Saskferco Ammonia Synthisis Loop PDF

Ammonia Synthesis with
Alternate Feedstock
Rob Deobald
Jeff Hayes
Stefan Sigurdson
Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Saskatchewan
2006-2007
Executive Summary
Saskferco produces ammonia, urea and nitric acid (to make UAN). One future
option considered by the company is producing ammonia from a mixture of hydrogen
and nitrogen gas received from a petroleum coke gasification facility. This feed stream
would contain fewer impurities than the existing process. Our design team was requested
to design an ammonia synthesis loop based on the existing process to accommodate this
change in the feedstock. The project would involve determining the increase in the
extent of conversion achieved across the reactor catalyst beds, as well as examining the
excess heat that would be released from having a more pure feedstock. The excess heat
from the reaction would be recovered by steam boilers. This steam would be used to
power steam turbines that would compress both the incoming feed stream as well as a
carbon dioxide gas stream to be used in Saskferco’s urea plant. Before the steam created
can be used by the turbines, it must pass through a natural gas-fired superheater so that is
superheated upon its arrival at the turbines. Also generated in the superheater will be a
lower-pressure steam stream for the urea plant in order to optimize the heat recovery
from the superheater. Over a seven-month period, XDGR Engineering Systems has
developed an ammonia synthesis process designed to meet the specifications described
above. The following report gives a detailed examination of the design process that was
followed and the conclusions that were reached in the synthesis of ammonia with an
alternate feedstock.
i
Table of Contents
Nomenclature……………………………………………………………………………...1
1.0 Project Background……………………………………………………………………7
2.0 Project Definition……………………………………………………………………...8
3.0 Ammonia Conversion………………………………………………………………..10
4.0 Steam Superheater…………………………………………………………………...12
4.1 Overview……………………………………………………………………..12
4.2 Heat Requirements…………………………………………………………...14
4.3 Optimum Steam Passes and Number of Tubes………………………………15
4.4 Radiant Section…………………………………………………………........16
4.5 Shield Bank Section…………………………………………….....................19
4.6 Finned Bank Section…………………………………………………………20
4.7 Emission Stack……………………………………………………………….22
4.8 Construction Material………………………………………………………..24
5.0 Heat Exchangers……………………………………………………………………..26
5.1 Overview……………………………………………………………………..26
5.2 Gas/Gas Heat Exchanger…………………………………………………….26
5.3 Waste Heat Exchangers ……………………………………………………..27
5.4 Heat Exchange Summary…………………………………………………….28
6.0 Compressors and Turbines…………………………………………………………...29
6.1 Compressors………………………………………………………………….29
6.1.1 Synthesis Gas Compressor…………………………………………29
6.1.2 CO2 Compressor…………………………………………………...30
6.2 Steam Turbines………………………………………………………………31
6.3 Compressor and Turbine Summary………………………………………….32
7.0 Economics……………………………………………………………………………34
7.1 Overview……………………………………………………………………..34
7.2 Compressor Pricing………………………………..…………………………35
7.3 Steam Turbine Pricing……………………………………………………….35
7.4 Heat Exchange Equipment Pricing…………………………………………..36
7.5 Feasibility of Firing the Superheater with Hydrogen………………………..37
7.6 Ammonia Convertor Pricing………………………………………………....38
7.7 Stream Cost Analysis………………………………………………………...39
7.8 Economic Summary………………………………………………………….40
8.0 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...41
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References………………………………………………………………………………..44
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………45
Appendix A: Process Flow Diagram…………………………………………………….46
A.1 Process Flow Diagram and Stream Compositions…………………………..47
Appendix B: Ammonia Conversion……………………………………………………...50
B.1 Determining the Feed Requirement to Produce 1900 Tonnes of
Ammonia/day…………………………………………………………………….51
B.2 Deriving Equations to Interpret Stream Composition Changes……………..53
B.3 Estimating the Equilibrium Conversion of the Ammonia Synthesis
Reaction………………………………………………………………………….56
B.4 Reactor Composition Iterative Procedure for 8R1 and 8R2………………...60
B.5 Energy Balance Iteration Procedure for 8R1 and 8R2………………………70
Appendix C: Steam Superheater…………………………………………………………74
C.1 Calculating the Net Heating Value of the Natural Gas Stream……………...75
C.2 Heating Requirements of the Steam Streams………………………………..77
C.3 Calculations for the Radiant Section………………………………………...79
C.4 Determining the Optimum Number of Superheated Steam Passes………….81
C.5 Determining the Optimum Number of Urea Steam Passes………………….82
C.6 Calculations for the Shield Bank Section……………………………………83
C.7 Finned Bank Section Calculations (Vaporization of Urea Water Stream)…..87
C.8 Finned Bank Section Calculations (Heating of Liquid Urea Stream).………91
C.9 Calculating the Minimum Allowable Tube Wall Thickness………………...95
C.10 Calculating the Required Stack Dimensions……………………………….97
C.11 Determining the Required Number of Tubes in the Radiant Section…….100
C.12 Summary of Superheater Results…………………………………………102
Appendix D: Heat Exchangers………………………………………………………….109
D.1 Heat Exchanger Specifications…………………………………………….110
Appendix E: Compressors and Turbines……………………………………………….111
E.1 Compressor and Turbine Specifications……………………………………112
E.2 Synthesis Gas Compressor Pressure Safety Valve Design…………………113
E.3 CO2 Compressor Pressure Safety Valve Design…………………………...115
Appendix F: Economics………………………………………………………………...117
F.1 Determining the Bare Module Cost of the Required Equipment…………..119
F.2 The Feasibility of Firing the Super Heater using Hydrogen………………..125
F.3 Stream Cost Analysis……………………………………………………….126
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List of Tables
Table A.1.1: Ammonia synthesis loop streams………………………………………….47

Table A.1.2: Water and steam system streams…………………………………………..47
Table A.1.3: CO2 compressor streams…………………………………………………...48
Table A.1.4: Superheater fuel and flue gas streams……………………………………...48
Table B.3.1: Conversion of hydrogen as a function of temperature……………………..58
Table B.4.1: Stream 1 concentrations entering 8R1. ……………………………………64
Table B.4.2: Synthesis loop composition at zero conversion. …………………………..65
Table B.4.3: Stream 2 exiting 8R1. ……………………………………………………...66
Table B.4.4: Stream 3 exiting 8R2. ……………………………………………………...67
Table B.4.5: The recycle stream.………………………………………………………...68
Table B.4.6: Summary of final stream compositions and flow rates…………………….69
Table B.5.1: Example stream compositions for an equilibrium temperature of 750 K
for reactor 8R1 and an equilibrium temperature of 720K for reactor
8R1…………………………………………………………………………72
Table C.1.1: Calculating the average molecular weight…………………………………75
Table C.1.2: Calculating the average lower heating value………………………………75
Table C.1.3: Calculating the air requirement for combustion…………………………...75
Table D.1.1: Heat exchanger specifications……………………………………………110
Table D.1.2: Heat exchanger inlet and outlet specifications…………………………...110
Table E.1.1: Summary of compressor/turbine information…………………………….112
Table E.1.2: Stream compositions as H/N ratio varies…………………………………112
Table F.1.1: Summary of the cost of each piece of process equipment………………...118
Table F.1.2: Feed stream costs………………………………………………………….118
Table F.1.3: Product stream prices……………………………………………………..118
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List of Figures
Figure 3.1: Ammonia synthesis loop…………………………………………………….10

