.
Step 4: If Du/s < Cu/s, use the metering rate of
Cu/s - Du/s.
If Du/s > Cu/s, use the metering rate of
zero and reduce R.
Step 5: Select the next entrance ramp and go
to Step 2.

150
 Example I:
Section #1 Section #2 Section #3 Section #4

Ramp #1 Ramp #2 Ramp #3 Ramp #4

D2=800 vph D3=600 vph D4=800 vph D5=600 vph

S1 S2 S3 S4
D1=4000 vph

B1=5400 vph B2=4800 vph B3=5200 vph B4=5200 vph

Let,
Xi = allowable volume at input i
Di = demand at input i
Bj = capacity at section j
Aij = decimal fraction of vehicles entering at
input i which pass through section j
Sj = demand at section j
i j 1 2 3 4
1 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85
2 1.00 0.75 0.70 0.60
3 - 1.00 0.90 0.85
4 - - 1.00 0.90
5 - - - 1.00

151
Compute Xi’s starting at Section #1
 Set X1 = D1 = 4000 vph
 S1 = A11X1 +A21D2
= (1.00*4000)+(1.00*800)
= 4800 vph < B1 = 5400 vph
 X2 = 800 vph
 S2 = A12X1+A22X2+A32D3
= (0.95*4000)+(0.75*800)+(1.00*600)
= 5000 vph > B2 = 4800 vph
Find X3 = ? vph
X3 = D3-(5000-4800) = 600-200
= 400 vph
 S3 = A13X1+A23X2+A33X3+A43X4
= (0.90*4000)+(0.70*800)+(0.90*400)
+(1.00*800)
= 5320 vph > B3 = 5200 vph
Find X4 = ? vph

152
 X4 = D4 - (5320-5200) = 800-120
= 680 vph
 S4 = A14X1+A24X2+A34X3+A44X4
+A54D5
=
(0.85*4000)+(0.60*800)+(0.85*400)
+(0.90*680)+(1.00*600)
= 5432 vph > B4 = 5200 vph
X5 = D5 –(5432-5200) = 600-232
= 368 vph
Conclusion
Ramp #1: No control needed
Ramp #2: Meter at a rate of 400 vph
Ramp #3: Meter at a rate of 680 vph
Ramp #4: Meter at a rate of 368 vph

153
Example II:
Section #1 Section #2 Section #3 Section #4

Ramp #1 Ramp #2 Ramp #3 Ramp #4

D2=800 vph D3=600 vph D4=800 vph D5=600 vph

S1 S2 S3 S4
D1=4600 vph

B1=5400 vph B2=4800 vph B3=5200 vph B4=5200 vph

i j 1 2 3 4
1 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85
2 1.00 0.75 0.70 0.60
3 - 1.00 0.90 0.85
4 - - 1.00 0.90
5 - - - 1.00

Compute Xi’s starting at Section #1

 Set X1 = D1 = 4600 vph
 S1 = A11X1 +A21D2
= (1.00*4600)+(1.00*800)
= 5400 vph = B1

154
  X2 = 800 vph
 S2 = A12X1+A22X2+A32D3
= (0.95*4600)+(0.75*800)+(1.00*600)
= 5570 vph > B2 = 4800 vph

Even A12X1+A22X2
(0.95*4600+0.75*800
= 4970) is still greater than B2 (4800), so
the entering volume upstream must be
reduced by: 4970-4800 = 170 vph
 X3 = 0 vph
X2 = 800 – 170/A22
= 800 – 170/0.75 = 573 vph

 S3 = A13X1+A23X2+A33X3+A43X4
= (0.90*4600)+(0.70*573)+(0.90*0)
+(1.00*800)
= 5341 vph > B3 = 5200 vph

155
 Find X4 = ? vph

X4 = D4 - (5341-5200) = 800-141
= 659 vph
 S4 = A14X1+A24X2+A34X3+A44X4
+A54D5
= (0.85*4600)+(0.60*573)+(0.85*0)
+(0.90*659)+(1.00*600)
= 5447 vph > B4 = 5200 vph
X5 = D5 –(5447-5200) = 600-247
= 353 vph
Conclusion
Ramp #1: Meter at a rate of 573 vph
Ramp #2: close
Ramp #3: Meter at a rate of 659 vph
Ramp #4: Meter at a rate of 353 vph

156