Figure 4.1: Steam superheater schematic………………………………………………...13
Figure 6.1: Synthesis gas compressor and turbine system……………………………….30
Figure 6.2: Carbon dioxide compressor and turbine system……………………………..31
Figure A.1.1: Process flow diagram……………………………………………………..49
Figure B.3.1: Ammonia synthesis equilibrium at various stream compositions………...59
Figure C.12.1: Heat available from the combustion of a 19,700 Btu/lb (LHV) refinery
gas.…..……………………..…………………………………………...104
Figure C.12.2: Distribution of radiant heat transfer rate around the tubes, dependent
upon coil arrangement and firing mode…………………………………105
Figure C.12.3: Determining the duty-split between radiant and convection sections
based on the bridgewall temperature...………………..………………..106
Figure C.12.4: Finding the dimensionless parameter J to determine the heat transfer
coefficients on the flue-gas side of serrated fins.…..…………………...107
Figure C.12.5: Determining the fin efficiency based on the convection film
coefficient as well as the fin design & thermal conductivity.………..…108
v
Nomenclature
A Area (m2)
AC Cross-sectional area of schedule 40 piping (m2)
AFB,LIQ Convective heat transfer surface, liquid heating phase (m2)
AFB,VAP Convective heat transfer surface, vaporization phase (m2)
AFREE Finned bank free area (m2)
Ai Inner surface area per tube length (ft2/ft)
Ao Outer surface area per tube length (ft2/ft)
AR Required radiant surface area (m2)
ARE Air requirement for 20% excess air (kg air/kg fuel)
ARm Air requirement (kg air/100kmol fuel)
ARw Air requirement (kg air/kg fuel)
ASB Shield bank surface area (m2)
ASS Surface area required for the superheated steam (m2)
At Finned tube surface area per unit tube length (ft2/ft)
AUS Surface area required for the urea steam (m2)
AVT Vertical tube radiant surface (m2)
BWT Bridgewall temperature (ºC)
c Catalyst cost ($/kg)
CBM Bare module cost ($)
CP Average fluid heat capacity (BTU/lb·°F)
CP1 Average heat capacity of synthesis stream in reactor 8R1 (kJ/kmol·K)
CP2 Average heat capacity of synthesis stream in reactor 8R2 (kJ/kmol·K)
CPur Purchased equipment cost ($)
D Required diameter of the stack (m)
DG Draft gain (inH2O)
DGC Convection section draft gain (inH2O)
DL Damper loss
do Outer diameter of each tube (in)
Do Orifice diameter (m)
DUA Draft under arch
1
ef Fin efficiency
ETL Effective vertical tube length (m)
F Correction factor specific to the type of tubes used
FAR Molecular flow rate of argon gas stream (kmol/day)
FBL Finned bank loss
FBM Base bare module factor
FBMa Actual bare module factor
FC Mass flow rate of fuel consumed (kg/h)
fc/c Factor for conductive/convective effects (0.85)
FG Flue gas mass flow rate (kg/h)
FGT Flue gas temperature exiting the convection section (ºC)
fh Fin height (in)
FH2 Molecular flow rate of hydrogen gas stream (kmol/day)
FIN Inlet molar flow rate (kmol/s)
Flwf Lost work due to friction (W/(kg/s))
FM Material factor
FNH3 Molecular flow rate of ammonia gas stream (kmol/day)
FP Pressure factor
FSS Superheated steam mass flow rate (kg/s)
FSS’’ Superheated steam mass velocity (kg/s⋅m2)
ft Fin thickness (in)
FUS’’ Urea steam mass velocity (kg/s⋅m2)
FUS Urea steam mass flow rate (kg/s)
fv Factor for local variation in heat flux (1.25)
g Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
G Fluid mass velocity (kg/s⋅m2)
h Height above datum (m)
H Required stack height (m)
%H Percent heat extraction from the superheater
HA,BWT Heat made available based on the bridgewall temperature (kJ/kg)
2
HA,FGT Heat available based on the flue gas temperature exiting the convection
section (kJ/kg)
HA,SB Heat made available based on the flue gas temperature leaving the shield
bank (kJ/kg).
hC Convection film heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K)
hi In tube heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K)
ho Total convection coefficient (W/m2·K)
(ho)eff Effective total convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K)
ΔHR1 Available heat of reaction per mole of hydrogen reacted in reactor 8R1
(MJ/kmol)
ΔHR2 Available heat of reaction per mole of hydrogen reacted in reactor 8R2
(MJ/kmol)
hRG Gas radiation heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K)
HT Total heat fired by the superheater (GJ/h)
hw Tube wall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K)
I.D. Inner diameter (m)
J Dimensionless parameter applied to determine the flue gas heat transfer
coefficient for serrated fins
k Average fluid thermal conductivity (BTU/ft·h·°F)
KM Tube wall thermal conductivity (BTU·in/ft2·h·°F)
L Horizontal tube length (ft)
LHV Lower heating value of the natural gas (kJ/100kmol)
LMTD Log-mean temperature difference (°C)
LS Section height (ft)
LVessel Length/Height of Vessel (m)
m& Mass flow rate (kg/s)
~
m Molar flow rate (kmol/s)
mAr Mass flow rate of argon (tonnes/day)
mH2 Mass flow rate of hydrogen (tonnes/day)
mNH3 Mass flow rate of ammonia (tonnes/day)
mTOTAL Total mass flow rate(tonnes/day)
3
MW Molecular weight (kg/kmol)
MWave Average molecular weight (kg/kmol)
nAr Molar flow rate of argon (kmol/day)
nH2 Molar flow rate of hydrogen (kmol/day)
nNH3 Molar flow rate of ammonia (kmol/day)
nSS Number of superheated steam passes
nTOTAL Total molar flow rate(kmol/day)
nUS Number of urea steam passes
N Number of tubes per row
Nf Number of fins per inch of tube
NHV Net heating value of the natural gas (kJ/kg)
NR Number of tube rows
NSE Net stack effect (inH2O/ft)
NSS Number of vertically aligned superheated steam tubes in the radiant
section
NT Number of tubes per row
NUS Number of vertically aligned urea steam tubes in the radiant section
P Pressure (Pa)
ΔP Change in pressure (Pa)
Patm Atmospheric pressure (psia)
PSS Superheated steam operating pressure (psia)
Q Volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
QC Heat transfer in the convective section (GJ/h)
QFB, LIQ Convection section heat absorption, liquid water heating phase (GJ/h)
QFB, VAP Convection section heat absorption, vaporization phase (GJ/h)
QMAX’’ Maximum local radiant heat flux (BTU/h·ft2)
QR Heat transfer in the radiant section (GJ/h)
QR’’ Average radiant heat flux (BTU/h·ft2)
QSB Heat absorption in the shield bank section (W)
QSS Heat absorbed by the superheated steam (GJ/h)
QT Total heat duty for the superheater (GJ/h)
4
QUS Heat absorbed by the urea steam (GJ/h)
r Ratio of maximum radiant heat flux to average radiant heat flux (1.93)
%R Predicted radiant heat losses
Re Flue gas Reynolds number
Rt Total heat transfer resistance (m2·K/W)
s Spacing between tube centers (in)
S Design stress, 90% of the yield strength for austenitic steel (psia)
SBL Shield bank loss
SD Required stack draft (inH2O)
SD’ Stack draft gain per foot of stack (inH2O/ft)
SEL Stack entrance loss
SFA Shield-bank free area (m2)
SFL Stack frictional loss per foot (inH2O/ft)
SOL Stack outlet loss
t Tube wall thickness (in)
T Temperature (K)
ΔT Temperature Change (K)
Ta Ambient temperature (°R)
TCD Tube-circle diameter in the radiant section (m)
TFG Total flue gas (kg flue gas/kg fuel)
TFG Temperature of flue gas (°C)
(TFG)AVE Average flue gas temperature (°F)
(TFG)IN Inlet flue gas temperature
(TFG)OUT Outlet flue gas temperature
Tga Flue gas temperature (°R)
TM Tube metal temperature (K)
tMARGIN Margin of tube wall allowance against corrosion and creep (cm)
tMIN Minimum allowable tube thickness (cm)
TRTW Radiant tube wall temperature (ºC)
(TSS)OUT Outlet superheated steam temperature (ºF)
TUS Temperature of urea steam (°C)
5
(TUS)IN Inlet urea water temperature (ºF)
(TUS)OUT Outlet urea steam temperature (ºF)
tw Tube wall thickness (in)
u Bulk fluid viscosity (lb/ft·h)
U Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K)
V Velocity (m/s)
V2 Exit velocity (m/s)
Vg Specific volume of the flue gas at the point in question (ft3/lb)
VH Velocity head (inH2O)
wS Shaft power (W)
X Hydrogen gas conversion across the ammonia reactor
X8R1 Extent of conversion of hydrogen across reactor 8R1
X8R2 Extent of conversion of hydrogen across reactor 8R2
(yAr)F Mole fraction of argon in the feed stream
(yH2)F Mole fraction of hydrogen in the feed stream
(yNH3)F Mole fraction of ammonia in the feed stream
(yAr)P Mole fraction of argon in the product stream
(yH2)P Mole fraction of hydrogen in the product stream
(yNH3)P Mole fraction of ammonia in the product stream
(yAr)R Mole fraction of argon in the recycle stream
(yH2)R Mole fraction of hydrogen in the recycle stream
(yNH3)R Mole fraction of ammonia in the recycle stream
εi Efficiency (%)
ρ Density (kg/m3)
ρ~ Molar density (kmol/m3)
ρB Catalyst bulk density (kg/m3)
ρSS Density of superheated steam (kg/m3)
ρUS Density of urea steam (kg/m3)
μ Calculated efficiency
~
% Mole Percent
6
1.0 Project Background
Saskferco is one of the largest producers of nitrogen fertilizers in North America.
Their facility is located in Belle Plaine, Saskatchewan and has been operating since 1992.
Originally they produced 1500 tonnes per day of anhydrous ammonia, 77% of which was
used to produce 2000 tonnes of granular urea. Their current anhydrous ammonia
synthesis process was upgraded in 1997 to increase the production of ammonia to 1900
tonnes per day, which increased production of granular urea to 2900 tonnes per day.
They have also added the production of a small nitric acid plant, for the production of
urea ammonium nitrate, in both 28% and 32% solutions.
The existing feed to their ammonia synthesis loop has a composition of
approximately 73.43 mol% hydrogen gas, 24.92 mol% nitrogen gas, 1.26 mol% methane,
and 0.39 mol% argon and helium. Hydrogen for this reaction is prepared through the
steam reforming of methane. The synthesis gas is compressed to a pressure of 190 bars,
and mixed with any unreacted gas that left the two ammonia convertors in the synthesis
loop. After compression, the synthesis gas is put through the reactors, and cooled off
with large waste heat steam boilers after each reactor. The gas then enters the separation
system, where the ammonia is separated from the hydrogen and nitrogen reactants. A
fraction of this recycle stream is purged, to keep impurities from building up in the
system, and then it is sent back to the compressors to be mixed with the fresh feed gas.
7
2.0 Project Definition
In the future, it may be possible for Saskferco to purchase synthesis gas for the
production of ammonia from a new petroleum coke gasification facility being built
nearby. One option for this new feed that is being considered is constructing a second
ammonia synthesis loop, producing an additional 1900 tonnes per day of ammonia. The
new feed for the process would consist of 74.25 mol% hydrogen gas, 24.75 mol%
nitrogen gas, and only 1 mol% argon. Because many of the inert components in the
original feed stream are recycled through the synthesis loop, the feed currently enters the
first ammonia convertor, 8R1, containing approximately 11 mol% methane, helium, and
argon. These impurities lower the partial pressure of hydrogen, which lowers the overall
conversion of the reactor. With the new feed stream, only approximately 3 mol% of inert
argon enters the first ammonia convertor, resulting in a higher partial pressure of the
reactants, which results in higher conversions and larger temperature rises across the
catalytic reactor beds. There are three challenges to redesigning a synthesis loop to use
the new feedstock. The first is analyzing the kinetics of the ammonia synthesis reaction
and determining the new conversions now that the impurities have been reduced. The
second is to design a steam superheater that will convert the waste heat recovered from
the ammonia reactors into high pressure steam. The final design challenge is to take the
high pressure steam and use it to power the compressors that bring the feed up to the
pressure required for the reaction.
Determining the behaviour of the ammonia synthesis reaction was accomplished
by finding an equation for the conversion of hydrogen as a function of equilibrium
temperature based on ammonia synthesis data from literature. Once we had this
equation, it was possible to calculate the composition of the streams leaving both reactors
8
2.0 Project Definition
8R1, and 8R2; however, to do so we must use two iteration loops. The first assumes the
outlet temperatures of the two reactors, and calculates the composition of the product
streams, and must be iterated until these compositions no longer change due to changes in
the recycle stream. The second iteration is an energy balance over the reactors, and must
be iterated until the outlet temperatures calculated are the same as those we assumed
when calculating the outlet compositions. To complete these calculations, some
assumptions had to be made about the separation system. A detailed design of the
ammonia separator units is beyond the scope of our project. We remove heat of reaction
from the system through waste heat boilers positioned after each of the reactors. This
heat boils water making high pressure (120 bar) saturated steam. To make this steam
useful, we must send it to a natural gas-fired superheater that brings the temperature up to
510oC. Excess energy generated by the superheater is also used to generate 23 bar
saturated steam at a rate of 25 tonnes/h for use in a Saskferco urea plant. Enough
superheated steam is generated by the superheater to power two compressors. The first
compressor takes an almost pure stream of carbon dioxide at 5 bar, and brings the
pressure up to 150 bar at a rate of 95 tonnes/h. The second compressor brings the
synthesis gas feed at 50 bar up to 190 bar, and mixes it with the recycle gas from the
reactors. A turbine is associated with each compressor, which takes the 120 bar
superheated steam, and exhausts it at a vacuum pressure of 30 kPa.
9
3.0 Ammonia Conversion
Feed enters the ammonia synthesis loop straight from the synthesis gas
compressor which is discussed in Section 6.1, where it has been mixed with the recycle
gas from the ammonia separator and been compressed to 190 bar. The gas then passes
through the gas/gas exchanger that heats up the synthesis gas feed with the hot gas
leaving the system and heading towards the separator. The feed then enters the first
ammonia convertor, 8R1. This reactor has two catalyst beds, and a small internal heat
exchanger with a heat exchange area of 239.6 m2. The first bed has an effective catalyst
volume of 21.55 m3 and the second having a volume of 29.70 m3. The second convertor,
8R2, has a single catalyst bed with a volume of 46.70 m3. Both reactors use an alumina-
supported iron catalyst promoted with alkali and various other metal oxides.
Figure 3.3: Ammonia synthesis loop
The ammonia synthesis reaction, shown as equation B.1.1, is highly exothermic.
This leads to a significant temperature rise across both reactors. As is shown in
Appendix B, having specified the inlet temperature to 8R1 as 300oC, the conversion,
10
3.0 Ammonia Conversion
outlet temperature and outlet composition was able to be calculated. The conversion of
hydrogen was determined to be 32.8%, resulting in an exit temperature of 507.8oC. The
gas is cooled in the waste heat boiler, 8E1, directly following the first reactor. This
exchanger cools the synthesis gas down to 400oC by creating high pressure saturated
steam. It is discussed in detail in Section 5.0, and in Appendix E. Conversion across
8R2 was determined to be an additional 11.8%, resulting in an outlet synthesis gas
temperature of 473.0oC. Concentrations in each stream are summarized in Table B.4.6.
Data for modeling the ammonia synthesis reaction was found in the publication
Catalytic Ammonia Synthesis by J.R. Jennings1. In this publication, equilibrium data was
given for a feed stream identical to the new feed stream being implemented. This
equilibrium data was converted into the form of total hydrogen conversion at equilibrium
as a function of temperature. Because the reaction will not reach equilibrium before
leaving each reactor, an approach to equilibrium of 10°C was used to approximate the
actual hydrogen conversion achieved. The temperatures of the synthesis gas leaving each
reactor were approximated from data given for the current temperature rise across each
reactor. Because the same reactors will be used for the new feedstock, a reaction
enthalpy was found per hydrogen gas converted and was applied for the new synthesis
stream. These heats of reaction estimated in Appendix B.5 to be approximately
36.6 MJ/kmol of hydrogen converted under the conditions present in 8R1, and
38.2 MJ/kmol of hydrogen under the conditions present in 8R2.
11
4.0 Steam Superheater
4.1 Overview:
The purpose of the steam superheater is to heat the saturated steam leaving the
waste heat boilers at an approximate pressure of 120 bar. After heating the waste heat
boiler steam, the resulting superheated steam would be split between the synthesis gas
turbine and the CO2 turbine to run their corresponding compressors. The temperature of
saturated steam at 120 bar was determined from the Peng-Robinson thermodynamic
model in the HYSYS program to be 323.7°C. The temperature of the superheated steam
was recommended by our supervisor to be 510°C. In order for the superheated steam to
generate enough power for the two turbines at 510°C temperature and 120 bar pressure, it
was determined that the mass flow rate of the steam must be 90.65×103 kg/h. To heat
this amount of steam, a superheater was designed to run off of natural gas. The
combustion of this gas would heat the piping of the steam stream and would therefore
heat the steam within. In order to reach the desired superheated steam temperature, the
waste heat boiler steam would have to be heated in the radiant section of the superheater.
In this section, entirely radiant heat transfer is assumed between the steam and the radiant
walls of the superheater. The tubes in this section would be bare with no fins would
encircle the combustion flame in the radiant section in the form of a vertical radiant coil.
Once the flue gas from the radiant section combustion leaves the radiant section,
much of its heat will be unrecovered by the superheated steam. However, by this point,
the flue gas will not be hot enough to be used by the superheated steam. To take
advantage of this available flue gas heat, a second stream of steam could potentially be
heated. This stream was decided to be a stream 23 bar saturated steam to be used by
Saskferco’s urea plant. The water used to make this steam was specified to reach the
12
superheater as a liquid at a pressure of 23 bar and a temperature of 131.8°C. This water
would be heated into the form of saturated steam at 23 bar, giving it a temperature of
220.1°C. The water would be heated by convective heat transfer by the flue gas and
partially by radiant heat transfer from the radiant section. The water would flow in cross
flow with respect to the flue gas flowing up towards the emission stack. The tubes in the
finned bank section would be equipped with circular fins to improve the process of
convective heat transfer. The urea water stream would flow down the finned bank section
before reaching the shield bank section. In this section, the tubes are bare, and the heat
transfer in this section is assumed to be a combination of convective and radiant heat
transfer. The urea steam would then briefly enter the radiant section in order to optimize
the available heat within the section before being sent to the urea plant.
Figure 4.1: Steam superheater schematic
13
Once the desired heat has been removed, the flue gas exits the superheater to the
atmosphere through an emission stack. The stack should be tall enough to induce a
negative draft within the radiant section. This allows for safe observation of the natural
gas combustion through a peep door. The stack should also have a large enough diameter
so that the flue gas exits at a desired mass velocity. Shown on the previous page is a
diagram illustrating the approximate layout and design of the superheater. This type of
furnace is classified as being vertical-cylindrical with a cross flow convection section.
The superheater was designed based on the published recommendations of
Herbert Berman found in the Journal of Chemical Engineering2. The calculations
performed for the superheater design can be found in Appendix C. These calculations are
placed in Appendix C in the order by which they were performed. The most crucial
assumption that was used in the design of the superheater was assuming a negligible drop
in the steam pressures. Because many of the equations and correlations given in
Berman’s publication were performed in empirical units, the majority of the calculations
were performed in these units. All of the significant final results have been converted to
SI units and have been communicated as such within this section. A summary of the
important results determined from the superheater analysis can be found in section 12 of
Appendix C.
4.2 Heating Requirements:
The natural gas stream used to fuel the superheater was specified to have the
following molar composition: 92% methane, 5% ethane, and 3% propane. For this gas
stream, the net heating value was estimated to be 49.51 MJ/kg. The net heating value
14
was found based on the lower heating values of each of the components. This net heating
value also assumed complete combustion of the natural gas stream. To ensure enough air
would be made available for complete combustion, it was specified 20% excess air by
mass would be made available. This was found to result in 21.33 kg of flue gas per
kilogram of natural gas combusted.
Based on implementing the Peng-Robinson thermodynamic model in the HYSYS
program, the heating requirement to produce the urea steam was found to be 57.61 GJ/h.
As well, the heating requirement for the superheated steam was found to be 50.64 GJ/h.
This results in the total heating duty of the superheater to be 108.25 GJ/h. The flue gas
was specified to be leaving the convection section at a temperature of 215.1°C. Based on
heat available at this temperature from Figure C1 of Appendix C, the heating efficiency
of the superheater was found to be 87.85%. From this, it was determined that 2433 kg/h
of natural gas would be required to meet the heating demands of the furnace, and 51.9
tonnes/h of flue gas would be released into the atmosphere. The natural gas stream was
assumed to not contain particulates or impurities. Based on this assumption, the flue gas
would be comprised entirely of CO2, H2O, N2 and O2 gas. The molar composition of the
emitted flue gas was determined to be 72.8% N2, 15.7% H2O, 8.27% CO2 and 3.23% O2.
All sample calculations pertaining to the heating requirements of the superheater can be
found in sections 1 & 2 of Appendix C.
4.3 Optimum Steam Passes and Number of Tubes:
Before the steam streams could be passed through the superheater, the optimum
number of passes for each of the two steam streams had to be determined. As was found
15
in Berman’s publication2, the optimum mass velocity for superheated steam in a
superheated steam generator should be between 146.5 and 366.2 kg/s·m2. It was also
specified that the optimum linear velocity of the steam exiting the superheater should be
10 m/s. For the given exiting density of the steam, the optimum mass velocity of the
superheated steam sold to the turbines was found to be 365.8 kg/s·m2. Because schedule
40 piping was used for all of the piping within the superheater, the cross-sectional area
could be determined (8.21×10-3 m2). This provided enough information to determine that
the optimum number of superheated steam passes would be 8.38 for the superheater.
Rounding up, this gave 9 actual superheated steam passes within the furnace. Sample
calculations for this part of the analysis can be found in section 4 of Appendix C.
The optimum mass velocity for the generating saturated steam was found to be
between 488.2 and 732.4 kg/s·m2. Using a mass velocity of 500 kg/s·m2 for the exiting
23 bar saturated steam for the urea plant, and given the cross-sectional area for schedule
40 piping, the optimum number of urea steam passes was found to be 1.69. Because the
number of passes of saturated steam through the superheater has to be a whole number,
the mass velocity for the urea steam can’t fall within the optimum range for saturated
steam. It was decided that it was better to have two steam passes instead of one so that
some steam would still be sent to the urea plant in case one of the passes would fail.
Sample calculations for this part of the analysis can be found in section 5 of Appendix C.
4.4 Radiant Section:
As previously stated, entirely radiant heat transfer is assumed to occur in the
radiant section. As was recommended by Berman2, the temperature of the radiant tube
16
walls was designed to be 75ºF (41.7ºC) hotter than the exit temperature of the
superheated steam. This gave a radiant tube temperature of 552ºC. Based on this tube-
wall temperature, the bridgewall temperature was found from Figure C3 of Appendix C
to be 927ºC. By determining the ratio of the heat available at the bridgewall and radiant
tube temperatures, the ratio of the heat transfer in the radiant section to the total heat
transfer in the superheater should have the same value. From this analysis, the heat
transfer in the radiant section was determined to be 63.60 GJ/h. Because the total heat
transfer to the steam streams was previously determined to be 108.24 GJ/h, this means
the heat transferred in the radiant section would be 44.64 GJ/h. Because this value is less
than the total heat requirement for the saturated urea steam (57.61 GJ/h), this means that
the urea steam would have to pass through part of the radiant section in order to be
completely saturated steam once sent to the urea plant.
When determining the required surface area of tubing required for absorbing all of
the available heat in the radiant section, he first row of the shield bank section must be
acknowledged. This row is assumed to absorb its share of the radiant heat released from
the furnace walls due to its vicinity to the radiant section. The total surface area of the
bottom row of the shield bank section was found to be 28.0m2. Given an assumed radiant
heat flux of 0.125 GJ/h·m2 (average expected heat flux for a steam superheater)
throughout the entire radiant section, the required surface area to absorb the total radiant
heat transfer was found to be 509.1m2. This means that the total surface area of the
vertical tubes within the radiant section must be equal to 481.1 m2. Calculations
pertaining to this analysis can be found in section 3 of Appendix C.
17
Based on the surface area required in the radiant section, the number of vertical
tubes required for both the superheated steam and the urea steam would have to be
determined. Based on the heating requirement of each type of stream, the distribution of
the vertical tube surface area in the radiant section was found to be 405.4 m2 for the
superheated steam and 75.7 m2 for the saturated urea steam. The number of vertical
tubes for each steam stream must then be of the same ratio as the surface areas for each
steam stream. Additionally, the number of tubes for each steam stream must be divisible
by the number of passes for each stream. In other words, the number of superheated
steam vertical tubes must be divisional by 9 and the number of urea steam vertical tubes
must be divisible by 2. When 108 vertical tubes for the superheated steam were
specified, it was found that approximately 20 vertical tubes for the urea steam were
required. This gives a total of 128 vertically aligned bare tubes within the radiant section.
Based on the number of superheated steam tubes and the required surface area for the
superheated steam, it was determined that the required equivalent tube length for each
tube in the coil would be 10.45 m. When this equivalent tube length was applied to the
urea steam in the radiant section, it was found that the surface area for the urea steam
would be 75.1 m2. This means that the surface area exposed for the urea steam would be
0.6 m2 less than initially determined. This wasn’t considered a problem as this deficit in
urea steam surface area would be made up for within the convection section calculations.
Given a spacing of 8 inches between the vertical tubes, the approximate diameter of the
radiant tube circle was found to be 8.28 m. The ratio between the equivalent tube lengths
with respect to the tube circle diameter would then be 1.26. Design calculations outlined
within this paragraph can be found in section 11 of Appendix C.
18
4.5 Shield Bank Section:
In the shield bank of the convection section, it was assumed that heat would be
transferred to the urea steam both by convective heat transfer and by radiant heat transfer.
It was decided that the shield bank section would consist of 3 rows, each having 16 bare
tubes 4.88 meters in length. To determine the temperature of the flue gas exiting the
shield bank of the convection section, an iterative technique was used starting with an
initial guess for the outlet temperature. What was known was that the temperature of the
urea steam would be constant during this phase (220.1°C). The inlet temperature of the
flue gas was known because it would be the same as the bridgewall temperature
(926.7°C). The final value of the flue gas outlet temperature was found to be 765.6°C.
The log-mean temperature difference between the flue gas and the steam was found to be
622.6°C based on these temperatures. To find the heat transfer coefficient outside of the
tubes, empirical equations given by Berman2 were used to find the coefficients of both
convective heat transfer and radiant heat transfer. These results were then combined by
equation C.6.4 to determine the overall heat transfer coefficient outside of the shield bank
tubes. The total convection coefficient outside the tubes was found to be 17.93 W/m2·K.
Based on the average thermodynamic properties of the two-phase water within the shield
bank section, the convection coefficient within the tube was determined to be
963.2 W/m2·K. Based on the thermal conductivity of the tube wall itself, the tube
convection coefficient was found to be 2396 W/m2·K. To determine the overall heat
transfer coefficient (U), a summation of the thermal resistances was found, and the
reciprocal of the total thermal resistance was taken as U. Using this value, the log-mean
19
temperature difference, and the total surface area exposed in the section, the total amount
of heat absorbed in this section was determined to be 3.28 GJ/h.
Using equation C.6.11, a ratio of the heat absorbed before and after the shield
bank was equated to the ratio of the heat made available before and after the shield bank
to determine the heat made available based on the assumed outlet flue gas temperature.
The heat made available after the shield bank was determined to be 12,140 BTU/lb. This
value was then plotted on Figure C1 to determine the outlet flue gas temperature to see if
it was the same as was initially assumed. If this weren’t the case, the steps outline in this
paragraph would be repeated until the determined outlet flue gas temperatures converged
to be same value. Once this temperature converged, the shield bank calculations were
complete. The iterative process used can be found in section 6 of Appendix C.
4.6 Finned Bank Section:
The finned bank section was divided into two separate sets of calculations: one
for set the feed water is being heated, the other for when the feed water begins to be
vaporized. It was determined using the HYSYS simulation program that 26.21 GJ/h
would be absorbed to vaporize water within the finned bank section, and 7.81 GJ/h would
be needed to heat the water after it initially enter the furnace. It was decided that rows
consisting of 16 finned tubes each 4.88 meters in length would be used in the design.
The number of rows required would be determined from the calculation process. The
fins that would be used in our design would be circular fins. They would be spaced 3 per
inch (1.2 fins per cm), ¾ inches high (1.9 cm), and 0.05 inches thick (0.13 cm). The
amount of surface area that these tubes would possess per unit of tube length was found
20
to be 2.23 m2/m, and the total free area across each tube row was found to be 6.49 m2.
From this determined free area, the flue gas mass velocity through the finned bank must
then be 2.22 kg/m2·s.
For the vaporization phase of the finned bank, the corresponding Reynolds
number for the flue gas flowing past the tubes would be 7304. From Figure C4, this
corresponds to the dimensionless J parameter having a value of 0.01. The parameter J is
required when estimating the convection coefficient outside of the tubes. From this
parameter, and based on the thermodynamic properties at this stage in the convection
section, the outer convection coefficient was determined to be 10.46 W/m2·K. However,
this value is misleading as it assumes a fin efficiency of 100%. The efficiency of the fins
must be taken from Figure C5 of Appendix C. Once this value is known, the effective
outer convection coefficient can be found. This value was determined to be 8.97 W/m2·K
based on a fin efficiency of 83%. As for the shield bank, the in-film convection
coefficient and the tube wall heat transfer coefficient can be determined based on the
properties of the urea steam and the tube. These values were determined to be
1282 W/m2·K and 2396 W/m2·K. A summation of the thermal resistances can then be
found, and from this, the overall heat transfer coefficient can be found for the
vaporization phase of the finned bank section. This value was found to be 8.34 W/m2·K.
Based on the heating requirement of this part of the superheater, as well as the overall
heat transfer coefficient and the assumed log-mean temperature difference, the required
surface area was then found. For the vaporization phase of the finned bank, it was
determined that 947 m2 would be required. From the number and length of the tubes, it
was found that 3.48 rows of finned tubes would be needed in this part of the finned bank
21
section. To ensure complete vaporization of the urea steam, the number of tube rows was
rounded up to 4 rows. This analysis can be found in section 7 of Appendix C.
For the water heating phase of the finned bank section, the same technique was
used for finding the number of required finned tube rows. The only changes to be made
would be the thermodynamic properties of the flue gas and the water. As for all of the
superheater design calculations, the thermodynamic properties of the steam and flue gas
streams were found based on the Peng-Robinson thermodynamic model. The value of J
was determined to be 0.011. The fin efficiency was determined to be 88% for this phase
of the finned bank, giving an effective outer heat transfer coefficient of 9.66 W/m2·K.
The overall heat transfer coefficient was determined to be 8.93 W/m2·K, and the required
surface area for the water heating phase of the finned bank was found to be 733.3 m2.
The number of tube rows was then determined to be 2.69, which was rounded up to 3
rows to ensure the urea steam would be completely in the vapor phase. The analysis for
this portion of the finned bank section can be found in section 8 of Appendix C.
4.7 Emission Stack:
When designing the emission stack for the superheater, it must have a sufficient
diameter to provide a desired mass flux of flue gas into the atmosphere. The height of the
stack must be of sufficient length to induce a draft that provides a slightly negative
pressure in the radiant section. The negative radiant section pressure would allow for
safe observation of the tubing within the radiant section through the peep doors of the
furnace.
22
It was recommended from Berman2 that the stack be designed to accommodate a
flue gas mass flux of 0.8 lb/s·ft2, which is equivalent to 3.91 kg/s·m2. It was also
recommended that the stack be designed to accommodate for a 25% increase in the mass
flow rate of flue gas. Given the flue gas emission rate of 51,905 kg/h, the stack will
require a diameter of 2.42 meters.
For determining the required stack height, the pressure losses, or velocity head,
caused by the flue gas flowing across each section of the superheater must be determined.
These velocity head losses were determined based on equation C.10.1 of Appendix C.
The head losses were determined for the draft under arch and across the shield bank,
finned bank, stack entrance, stack exit, and the dampers. The total velocity head losses
were determined to be 0.3962 inH2O. Based on equation C.10.8 of Appendix C, the draft
gain across the convection section could be determined. The convection section gain was
determined to be 0.0946 inH2O. By subtracting the convection section draft gain from
the velocity head losses, the draft gain required by the emission stack can be determined.
This required stack draft was determined to be 0.3016 inH2O. Using equation C.10.8, the
stack draft gain can be found per unit length of stack height. This value was determined
to be 0.005485 inH2O/ft. Before this value can be used to determine the required height
of the stack, the frictional energy losses in the flue gas as it passes up the stack must be
taken into account. From equation C.10.13, these frictional losses were determined to be
0.0003066 inH2O/ft, making the required net stack draft gain equal to 0.005179 inH2O/ft.
This means that the height of the required stack must be 17.75 meters. Calculations
performed regarding for the stack design can be found in section 11 of Appendix C.
23
4.8 Construction Material:
The final calculations performed in the superheater design were determining if the
tube wall thickness would be suffice to withstand the effects of corrosion and creep
within the tube walls. Corrosion would be caused along the tube walls by the tube metal
losing electrons by reacting with the flowing water streams. Creep is a term used to
describe the tendency of a metal to move or deform permanently to relive the stress2.
Creep commonly occurs when a metal is put under high temperatures and pressures for
long periods of time.
To combat creep, the tubes would have to be constructed out of a material capable
of withstanding high operating temperatures. Because the operating temperature of the
radiant section is 927°C, the tube metal chosen must be capable of withstanding these
high operating temperatures. The tubing material chosen was type HK-40 austenitic
steel. Austenitic steels are classified as alloys consisting of various combinations of iron,
chromium, and nickel. Type HK-40 steel composition by mass is defined as 25%
chromium, 20% nickel, and 55% iron. The limiting design metal temperature of HK-40
austenitic steel is approximately 1000°C,2 73°C hotter than the maximum operating
temperature.
It was determined from equation C.9.1 of Appendix C that the maximum expected
heat flux in the radiant section would be 71.15 kW/m2. The in-film convection
coefficient at the outlet temperature and thermodynamic properties of the superheated
steam was found to be 391.0 W/m2·K. Under these conditions, and given the thermal
conductivity of austenitic steel, the tube metal temperature at the superheated steam exit
was determined to be 584.7°C. To allow for a margin of safety, the maximum operating
24
tube temperature was set at 650°C, which is well within the constraints of HK-40
austenitic steel. The large buffer between the maximum operating temperature and the
limiting design temperature for HK-40 steel ensures that issues of corrosion and creep
will not be an issue in the designed superheater.
To determine if the tube walls are thick enough to withstand the stress of
operating pressures, the minimum allowable tube thickness was determined for HK-40
austenitic steel. Based on the maximum operating pressure (120 bar), the outer diameter
of the tubes (11.4 cm), and the design stress (90% of the yield strength) for HK-40 steel
under the operating conditions, the minimal allowable tube wall thickness for the HK-40
tubes was determined to be 0.307 cm. Given that schedule 40 piping has a wall thickness
of 0.602 cm, this allows for a 0.295 cm margin against the effects of corrosion and creep.
Calculations regarding the tube wall material can be found in section 9 of Appendix C.
25
5.0 Heat Exchangers
5.1 Overview
There are three unique shell-and-tube heat exchangers implemented within the
specified design. These heat exchangers include a gas/gas heat exchanger, and two waste
heat boilers. The gas/gas heat exchanger serves two purposes. Its first purpose is to heat
the incoming synthesis feed entering the first ammonia convertor to reach a feasible
reaction temperature. Its second purpose is to cool the synthesized ammonia stream so
that the separation units can remove the product more easily. The waste heat exchangers
remove heat from the synthesis streams leaving each of the two ammonia convertors.
The steam recovered by the waste heat exchangers is then superheated for use by the
steam turbines.
5.2 Gas/Gas Heat Exchanger
The purpose of the gas/gas heat exchanger is two fold. It must heat the feed
entering the first ammonia convertor to a reasonable reaction temperature as well as
cooling the ammonia product stream so that it is more easily separated in the separation
units.
The result of the exchanger is the synthesis gas feed stream being heated from
31°C to 300°C by the ammonia product before it enters the first ammonia convertor,
while the ammonia product stream is cooled from 340°C to 56°C by the feed stream. In
order to achieve this large heat exchange between the gas streams, a large effective
surface area of 2420 m2 is required. The heat exchanger designed consists of one shell
pass of the feed stream and one tube pass of the product stream. Due to the high
temperatures of the gases the exchanger had to be constructed from special materials.
26
5.0 Heat Exchangers
The steels used in the gas/gas exchanger have high quantities of chromium and
molybdenum to help prevent creep and corrosion. The shell side is constructed from
SA387 Gr.11 Cl.2 stainless steel and also has 24 baffles to help with the heat exchange.
The tubes of the exchanger are constructed from a slightly different stainless steel,
SA213/T11.
5.3 Waste Heat Exchangers
Along with the gas/gas exchanger there are also two waste heat exchangers in the
process. The purpose of the waste heat exchangers is to remove the heat from the
product streams leaving the ammonia convertors. To achieve this boiler feed water is
used as the coolant and is heated to saturated steam while cooling the product stream
from the ammonia convertors. This steam is then superheated so that it can be used by
the steam turbines to power the compressors.
The boiler feed water enters both exchangers as water at 130°C and exits each
exchanger as saturated steam at 324°C and 120 bar pressure. This results in the synthesis
stream temperatures being lowered from 508°C to 400°C in the first boiler and from
473 °C to 340°C in the second boiler. The split between the boiler feed water required
for each exchanger was 41.03 tonnes/hr for the first boiler and 49.62 tonnes/hr for the
second boiler, resulting in 90.65 tonnes/hr being sent to the superheater where the steam
is superheated for use by the steam turbines. The flow rates of boiler feed water needed
were calculated using a HYSYS simulation. It was known how much steam was required
to power the two compressors therefore that was the flow rate of boiler feed water used.
The boiler feed water temperature and pressure was also specified. Using these
27
5.0 Heat Exchangers
specifications, the amount of heat transferred was calculated and the inlet and outlet
temperature of each stream was calculated.
Each of the two heat exchangers consists of one shell pass of feed water and two
tube passes of the ammonia product. The shell sides of both exchangers have four
baffles, to enhance heat exchange, and are constructed from carbon steel. The tube side
of each exchanger is constructed using TP 316 stainless steel. These exchangers have
exchange areas of 163 m2 and 220 m2 respectively.
5.4 Heat Exchanger Summary
Three different heat exchangers were designed to heat and cool different process
streams. A gas/gas heat exchanger was designed to cool the product stream to aid the
separation process while heating the feed stream to the first ammonia convertor to a
decent reaction temperature. The gas/gas exchanger has an area of 2420 m2 and has one
tube pass and one shell pass. Due to extreme temperatures special
chromium/molybdenum stainless steels had to be used. Two waste heat exchangers were
also designed to remove the heat from the product streams leaving the ammonia
convertors while providing saturated steam for the steam superheater. Each of these two
heat exchangers consist of one shell pass of and two tube passes and have exchange areas
of 163 m2 and 220 m2 respectively. A summary of the heat exchanger information can be
found in Appendix D, Tables D.1.1 and D.1.2.
28
6.0 Compressors and Turbines
6.1 Compressors
A compressor is a machine that increases the pressure of a gas by mechanically
decreasing its volume. Two compressors had to be designed and modeled for use as part
of the new ammonia synthesis loop. One compressor was designed to push the synthesis
gas through the synthesis loop so that the ammonia could be made. The other compressor
was designed to compresses carbon dioxide from 5 bar to 150 bar so that it can be used in
the urea plant to make urea.
6.1.1 Synthesis Gas Compressor
The synthesis gas compressor takes the feed for the new process and compresses
it from 50 bar to the required 190 bar where it then enters the process loop. A four staged
compressor was designed using the HYSYS program (see Figure 6.1). The first three
stages take the feed and compress it to 180 bars with a compression ratio of 1.5. In
between these three stages the streams are cooled to 25°C before they enter the next
stage. This requires in total of 294.6 tonnes per hour of 25°C cooling water that is heated
to 60°C. The feed to the fourth stage contains a mixture of the stage 3 outlet as well as a
recycle stream which contains the un-reacted hydrogen and nitrogen, along with some
argon and ammonia. This mixture is then compressed to the required 190 bar in the
fourth stage. The material chosen for the compressor is made out of carbon steel. It then
leaves the compressor and heads into the first ammonia convertor. It was determined that
this compressor uses 13,704 kW of the power that is generated by the feed steam turbine.
29
One issue of safety that had to be taken into consideration was the possibility of
over pressuring the existing synthesis loop. The maximum allowable pressure in the
synthesis loop is 210 bar. To ensure that over pressurization of the loop by the synthesis
gas compressor could not take place a PSV was designed. The PSV constructed was a
simple orifice plate with a diameter of 0.044 m (~2 in, see Appendix E, E.1.1 to E.1.4).
Figure 6.1: Synthesis gas compressor and turbine system
6.1.2 CO2 Compressor
The second compressor takes carbon dioxide and compresses it from 5 bar to 150
bar so that it can be used by the urea plant to make urea. This compressor also has four
stages and uses 6,855 kW of power which is generated by the carbon dioxide turbine.
This compressor is also made of carbon steel. Condensation of the carbon dioxide had to
be taken into consideration when deciding the flow rates of the water used in the
intercoolers. If the carbon dioxide condensed in the compressor there would be major
problems. In between the first two stages the stream is cooled to 30°C before it enters the
second stage. The next two stages are only cooled to 41°C and 45°C. This is to ensure
that the carbon dioxide does not condense in the third or fourth stage of the compressor
under the specified pressure. The cooling system requires a total of 160 tonnes per hour
30
of 25°C cooling water that is heated by the compressed gases to 60°C. This compressor
and cooling system was also designed using the HYSYS simulation (see Figure 6.2).
Like the synthesis gas compressor the CO2 compressor will have to have a PSV
to prevent the over pressurization of the existing CO2 loop. The maximum allowable
pressure in the synthesis loop is 173 bar. The PSV constructed for this compressor was a
similar simple orifice plate with a diameter of 0.019 m (~3/4 in, see Appendix E, E.2.1 to
E.2.4).
Figure 6.4: Carbon dioxide compressor and turbine system
6.2 Steam Turbines
With each of the two compressors requiring different amounts of power to
compress different gases, two separate steam turbines had to be designed to supply the
different amounts of power required by each of the compressors. Steam turbines were
used because superheated steam was available from the superheater and steam turbines
are able to provide tremendous power using relative small space. The power from a
steam turbine is generated using steam, which in this case is provided by the designed
superheater, to turn a rotor that in turn produces the power needed for the compressors to
compress their specific gases.
31
The CO2 turbine uses 34% or 30.2 tonnes/h of the 510°C steam generated by the
superheater and puts out the required 6,855 kW needed to operate the CO2 compressor.
The synthesis gas turbine uses the remaining 66% or 60.4 tonnes/h of the 510°C steam to
produce the required 13,704 kW to power the synthesis gas compressor. Both of the
above turbines exhaust to vacuum (30 kPa absolute) to generate the needed power.
One safety issue that had to be considered with regards to the turbines is the
possibility of liquid water in them. This would be possible if the water level in the waste
heat boilers is too high. This would cause more water to enter into the superheater and it
is possible that the superheater would not be able to completely vaporise all of it.
Therefore liquid water could possibly enter into the turbine. This would cause major
damage to the two turbines and cause the shutdown of the whole plant. To prevent the
possibility of this occurring, a trip was designed that will shut the compressors off and
close off the boiler feed water valves closed to protect the turbines. This would still
cause the whole plant to shut down without damaging the turbines.
6.3 Compressors and Turbines Summary
Two compressors were designed to compress two different gases. One
compressor was designed to compress the synthesis gas stream from 50 bar to 190 bar
before it enters. The second compressor was designed to compress CO2 from 5 bar to
150 bar for use in the urea plant. Both of these compressors were designed using the
HYSYS simulation. These compressors each have four stages, are centrifugal and are
made from carbon steel. Each compressor has a PSV to prevent over pressurization of
the individual loops. Two steam turbines were also designed to supply the power
32
required by the compressors. These two turbines use the steam generated by the
superheater to produce the required 6,885 kW for the CO2 compressor as well as the
13,704 kW for the synthesis gas compressor. Trips were installed in the waste heat
boilers to prevent the possibility of liquid water from entering the turbine. A summary of
the compressor and turbine information can be found in Appendix E, Table E.1.1.
33
7.0 Economics
7.1 Overview
With the complexity and large scope of the project and the design chosen there
were many things that were considered with regards to the economics. One of the major
things included was the cost of the necessary equipment needed to make and power the
process. This included such things as ammonia convertors, heater exchangers, a
superheater and a couple of compressors and steam turbines. Another thing that was
looked at was the amount of money the plant would make. This is important because no
matter how good a design is it more than likely will not be implemented if the process
loses money. Besides the cost of the equipment needed for the process and the money
making prospect of this venture other things were also considered. These things included
such things as the feasibility of firing the superheater with the feed stream instead of
natural gas and coming up with a reasonable price for the ammonia product.
The first thing that was tackled was the costing of the equipment. Note that the
following costs do not include installation or maintenance costs. There were ten separate
pieces of equipment that needed to be priced. These ten pieces of equipment included
two compressors, two turbines, two waste heat exchangers, a gas/gas heat exchanger, two
ammonia convertors and lastly a steam superheater. Each unit was priced with the
methods specified in Ulrich3 (see Appendix F for detailed calculations). A summary of
the bare module costs for each piece of equipment can be found in Table F.1.1 while the
stream cost/price analysis is found in Tables F.1.2 and F.1.3.
34
7.0 Economics
7.2 Compressor Pricing
The two compressors were priced first. The three main factors in determining the
price of the compressors were the power required, their efficiencies and the material of
construction. The efficiency of each compressor was assumed to be 75% and the
material of construction chosen for the compressors was carbon steel. Next the power
needed by the compressor was determined using the HYSYS modeling program. These
power requirements were found to be 6,855 kW for the CO2 compressor and 13,704 kW
for the synthesis gas compressor. With these powers and efficiencies known the purchase
price was looked up in the proper Figure. Once the purchase cost was known it was
multiplied by the material factor and the bare module cost of the compressors was
determined. It was found that the bare module cost of the CO2 compressor was
$17,250,000 while the bare module cost of the synthesis gas compressor was determined
to be $6,612,500.
7.3 Steam Turbine Pricing
With the cost of the compressors now determined the next step was pricing the
two steam turbines that power them. Unlike the compressors there are only two main
factors in determining the cost of a steam turbine, power supplied and material of
construction. The material of construction once again was chosen to be carbon steel and
the power supplied by each individual turbine is the same as that used by its compressor.
Using Figure 5.21 from Ulrich3, it was found that the purchase cost of the turbine that
powers the CO2 compressor was $270,000 while the turbine that powers the synthesis
compressor had a purchase cost of $300,000. Once again the purchase cost and the
35
7.0 Economics
material factor were multiplied together to give the bare module cost. The bare module
cost for the synthesis gas compressor was found to be $1,610,000 while the bare module
cost of the CO2 was determined to be slightly lower at $1,086,750.
7.4 Heat Exchange Equipment Pricing
Next the cost of the three heat exchangers and the superheater were calculated.
The most important factors when determining the cost of heat exchangers are the
exchanger surface area, the material of construction and the pressure under which they
operate. The first heat exchangers cost to be calculated was the gas/gas heat exchanger.
This unit operates under 190 bar of pressure and has a heat exchanger area of 2420 m2.
This unit is made of carbon steel and titanium due to the high temperature of the gases
and also their high pressures. Knowing the area for heat exchanger the purchase cost was
determined using Figure 5.39 in Ulrich3. Once this was known the bare module factor
was found using Figure 5.38. This was then multiplied together with the purchase cost
and the bare module cost was determined. The bare module cost for the gas/gas heat
exchanger was found to be $5,635,000.
With the large and expensive gas/gas heat exchanger out of the way the bare
module cost of the two waste heat boilers were determined. The method for obtaining the
costs for these two pieces of equipment is almost identical to the way in which the cost of
the gas/gas heat exchanger was found. In this case the areas are 220 m2 and 162 m2
respectively. Using the same material as the previous exchanger the bare module costs
for these exchangers were calculated to be $483,000 for the first waste heat exchanger
and $442,750 for the second waste heat exchanger.
36
7.0 Economics
The last heat transfer related piece of equipment for which a cost had to be
determined was the superheater. The most important factor when determining the cost of
a superheater is its heating duty. This factor along with the materials of construction and
the exiting steam pressure were used to calculate the cost of the superheater. The
pressure of the exiting steam is 120 bar and the material of construction chosen was
austenitic steel due to the high temperatures used in the superheater. Using the heating
duty of the superheater the purchase cost of the superheater was found. This was then
multiplied by the pressure factor and the bare module factor, which is directly related to
the material of construction, to obtain a bare module cost for the superheater. It was
found that the bare module cost of the superheater is $ 4,992,000.
7.5 Feasibility of Firing the Superheater with Hydrogen
Another economic issue with regards to the superheater that was taken into
account was the possibility of using the hydrogen gas from the feed stream to fire the
superheater instead of natural gas. It was thought that it would be quite feasible to fire
the superheater with the feed stream given the rising cost of natural gas and the fact that
hydrogen gas has a decent heating value. So with the given price of the feed stream
given as $6.50/GJ and knowing that it takes 32 GJ to produce one tonne of ammonia the
energy cost of hydrogen gas was determined. The analysis found that the energy cost of
hydrogen was $10.22/GJ. This is higher than the current price of natural gas that is
currently at around $8.50/GJ. This made it unfeasible to used hydrogen gas from the feed
stream to fire the superheater at this point in time. It is possible, however, that if the
37
7.0 Economics
price of natural gas could rise above the threshold price $10.22/GJ in the future, using the
feed to fire the superheater might be feasible.
7.6 Ammonia Convertor Pricing
The last two pieces of equipment to have their bare module costs calculated were
the two ammonia convertors. Both of these reactors contain catalyst that aid in the
efficiency of the reactor but also add to the complexity of their calculations. With that in
mind the cost of the catalyst had to be determined as it contributed to the cost of the
reactor. Using Figure 5.47 in Ulrich, the cost and bulk density of the catalyst were
determined to be $8.00/kg and 800 kg/m3 respectively. With this known the bare module
factor was determined using a trusted relationship. Now, knowing the inner diameters of
each of the two different convertors the purchase price of the catalyst part of the reactor
was found using Figure 5.47. With both the bare module factor and the purchase price of
the catalyst known the bare module cost of the catalyst part of the reactor was
determined. The bare module cost of both ammonia convertors was found to be
$341,333. Now the cost of the actual reaction vessel itself could be calculated. Knowing
the operating pressure (190 bar) and the material of both convertors to be carbon steel the
bare module factor was found using Figure 5.46. With the height and inner diameter of
each reactor known to be almost the same the purchase cost for the vessel was calculated.
The vessel purchase cost and the bare module factor were then used to determine the bare
module cost of the vessel. Once this was found the bare module cost for the vessel and
the bare module cost were summed together to give the total bare module cost for the
38
7.0 Economics
reactor. The total bare module cost for each reactor was found to be $1,312,533 for the
first reactor and $1,058,613 for the second reactor.
7.7 Stream Cost Analysis
Knowing the expense of all the necessary equipment needed to produce the
ammonia was only part of the financial analysis. The money made by production of the
ammonia still needed to be calculated. To do this, a method of stream cost/price analysis
was used as not enough information was known to do a complete financial study. There
are eight major streams used in the process of producing ammonia. The cost streams
include the synthesis gas feed, boiler feed water, cooling water and fuel gas for the
superheater. The streams that are worth money are the CO2 produced for the urea plant,
the low pressure steam used by the urea plant, the turbine condensate and the ammonia
product made. With the mass flow rates of each of the different streams already
calculated a price per unit mass was just needed to determine the cost or price of the
specific streams. Most of the prices for these streams were set by Saskferco while a
reasonable ammonia price had to be calculated. The method used was based on the
model conventionally used in industry. The price of ammonia depends heavily upon the
natural gas price. Knowing the energy to produce a tonne of ammonia (32 GJ/tonne) and
the price of natural gas (~$8.00/GJ) a minimum price was calculated. To this a margin of
$75/tonne and a combined utility and chemical cost of $10/tonne were added. This gave
the final price of ammonia, at this current cost for natural gas, to be $341/tonne.
Multiplying the cost per unit mass by the mass flow rate gave a cost/price per unit time
for each of the different streams (see Appendix F, F.3.1 to F.3.10). Overall, it was found
39
7.0 Economics
that the revenue from this process is $11,700/hr. This does not include the utility,
maintenance or operating costs that would be incurred by this process.
7.8 Economic Summary
With the bare module cost of each piece of equipment in the process calculated as
well as the revenue that would be made from this process it was found that the economics
of this project are quite good. The total bare module cost of all the equipment was found
to be $41,231,946 while the stream analysis yielded a revenue of $11,700/hr. It was also
determined that at this moment firing the superheater using the hydrogen gas from the
feed stream was not viable but could possibly be explored again in the future.
40
8.0 Conclusions
From our analysis of an ammonia synthesis loop for an alternate feedstock,
several significant conclusions were reached regarding its design. It is the feeling of this
design team that the conclusions reached from our analysis were found with a high level
of accuracy and credibility. It was found through the process of designing the ammonia
synthesis loop that:
• The synthesis gas stream would enter the first ammonia convertor at a molar
flow rate of 8.047 kmol/s with an ammonia mole fraction of 0.0270. The synthesis gas
would exit the convertor at a molar flow rate of 7.066 kmol/s with an ammonia mole
fraction of 0.1696. The extent of hydrogen gas conversion to ammonia would increase
from 5.33% to 29.39%. The temperature of the synthesis gas across the catalyst bed
would rise from 300.0°C to 507.8°C.
• The synthesis gas stream would enter the second ammonia convertor at a molar
flow rate of 7.066 kmol/s with an ammonia mole fraction of 0.1696. The stream would
exit the second convertor at a molar flow rate of 6.755 kmol/s with an ammonia mole
fraction of 0.2234. The extent of hydrogen gas conversion would increase from 29.39%
to 37.02%. The temperature of the synthesis gas across the catalyst bed would rise from
400.0°C to 473.0°C.
• After specifying complete recycle of hydrogen and nitrogen gas, the final
product stream from the separation units would have a molar flow rate of 1.318 kmol/s,
consisting of 98.02 mol% ammonia and 1.98 mol% argon.
• The first waste heat boiler lowers the temperature of the synthesis gas stream
leaving the first ammonia convertor from 507.8°C to 400.0°C in one shell pass. In two
41
8.0 Conclusions
tube passes, boiler feed water is at 130.0°C is converted to saturated steam at 323.7°C
and 120 bar at a rate of 41.03 tonnes/h.
• The second waste heat boiler lowers the temperature of the synthesis gas stream
leaving the first ammonia convertor from 473.0°C to 340.1°C in one shell pass. In two
tube passes, boiler feed water is at 130.0°C is converted to saturated steam at 323.7°C
and 120 bar at a rate of 49.63 tonnes/h.
• The gas/gas heat exchanger heats the synthesis feed stream from 31.2°C to
300.0°C in one shell pass at a rate of 8.047 kmol/s. In one tube pass, the product stream
exiting the second ammonia convertor is cooled from 340.1°C to 55.6°C at a rate of
6.755 kmol/s.
• The steam superheater produces two steam products. Saturated steam at 120 bar
pressure from the waste heat boilers is superheated from 323.7°C to 510°C in the radiant
section at a rate of 90.65 tonnes/h. Boiler feed water at 131.8°C and 23 bar is heated in
the finned bank section, the shield bank section, and the radiant section to saturated steam
at 220.1°C at a rate of 25.00 tonnes/h. The heater is fuelled by natural gas at a rate of
2433 kg/h, resulting in a flue gas emission rate of 51.9 tonnes/h.
• Using 60.42 tonnes/h of the produced superheated steam, the synthesis gas
turbine with 70% adiabatic efficiency is powered to produce 13704 kW for the synthesis
gas compressor.
• Using 30.23 tonnes/h of the produced superheated steam, the CO2 turbine with
70% adiabatic efficiency is powered to produce 13704 kW for the CO2 compressor.
• The synthesis feed stream is compressed by a four stage synthesis gas
compressor having a 75% adiabatic efficiency. The recycled hydrogen and nitrogen gas
42
8.0 Conclusions
is reintroduced to the feed stream between the third and fourth compression stage. The
feed enters at a pressure of 50 bar, a temperature of 25.0°C, and a mass flow rate of 82.95
tonnes/h. The effluent gas exits at a pressure of 50 bar, a temperature of 31.2°C, and a
mass flow rate 265.8 tonnes/h. The synthesis is cooled in the compressor by 3
intercoolers by a combined water flow rate of 295 tonnes/h at 25°C and at atmospheric
pressure.
• The synthesis feed stream is compressed by a four stage synthesis gas
compressor having an adiabatic efficiency of 75%. The recycled hydrogen and nitrogen
gas is reintroduced to the feed stream between the third and fourth compression stage.
The feed enters at a pressure of 50 bar, a temperature of 25.0°C, and a mass flow rate of
82.95 tonnes/h. The effluent gas exits at a pressure of 50 bar, a temperature of 31.2°C,
and a mass flow rate 265.8 tonnes/h. The synthesis stream is cooled between the
compressor stages by 3 intercoolers at a combined cooling water flow rate of 295
tonnes/h at 25°C and atmospheric pressure.
• The CO2 stream for the urea plant is compressed by a four stage CO2
compressor having an adiabatic efficiency of 75%. The CO2 feed stream enters the
compressor at a temperature of 30.0°C, a pressure of 5 bar, and a mass flow rate of 95.03
tonnes/h. The CO2 stream exits at a pressure of 150 bar and a temperature of 126.6°C.
The CO2 stream is cooled between the compressor stages by 3 intercoolers at a combined
cooling water flow rate of 485 tonnes/h at 25°C and atmospheric pressure.
It is of the opinion of this design team that this project has produced results satisfying
enough to warrant the implementation of the design by Saskferco. This design team is
confident in the reliability and feasibility of the conclusions reached from this project.
43
Works Cited
1. Jennings J.R. Catalytic Ammonia Synthesis: Fundamentals and Practice. New

York: Plenum Press, 1991.
2. Berman H.L. ‘Fired Heaters: Part I-IV’, Journal of Chemical Engineering.

Volume 85, June-September 1978.
3. Ulrich G.D., Vasudevan P.T. Chemical Engineering Process Design and

Economics: a Practical Guide. 2nd Edition, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
2004.
44
Acknowledgments
• Bob Edmondson, Saskferco Technical Director
• Gordon Hill, ChE 422 Advisor
• Hui Wang, ChE 422 Advisor
• Richard Evitts, Professor, University of Saskatchewan
• Mehdi Nemati, Professor, University of Saskatchewan
45
Appendix A: Process Flow Diagram
46
Appendix A
Process Flow Diagram
A.1 Process Flow Diagram and Stream Compositions
Table A.1.1: Ammonia synthesis loop streams

Flow Rate Temperature Pressure Composition
o
kmol / s C bar yH2 yN2 yNH3 yAr
Synthesis Gas Feed 101 2.6096 25.0 5.0 0.7425 0.2475 0.0000 0.0100
Compressor Stage 1 Discharge 102 2.6096 77.8 76.6 0.7425 0.2475 0.0000 0.0100
Compressor Stage 2 Suction 103 2.6096 25.0 76.6 0.7425 0.2475 0.0000 0.0100
To Stage 4 Mixer 107 2.6096 25.0 180.0 0.7425 0.2475 0.0000 0.0100
Inlet to 8R1 110 8.0468 300.0 189.0 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136
Outlet from 8R1 111 7.0660 507.8 184.8 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155
Inlet to 8R2 112 7.0660 400.0 183.9 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155
Outlet from 8R2 113 6.7551 473.0 183.4 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162
To Gas/Gas Exchanger 114 6.7551 340.1 183.1 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162
To Separation 115 6.7551 55.6 182.0 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162
Recycle To Stage 4 Mixer 116 5.4372 25.0 180.0 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154
Ammonia Product 117 1.3178 4.3 5.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.9802 0.0198
Table A.1.2: Water and steam system streams

Flow Rate Temperature Pressure
o
kmol / s C bar
Total Boiler Feed Water 201 1.7833 130.0 129.0
BFW to Synthesis Loop 202 1.3978 130.0 129.0
BFW to Fired Heater 203 0.3856 130.0 129.0
BFW to 8E1 204 0.6325 130.0 129.0
BFW to 8E2 205 0.7653 130.0 129.0
Saturated Steam from 8E1 206 0.6325 323.7 120.0
Saturated Steam from 8E2 207 0.7653 323.7 120.0
Saturated Steam to Superheater 208 1.3978 323.7 120.0
Low Pressure Saturated Steam 209 0.3856 220.1 23.0
High Pressure Steam to Turbines 210 1.3978 510.0 120.0
Steam to CO2 Turbine 211 0.4660 510.0 120.0
Steam to Synthesis Gas Turbine 212 0.9318 510.0 120.0
CO2 Turbine Condensate 213 0.4660 69.2 0.3
Synthesis Gas Turbine Condensate 214 0.9318 69.2 0.3
47
Appendix A
Table A.1.3: CO2 compressor streams

o
kmol / s C bar CO2 H2O N2 O2
Stage 1 Feed 301 0.6111 30.0 5.0 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Stage 1 Discharge 302 0.6111 110.8 11.7 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Stage 2 Suction 303 0.6111 30.0 11.7 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Stage 2 Discharge 304 0.6111 111.7 27.4 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Stage 3 Suction 305 0.6111 41.0 27.4 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Stage 3 Discharge 306 0.6111 126.0 64.1 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Stage 4 Suction 307 0.6111 45.0 64.1 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Stage 4 Discharge 308 0.6111 126.6 150.0 0.9500 0.0040 0.0400 0.0060
Table A.1.4: Superheater fuel and flue gas streams

o
kmol / s C bar CH4 C2H6 C3H8 CO2 O2 N2 H20
Natural Gas 401 1.7981 9.0 21.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2323 0.7647 0.0030
Combustion Air 402 0.0659 5.0 21.0 0.9200 0.0500 0.0300 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Premixed Fuel 403 1.8639 8.7 21.0 0.0326 0.0017 0.0011 0.0000 0.2241 0.7376 0.0029
Flue Gas 404 1.9050 202.1 1.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0826 0.0323 0.7282 0.1569
48
Appendix A
49
Appendix B: Ammonia Conversion
50
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
B.1 Determining the Feed Requirement to Produce 1900 Tonnes of
Ammonia/day
3H 2 + N 2 ⇒ 2NH 3 (B.1.1)
n ≡ molar flow rate (kmol/day).

m ≡ mass flow rate (tonnes/day).
MW ≡ molecular weight (kg/kmol).
y ≡ mole fraction in the feed stream.
mNH 3
nNH 3 =
MWNH 3
nNH 3 =
(1900 )(1000 )
tonnes
day
kg
tonne
(17.0304 ) kg
kmol
(B.1.2)
nNH 3 = 111,565 kmol

day
nH 2 = 32 × nNH 3
(
nH 2 = 32 × 111,565 kmol
day
)
(B.1.3)
nH 2 = 167,348 kmol
day
nN 2 = 12 × nNH 3
(
nN 2 = 12 × 111,565 kmol
day
)
(B.1.4)
nN 2 = 55,783 kmol
day
mH 2 = nH 2 × MWH 2
(
mH 2 = 167,348 kmol
day ×
) ( 1tonne
1000 kg
)× (2.01588 )
kg
kmol (B.1.5)
mH 2 = 337.4 tonnes
day
mN 2 = nN 2 × MWN 2
(
mN 2 = 55,783 kmol
day ×
) (
1tonne
1000 kg
)× (28.0134 ) kg
kmol (B.1.6)
mN 2 = 1562.7 tonnes
day
51
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
y Ar
n Ar = nH 2
yH 2
n Ar =
(0.0100)
(0.7425)
(
167,348 kmol
day
) (B.1.7)
n Ar = 2254 kmol
day
m Ar = n Ar × MWAr
(
m Ar = 2254 kmol )(
day × 39.948 kmol ×
kg
)(
1tonne
1000 kg
) (B.1.8)
m Ar = 90.0 tonnes
day
nTOTAL = n Ar + n H 2 + n N 2
nTOTAL = (2254 + 167348 + 55783) kmol
day
(B.1.9)
nTOTAL = 225,385 kmol
day
mTOTAL = m Ar + mH 2 + mN 2
mTOTAL = (90.0 + 337.4 + 1562.7 ) tonnes
day
(B.1.10)
mTOTAL = 1990.1 tonnes
day
52
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
B.2 Deriving Equations to Interpret Stream Composition Changes
Subscript 1 ≡ variable from the stream entering the ammonia reactor.

Subscript 2 ≡ variable from the stream exiting the ammonia reactor.
F ≡ molecular flow rate of a particular gas stream (kmol/day).
X ≡ extent of conversion of hydrogen gas across the ammonia reactor.
Equation 1: Overall mole balance
F2 = F1 − 12 [(FH 2 )1 X + 13 (FH 2 )1 X ]
F2 = F1 − 23 (FH 2 )1 X
F2
= 1 − 23 ( y H 2 )1 X (B.2.1)
F1
Equation 2: Ammonia mole balance
(FNH 3 )2 = 23 (FH 2 )1 X + (FNH 3 )1

2
(F ) X + (FNH 3 )1 (B.2.2)
( y NH 3 )2 = 3 H 2 1
F2
Substitute equation 1 into equation 2 to get equation 3:
(FH 2 )1 X + (FNH 3 )1
2
( y NH 3 )2 = 3
F1 − 23 (FH 2 )1 X
2
( y ) XF + ( y ) F
( y NH 3 )2 = 3 H 2 1 2 1 NH 3 1 1
F1 − 3 ( y H 2 )1 XF1
2
( y ) X + ( y NH 3 )1
( y NH 3 )2 = 3 H 2 21
1 − 3 ( y H 2 )1 X
3( y ) + 2( y H 2 )1 X
( y NH 3 )2 = NH 3 1 (B.2.3)
3 − 2( y H 2 )1 X
Rearranging equation 3 gives equation 4:
3[( y NH 3 )2 − ( y NH 3 )1 ]
X = (B.2.4)
2( y H 2 )1 [1 + ( y NH 3 )2 ]
53
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Equation 5: Hydrogen mole balance
(FH 2 )2 = (FH 2 )1 − (FH 2 )1 X

(FH 2 )2 = (FH 2 )1 [1 − X ] (B.2.5)
(F ) [1 − X ]
( y H 2 )2 = H 2 1
F2
(FH 2 )1 [1 − X ]
( y H 2 )2 =
F1 − 23 (FH 2 )1 X
F ( y ) [1 − X ]
( y H 2 )2 = 1 2H 2 1
F1 − 3 F1 ( y H 2 )1 X
( y ) [1 − X ]
( y H 2 )2 = H22 1
1 − 3 ( y H 2 )1 X
3( y ) [1 − X ]
( y H 2 )2 = H 2 1 (B.2.6)
3 − 2( y H 2 )1 X
Equation 7: Nitrogen mole balance
(FN 2 )2 = (FN 2 )1 − 13 (FH 2 )1 X

(FN 2 )2 = (F )1 [( y N 2 )1 − 13 ( y H 2 )1 X ] (B.2.7)
(F ) [( y ) − 1 ( y ) X ]
( y N 2 )2 = 1 N 2 1 3 H 2 1
F2
(F )1 [( y N 2 )1 − 13 ( y H 2 )1 X ]
( y N 2 )2 =
F1 − 23 (FH 2 )1 X
(F ) [( y ) − 1 ( y ) X ]
( y N 2 )2 = 1 N 22 1 3 H 2 1
F1 − 3 F1 ( y H 2 )1 X
(y ) − 1 (y ) X
( y N 2 )2 = N 2 12 3 H 2 1
1 − 3 ( y H 2 )1 X
3( y ) − ( y ) X
( y N 2 )2 = N 2 1 H 2 1 (B.2.8)
3 − 2( y H 2 )1 X
All of the above equations (B.2.1 through B.2.8) are dependent on hydrogen gas being
the limiting reagent of the ammonia synthesis reaction.
54
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Equation 9: Argon mole balance
(FAr )2 = (FAr )1
F2 ( y Ar )2 = F1 ( y Ar )1 (B.2.9)
F1
( y Ar )2 = ( y Ar )1
F2
( y Ar )1
( y Ar )2 = (B.2.10)
1− 2
3
( y H 2 )1 X
55
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
B.3 Estimating the Equilibrium Conversion of the Ammonia Synthesis Reaction
Data for the mol percent of ammonia at equilibrium for several synthesis gases
feed compositions was found in Catalytic Ammonia Synthesis by J.R. Jennings1.
Interpolation between the data at 175 bar and 200 bar was used to arrive at a set of data
for 190 bar. This data was then converted to mole fraction, and using equation B.2.4, we
were able to calculate the conversion of hydrogen as a function of the equilibrium
temperature, shown in Table B.3.1. Similar data was collected for the original Saskferco
stream compositions. This data is presented in Figure B.3.1 for comparison.
We were given that a 10 degree approach to equilibrium is a reasonable
approximation for calculating the extent of the reaction. This means the conversion value
should be calculated as if the stream were 10 degrees hotter than it actually is.
Using the trend line option in MS Excel, an 5th order polynomial equation for the
conversion as a function of temperature was fitted, with an R2 value of 1.00.
X H 2 = -1.28433 × 10 -13 (T + 10) 5 + 4.27614 × 10 -10 (T + 10) 4

- 5.15002 × 10 -7 (T + 10) 3 + 3.30093 × 10 - 4 (T + 10) 2 (B.3.1)
− 9 .63269 × 10 - 2 (T + 10) + 12.0537
56
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Example:
T = 503 .15 K
~
% P =175 bar = 80 .205
~
% P = 200 bar = 81 .855
~ ~ ~ P − P175
% P =190bar = (% P = 200bar − % P =175bar ) 190 (B.3.2)
P200 − P175
~ 190bar − 175bar
% P =190bar = (81.855 − 80.205) = 81.159
200bar − 175bar
~
% P =190bar
( y NH 3 ) ) 2 = = 0.81159
100
3[( y NH 3 )2 − ( y NH 3 )1 ] 0.81159
X H2 = = 1.5 = 0.89984
2( y H 2 )1 [1 + ( y NH 3 )2 ] 0.7425(1 + 0.81159)
57
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Table B.3.1: Conversion of hydrogen as a function of temperature
Initial Mole %: H2 - 74.25%, N2 - 24.75%, CH4 - 0%, Ar - 1.00%
Mole percent of NH3 at equilibrium Mole fraction of NH3 at equilibrium (yNH3)2
T (K) P=175 bar P=200bar P=190bar P=175 bar P=200bar P=190bar Conversion of H2 (XH2)
423.15 92.595 93.244 92.984 0.92595 0.93244 0.92984 0.96710
433.15 91.538 92.288 91.988 0.91538 0.92288 0.91988 0.96174
443.15 90.347 91.207 90.863 0.90347 0.91207 0.90863 0.95562
453.15 89.018 89.995 89.604 0.89018 0.89995 0.89604 0.94868
463.15 87.546 88.647 88.207 0.87546 0.88647 0.88207 0.94087
473.15 85.929 87.161 86.668 0.85929 0.87161 0.86668 0.93213
483.15 84.165 85.533 84.986 0.84165 0.85533 0.84986 0.92241
493.15 82.256 83.764 83.161 0.82256 0.83764 0.83161 0.91166
503.15 80.205 81.855 81.195 0.80205 0.81855 0.81195 0.89984
513.15 78.017 79.810 79.093 0.78017 0.79810 0.79093 0.88691
523.15 75.700 77.634 76.860 0.75700 0.77634 0.76860 0.87284
533.15 73.262 75.335 74.506 0.73262 0.75335 0.74506 0.85760
543.15 70.715 72.921 72.039 0.70715 0.72921 0.72039 0.84119
553.15 68.071 70.404 69.471 0.68071 0.70404 0.69471 0.82359
563.15 65.347 67.797 66.817 0.65347 0.67797 0.66817 0.80483
573.15 62.559 65.115 64.093 0.62559 0.65115 0.64093 0.78494
583.15 59.724 62.373 61.313 0.59724 0.62373 0.61313 0.76395
593.15 56.860 59.588 58.497 0.56860 0.59588 0.58497 0.74191
603.15 53.985 56.777 55.660 0.53985 0.56777 0.55660 0.71891
613.15 51.118 53.957 52.821 0.51118 0.53957 0.52821 0.69503
623.15 48.276 51.147 49.999 0.48276 0.51147 0.49999 0.67038
633.15 45.478 48.363 47.209 0.45478 0.48363 0.47209 0.64508
643.15 42.737 45.620 44.467 0.42737 0.45620 0.44467 0.61925
653.15 40.070 42.934 41.788 0.40070 0.42934 0.41788 0.59305
663.15 37.487 40.318 39.186 0.37487 0.40318 0.39186 0.56661
673.15 35.000 37.784 36.670 0.35000 0.37784 0.36670 0.54009
683.15 32.618 35.341 34.252 0.32618 0.35341 0.34252 0.51365
693.15 30.346 32.998 31.937 0.30346 0.32998 0.31937 0.48743
703.15 28.190 30.762 29.733 0.28190 0.30762 0.29733 0.46158
713.15 26.153 28.635 27.642 0.26153 0.28635 0.27642 0.43622
723.15 24.235 26.623 25.668 0.24235 0.26623 0.25668 0.41150
733.15 22.436 24.725 23.809 0.22436 0.24725 0.23809 0.38750
743.15 20.754 22.941 22.066 0.20754 0.22941 0.22066 0.36431
753.15 19.187 21.269 20.436 0.19187 0.21269 0.20436 0.34202
763.15 17.730 19.708 18.917 0.17730 0.19708 0.18917 0.32068
773.15 16.379 18.254 17.504 0.16379 0.18254 0.17504 0.30034
783.15 15.129 16.902 16.193 0.15129 0.16902 0.16193 0.28101
793.15 13.975 15.648 14.979 0.13975 0.15648 0.14979 0.26272
803.15 12.911 14.487 13.857 0.12911 0.14487 0.13857 0.24546
813.15 11.930 13.413 12.820 0.11930 0.13413 0.12820 0.22921
823.15 11.028 12.422 11.864 0.11028 0.12422 0.11864 0.21396
58
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Figure B.3.1: Ammonia synthesis equilibrium at various stream compositions
59
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
B.4 Reactor Composition Iterative Procedure for 8R1 and 8R2
This iterative procedure calculates the compositions of the several streams, given
the inlet and outlet temperatures of both reactors.
• Stream 1: the stream entering the 8R1. A combination of the feed stream and the
recycle stream.
• Stream 2: the stream exiting 8R1.
• Stream 3: has concentration identical to stream 2
• Stream 4: the stream exiting 8R2.
• Recycle: the stream being returned to the process after the ammonia product has been
separated out.
The composition of the feed was given as yF,H2=0.7425, yF,N2=0.2475, and
yF,Ar=0.0100, and in section B.1 it was calculated that a rate of 225,385 kmol/day or
2.6096 kmol/s of feed was required to produce 1900 tonnes of ammonia per day. The
temperatures for each stream are given as follows: T1=573.15 K, T2=780.90 K,
T3=673.15 K, and T4=746.15 K.
Using the fifth order polynomial equation that was developed in Appendix B.3 we
can calculate the percent of hydrogen as ammonia for a 10oC stream 2 equilibrium
approach.
X T2 =780 .90 K = 0.2939
This value is the extent of the conversion of hydrogen gas to ammonia. This is
equal to the conversion of hydrogen, if we take state 1 to be the concentrations when any
ammonia in the system is converted back to hydrogen and nitrogen (ie. y1,NH3 = 0).
60
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Using equations B.2.3, B.2.4, B.2.6, B.2.8 and B.2.10 developed earlier, and the
conversion calculated above, we can calculate the resulting concentrations exiting both
reactors.
To calculate the concentrations for the recycle stream, we first needed to develop
a rough model for our separators. An in depth separator design was beyond the scope of
our project.
We were given that the ammonia in the recycle stream, yR,NH3=0.0400, and that
100% of the hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled. We assumed the amount of argon
recycled in the original Saskferco design would be proportional to the amount recycled in
our system. Based on this, 76.2% of the argon is recycled. The rest leaves dissolved in
the ammonia product stream.
(y )
NH 3 R = 0.04 (B.4.1)
( y H 2 ) 4 + ( y N 2 ) 4 + 0.762( y Ar ) 4
FR = F4 (B.4.2)
1 − ( y NH 3 ) R
( y Ar )4 F4
( y Ar )R = 0.762 (B.4.3)
FR
(y ) F
(y )
H2 R =
H2 4
FR
4
(B.4.3)
(y ) F
(y )
N2 R =
N2 4
FR
4
(B.4.4)
61
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
The final step in the first iteration is to calculate the product stream.
FP = F4 − FR (B.4.5)
(
F4 y NH 3 ) + FR y NH 3 ( )
(y )
NH 3 P = 4
FP
R
(B.4.6)
F4 ( y Ar )4 + FR ( y Ar )R
( y Ar )P = (B.4.7)
FP
Since 100% of the hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled, yH2,P and yN2,P equal 0.00.
Now, to recalculate the concentrations in stream 1:
F 1 n + 1 = F F − F Rn (B.4.8)
(y ) FF + y H 2( ) n
FRn
(y )
H2 1
n +1
=
H2 F
F1n +1
R
(B.4.9)
(y ) FF + y N 2( ) n
FRn
(y )
N2 1
n +1
=
N2 F
F1n +1
R
(B.4.10)
(y ) (
FF + y NH 3 )n
FRn
(y )
NH 3 1
n +1
=
NH 3 F R
(B.4.11)
F1n +1
( y Ar )F FF + ( y Ar )nR FRn
(y ) n +1
Ar 1 = (B.4.12)
F1n +1
Using equation B.2.4, and the equations listed below we can calculate the
concentrations of a fictional stream where all the ammonia has been broken down to
hydrogen and nitrogen.
62
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
(y ) ( )
n+1
+
3
y NH 3
n +1
(y )
H2
* n+1 1
2 1
= (B.4.13)
1 + (y )
H2 n +1
NH 3 1
(y ) ( )
n +1
+
1
y NH 3
n +1
(y )
N2
* n +1 1
2 1
= (B.4.14)
1 + (y )
N2 n +1
NH 3 1
(y ) * n +1
=
(y ) Ar
n +1
1
(B.4.15)
Ar
(
1 + y NH3 )
n +1
1
F1n+1
(F )
* n +1
= (B.4.16)
2
1 − Z H2
3
( ) (y ) n +1
1 NH 3 1
n +1
Now we can go back and calculate the concentrations in the streams exiting both
reactors using equations B.2.3, B.2.4, B.2.6, B.2.8 and B.2.10, as we did above, and keep
iterating until the concentrations in the final streams no longer change. Please see Tables
B.4.1 through B.4.6 for an example of these calculations.
63
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Table B.4.1: Stream 1 concentrations entering 8R1
n (X )
H2 1 (y )
H2 1
(y ) (y ) (y )
N2 1 NH 3 1 Ar 1 F1 (kmol/s)
0 0.0000 0.7425 0.2475 0.0000 0.0100 2.6096
1 0.0316 0.7301 0.2434 0.0159 0.0106 4.3253
2 0.0416 0.7259 0.2420 0.0210 0.0111 5.4988
3 0.0463 0.7238 0.2413 0.0234 0.0115 6.3015
4 0.0489 0.7225 0.2408 0.0248 0.0119 6.8508
5 0.0504 0.7217 0.2406 0.0256 0.0122 7.2269
6 0.0514 0.7211 0.2404 0.0261 0.0125 7.4844
7 0.0520 0.7207 0.2402 0.0264 0.0127 7.6608
8 0.0525 0.7204 0.2401 0.0266 0.0129 7.7817
9 0.0527 0.7202 0.2401 0.0267 0.0130 7.8646
10 0.0529 0.7200 0.2400 0.0268 0.0131 7.9215
11 0.0531 0.7199 0.2400 0.0269 0.0132 7.9606
12 0.0531 0.7198 0.2399 0.0269 0.0133 7.9874
13 0.0532 0.7197 0.2399 0.0270 0.0134 8.0058
14 0.0532 0.7197 0.2399 0.0270 0.0134 8.0185
15 0.0533 0.7196 0.2399 0.0270 0.0135 8.0273
16 0.0533 0.7196 0.2399 0.0270 0.0135 8.0333
17 0.0533 0.7196 0.2399 0.0270 0.0135 8.0374
18 0.0533 0.7196 0.2399 0.0270 0.0136 8.0403
19 0.0533 0.7196 0.2399 0.0270 0.0136 8.0423
20 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0437
21 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0446
22 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0453
23 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0457
24 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0461
25 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0463
26 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0464
27 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0466
28 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0466
29 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0467
30 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0467
31 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
32 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
33 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
34 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
35 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
36 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
37 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
38 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
39 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
40 0.0533 0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
64
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Table B.4.2: Synthesis loop composition at zero conversion
n (y )
H2
*
(y )
N2
*
(y )
Ar
*
F * (kmol/s)
0 0.7425 0.2475 0.0100 2.6096
1 0.7422 0.2474 0.0105 4.3939
2 0.7418 0.2473 0.0109 5.6143
3 0.7415 0.2472 0.0113 6.4492
4 0.7413 0.2471 0.0116 7.0205
5 0.7411 0.2470 0.0119 7.4116
6 0.7409 0.2470 0.0121 7.6794
7 0.7407 0.2469 0.0124 7.8629
8 0.7406 0.2469 0.0125 7.9886
9 0.7405 0.2468 0.0127 8.0748
10 0.7404 0.2468 0.0128 8.1340
11 0.7403 0.2468 0.0129 8.1746
12 0.7403 0.2468 0.0130 8.2025
13 0.7402 0.2467 0.0130 8.2217
14 0.7402 0.2467 0.0131 8.2349
15 0.7402 0.2467 0.0131 8.2440
16 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2502
17 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2545
18 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2575
19 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2596
20 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2610
21 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2620
22 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2627
23 0.7401 0.2467 0.0132 8.2632
24 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2635
25 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2638
26 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2639
27 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2640
28 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2641
29 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2642
30 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2642
31 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2642
32 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
33 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
34 0.7401 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
35 0.7400 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
36 0.7400 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
37 0.7400 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
38 0.7400 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
39 0.7400 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
40 0.7400 0.2467 0.0133 8.2643
65
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Table B.4.3: Stream 2 exiting 8R1
n (X )H2 2 (y )
H2 2
(y ) (y ) (y )
N2 2 NH 3 2 Ar 2 F2 (kmol/s)
0 0.2939 0.6135 0.2045 0.1702 0.0117 2.2300
1 0.2939 0.6132 0.2044 0.1702 0.0122 3.7550
2 0.2939 0.6129 0.2043 0.1701 0.0127 4.7983
3 0.2939 0.6126 0.2042 0.1700 0.0132 5.5122
4 0.2939 0.6124 0.2041 0.1699 0.0136 6.0008
5 0.2939 0.6122 0.2041 0.1699 0.0139 6.3354
6 0.2939 0.6120 0.2040 0.1698 0.0142 6.5646
7 0.2939 0.6118 0.2039 0.1698 0.0145 6.7217
8 0.2939 0.6117 0.2039 0.1697 0.0147 6.8294
9 0.2939 0.6116 0.2039 0.1697 0.0148 6.9033
10 0.2939 0.6115 0.2038 0.1697 0.0150 6.9540
11 0.2939 0.6114 0.2038 0.1697 0.0151 6.9888
12 0.2939 0.6114 0.2038 0.1696 0.0152 7.0128
13 0.2939 0.6113 0.2038 0.1696 0.0153 7.0293
14 0.2939 0.6113 0.2038 0.1696 0.0153 7.0406
15 0.2939 0.6113 0.2038 0.1696 0.0154 7.0484
16 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0154 7.0538
17 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0154 7.0575
18 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0154 7.0601
19 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0619
20 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0631
21 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0640
22 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0646
23 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0650
24 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0653
25 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0655
26 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0657
27 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0658
28 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0658
29 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0659
30 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0659
31 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0659
32 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
33 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
34 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
35 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
36 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
37 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
38 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
39 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
40 0.2939 0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
66
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Table B.4.4: Stream 3 exiting 8R2
n (X )
H2 3 (y )
H2 3
(y ) (y ) (y )
N2 3 NH 3 3 Ar 3
F3 (kmol/s)
0 0.3702 0.5726 0.1909 0.2243 0.0122 2.1314
1 0.3702 0.5722 0.1907 0.2242 0.0128 3.5892
2 0.3702 0.5719 0.1906 0.2241 0.0133 4.5866
3 0.3702 0.5717 0.1906 0.2240 0.0138 5.2690
4 0.3702 0.5714 0.1905 0.2239 0.0142 5.7362
5 0.3702 0.5712 0.1904 0.2238 0.0146 6.0562
6 0.3702 0.5711 0.1904 0.2237 0.0149 6.2754
7 0.3702 0.5709 0.1903 0.2237 0.0151 6.4256
8 0.3702 0.5708 0.1903 0.2236 0.0153 6.5286
9 0.3702 0.5707 0.1902 0.2236 0.0155 6.5993
10 0.3702 0.5706 0.1902 0.2236 0.0157 6.6478
11 0.3702 0.5705 0.1902 0.2235 0.0158 6.6812
12 0.3702 0.5705 0.1902 0.2235 0.0159 6.7041
13 0.3702 0.5704 0.1901 0.2235 0.0160 6.7199
14 0.3702 0.5704 0.1901 0.2235 0.0160 6.7307
15 0.3702 0.5704 0.1901 0.2235 0.0161 6.7382
16 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2235 0.0161 6.7434
17 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0161 6.7470
18 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7494
19 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7511
20 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7523
21 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7532
22 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7537
23 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7541
24 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7544
25 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7546
26 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7547
27 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7548
28 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7549
29 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7550
30 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7550
31 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7550
32 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7550
33 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7550
34 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
35 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
36 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
37 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
38 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
39 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
40 0.3702 0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
67
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Table B.4.5: The recycle stream
n (X )
H2 R (y ) (y ) (y ) (y )
H2 R N2 R NH 3 R Ar R FR (kmol/s)
0 0.0778 0.7113 0.2371 0.0400 0.0116 1.7157
1 0.0778 0.7109 0.2370 0.0400 0.0121 2.8892
2 0.0779 0.7105 0.2368 0.0400 0.0126 3.6919
3 0.0779 0.7102 0.2367 0.0400 0.0131 4.2413
4 0.0779 0.7099 0.2366 0.0400 0.0134 4.6173
5 0.0780 0.7097 0.2366 0.0400 0.0138 4.8748
6 0.0780 0.7094 0.2365 0.0400 0.0141 5.0512
7 0.0780 0.7093 0.2364 0.0400 0.0143 5.1721
8 0.0780 0.7091 0.2364 0.0400 0.0145 5.2550
9 0.0780 0.7090 0.2363 0.0400 0.0147 5.3119
10 0.0780 0.7089 0.2363 0.0400 0.0148 5.3510
11 0.0780 0.7088 0.2363 0.0400 0.0149 5.3778
12 0.0781 0.7087 0.2362 0.0400 0.0150 5.3962
13 0.0781 0.7087 0.2362 0.0400 0.0151 5.4089
14 0.0781 0.7086 0.2362 0.0400 0.0152 5.4177
15 0.0781 0.7086 0.2362 0.0400 0.0152 5.4237
16 0.0781 0.7086 0.2362 0.0400 0.0152 5.4278
17 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0153 5.4307
18 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0153 5.4327
19 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0153 5.4341
20 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0153 5.4350
21 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0153 5.4357
22 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0153 5.4361
23 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0153 5.4365
24 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4367
25 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4369
26 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4370
27 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4370
28 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4371
29 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4371
30 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
31 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
32 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
33 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
34 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
35 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
36 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
37 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
38 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
39 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
40 0.0781 0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
68
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Table B.4.6: Summary of final stream compositions and flow rates
Feed Stream:
(y ) (y ) (y ) (y )
H2 1 N2 1 NH 3 1 Ar 1
F1 (kmol/s)
0.7425 0.2475 0.0000 0.0100 2.6096
Product Stream:
(y ) ( y ) ( y ) (y )
H2 P N2 P NH 3 P Ar P
FP (kmol/s) Ammonia Flow rate Ammonia Flow rate
(kmol/day) (tonnes/day)
0.0000 0.0000 0.9802 0.0198 1.3178 111607 1900
Recycle Stream:
(y ) (y ) (y ) (y )
H2 R N2 R NH 3 R Ar R FR (kmol/s)
0.7085 0.2362 0.0400 0.0154 5.4372
Stream Exiting 8R2:
(y ) (y ) (y ) (y )
H2 3 N2 3 NH 3 3 Ar 3
F3 (kmol/s)
0.5703 0.1901 0.2234 0.0162 6.7551
Stream Exiting 8R1:
(y ) ( y ) ( y ) (y )
H2 2 N2 2 NH 3 2 Ar 2
F2 (kmol/s)
0.6112 0.2037 0.1696 0.0155 7.0660
Stream Entering 8R1:
(y ) ( y ) ( y ) ( y )
H2 1 N2 1 NH 3 1 Ar 1 F1 (kmol/s)
0.7195 0.2398 0.0270 0.0136 8.0468
69
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
B.5 Energy Balance Iteration Procedure for 8R1 and 8R2
This iterative procedure calculates the temperature of the gas leaving the reactors
8R1 and 8R2. Inlet values for the reactors 8R1 and 8R2 were selected to be 300oC and
400oC respectively. (573.15 K and 673.15 K)
Guess a value for the outlet temperatures for 8R1 and 8R2. These will be the
temperature at which equilibrium will be reached. Using the iterative procedure for
calculating reactor compositions in Appendix B.4, find the outlet composition of the
reactors.
Using equation B.2.4 developed in Appendix B.2, the conversion across each
reactor can be calculated:
y2, NH 3 − y1, NH 3
X 8R1 = 1.5 ` (B.5.1)
y1, H 2 + y1, H 2 y2, NH 3
y4, NH 3 − y2, NH 3
X 8R2 = 1.5 (B.5.2)
y2, H 2 + y2,H 2 y4, NH 3
These reactors are well insulated, so at steady state almost all of the heat
generated goes to heating the synthesis gas in the system, and very little is lost to the
atmosphere. This means we can calculate the outlet temperature of the gas if we know
the heat capacity of our synthesis gas, and the heat of reaction.
y1,H 2 X 8 R1ΔH H 2 ,8 R1
T2 = T1 + (B.5.3)
C P ,8 R1
y2,H 2 X 8 R 2 ΔH H 2 ,8 R 2
T4 = T3 + (B.5.4)
C P ,8 R 2
70
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
Use the new values for T2 and T4 as the guessed values, and iterate. Alternately,
you can use a program like solver from MS Excel to minimize the differences between
the guessed and calculated temperature values.
The heat capacity was estimated using the HYSIS simulation program. The
average of the heat capacity at the inlet and outlet temperature was used and new values
were used in the calculations after each iteration until the values stopped changing.
Heat of reaction was estimated for both reactors based on the information about the
original Saskferco process that we were provided:
In Reactor 8R1:
CP1 ≡ average heat capacity of synthesis stream in reactor 8R1 (kJ/kmol·K).

ΔHR1 ≡ available heat of reaction per mole of hydrogen reacted in reactor 8R1(MJ/kmol).
X1 ≡ extent of conversion of hydrogen across reactor 8R1.
ΔT = TOUT – TIN ≡ temperature change of the synthesis stream across the reactor bed (K).
FIN ≡ inlet molar flow rate (kmol/s).
FIN C P1 ΔT = ΔH R1 X (FH 2 )IN

ΔH R1 XFIN ( y H 2 )IN
ΔT = = TOUT − TIN
FIN C P1
ΔH R1 X ( y H 2 )IN
(TOUT − TIN ) =
C P1
(B.5.5)
(TOUT − TIN )C P1
ΔH R1 =
X ( y H 2 )IN
(740 K − 573K )( 32.50+236.59 ) kmolkJ⋅K
ΔH R1 =
(0.2576)(0.6116)
ΔH R1 = 36.6 kmolMJ⋅H 2
71
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
In Reactor 8R2:
CP2 ≡ average heat capacity of synthesis stream in reactor 8R2 (kJ/kmol·K).

ΔHR2 ≡ available heat of reaction per mole of hydrogen reacted in reactor 8R2(MJ/kmol).
X2 ≡ extent of conversion of hydrogen across reactor 8R2.
FIN C P 2 ΔT = ΔH R 2 X 2 (FH 2 )IN

ΔH R 2 X 2 FIN ( y H 2 )IN
ΔT = = TOUT − TIN
FIN C P 2
ΔH R 2 X 2 ( y H 2 )IN
(TOUT − TIN ) =
CP2
(B.5.6)
(TOUT − TIN )C P 2
ΔH R 2 =
X 2 ( y H 2 )IN
(716 K − 673K )( 35.93+237.15 ) kmolkJ⋅K
ΔH R 2 =
(0.08115)(0.5073)
ΔH R 2 = 38.2 kmolMJ⋅H 2
Example:
Guess T2 and T4 equal to 750 K and 720 K respectively. From the procedure in
Appendix B.4 we get the following information about the streams:
Table B.5.1: Example stream compositions for an equilibrium temperature of 750 K for reactor 8R1 and
an equilibrium temperature of 720K for reactor 8R1
Stream Entering First Convertor:
y1,H2 y1,N2 y1,NH3 y1,Ar
0.7194 0.2398 0.0242 0.0166
Stream Exiting First Convertor:
0.5733 0.1911 0.2159 0.0197
Stream Exiting Second Convertor:
0.5295 0.1765 0.2733 0.0206
72
Appendix B
Ammonia Conversion
y 2, NH 3 − y1, NH 3 .2168 − .0274
X 8R1 = 1.5 = 1.5 = .3288
y1, H 2 + y1, H 2 y 2, NH 3 .7195 + .7195(.2168)
y 4, NH 3 − y 2, NH 3 .2733 − .2159
X 8R2 = 1.5 = 1.5 = .1179
y 2, H 2 + y 2, H 2 y 4, NH 3 .5733 + .5733(.2733)
y1, H 2 X 8 R1ΔH H 2 ,8 R1 (.7194)(.3288)(36600kJ / kmol )

T2 = T1 + = 573.15 + = 841.9 K
C P ,8 R1 32.21kJ / kmolK
y2, H 2 X 8 R 2 ΔH H 2 ,8 R 2 (.5733)(.1179)(38200kJ / kmol )

T4 = T3 + = 673.15 + = 747.9 K
C P ,8 R 2 34.54kJ / kmolK
T2 − T2* = 841.9 K − 750 K = 91.9 K
T4 − T4* = 747.9 K − 720 K = 27.9 K
Iterate again until T2 – T2* and T4 – T4* converge on 0. The final temperature
values are T2 = 780.9 K and T4 = 746.1 K.
73
Appendix C: Steam Superheater
74
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.1 Calculating the Net Heating Value of Natural Gas Stream
Table C.1.1: Calculating the average molecular weight

Component Molecular Weight Mole % kg/100kmol of fuel
CH4 16.042 92.0 1475.864
C2H6 30.068 5.0 150.340
C3H8 44.094 3.0 132.282
Total 1758.486
Table C.1.2: Calculating the average lower heating value

Component Lower Heating Value (kJ/kg) kJ/100kmol of fuel
CH4 49,994 73.784×106
C2H6 47,489 7.139×106
C3H8 46,371 6.134×106
Total 87.057×106
Table C.1.3: Calculating the air requirement for combustion

Component kg air / kg fuel kg air / 100kmol of fuel
CH4 17.195 25,377
C2H6 15.899 2,390
C3H8 15.246 2,017
Total 29,785
MWAVE ≡ average molecular weight (kg/kmol).
MW AVE = (MWCH 4 )( y CH 4 ) + (MWC 2 H 6 )( y C 2 H 6 ) + (MWC 3 H 8 )( y C 3 H 8 )

MW AVE = [(16.042)(0.920) + (30.068)(0.050) + (44.094 )(0.030 )] kmol
kg
(C.1.1)
MW AVE = 17.585 kg
kmol = 1758.5 kg
100 kmol
NHV ≡ net heating value of the natural gas (kJ/kg).

LHV ≡ lower heating value of the natural gas (kJ/100kmol).
LHV
NHV =
MW AVE
NHV =
(87.057 × 10 6 kJ
100 kmol ) (C.1.2)
(1758.5 kg
100 kmol
)
NHV = 49.51 MJ
kg
75
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
ARw ≡ air requirement (kg air/kg fuel).

ARm ≡ air requirement (kg air/100kmol fuel).
ARm
ARw =
MW AVE
(29,785 kg ⋅air
100 kmol ⋅ fuel
)
ARw = (C.1.3)
(1758.5 kg ⋅ fuel
100 kmol ⋅ fuel
)
ARw = 16.94 kgkg⋅⋅fuel
air
ARE ≡ air requirement for 20% excess air (kg air/kg fuel).
ARE = (1.20 )ARw

(
ARE = (1.20 ) 16.94 kgkg⋅⋅fuel
air
) (C.1.4)
ARE = 20.33 kgkg⋅⋅fuel
air
TFG ≡ total flue gas (kg flue gas/kg fuel).
TFG = (1 + ARE ) kgkg⋅ flue ⋅ gas

⋅ fuel
TFG = (1 + 20.33) kgkg⋅ flue ⋅ gas

⋅ fuel (C.1.5)
TFG = 21.33 kgkg⋅ flue ⋅ gas
⋅ fuel
76
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.2 Heating Requirements of the Steam Streams
QUS ≡ heat absorbed by the urea steam (GJ/h).

QUS = 57.61 GJ/h
QSS ≡ heat absorbed by the superheated steam (GJ/h).

QSS = 50.64 GJ/h
QR” ≡ average heat flux in the radiant section (kJ/h·m2).

QR” = 11,000 BTU/h·ft2 = 0.1249 GJ/h·m2
FGT ≡ flue gas temperature exiting the convection section (ºC).

(TUS)IN ≡ inlet urea water temperature (ºF).
FGT = (TUS )IN + 150 o F

( )
FGT = 269.2 o F + 150 o F (C.2.1)
FGT = 419.2 o F = 215.1o C
HA,FGT ≡ heat available based on the flue gas temperature exiting the convection section
(kJ/kg).
HA,FGT = 17,700 BTU/lb = 41,168 kJ/kg
%H ≡ percent heat extraction from the superheater.
H A, FGT
%H = × 100%
H A, MAX
(41,168 ) kJ
kg
%H =
(45,819 ) × 100%
kJ
kg
(C.2.2)
% H = 89.85%
μ ≡ calculated efficiency.
%R ≡ predicted radiant heat losses.
μ = %H − %R
μ = 89.85% − 2.00% (C.2.3)
μ = 87.85%
77
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
QT ≡ total heat duty for the superheater (GJ/h).
QT = QUS + QSS
QT = (57.61 + 50.64 ) GJh (C.2.4)
QT = 108.25 GJh
HT ≡ total heat fired by the superheater (GJ/h).
QT
HT =
μ
(108.25 GJh )
HT = (C.2.5)
(0.8785)
H T = 120.5 GJh
FC ≡ mass flow rate of fuel consumed (kg/h).
HT
FC =
NHV
FC =
(
120.5 × 10 6 kJh ) (C.2.6)
(
49,510 kJ
kg
)
FC = 2433 kgh
FG ≡ mass flow rate of flue gas (kg/h).
FG = FC × TFG
( ) (
FG = 2433 kg ⋅hfuel × 21.33 kgkg⋅ flue ⋅ gas
⋅ fuel
) (C.2.7)
FG = 51,900 kgh
78
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.3 Calculations for the Radiant Section
TRTW ≡ radiant tube wall temperature (ºC).

(TSS)OUT ≡ outlet superheated steam temperature (ºF).
TRTW = (TSS )OUT + 75 o F

(
TRTW = 950 o F + 75 o F ) (C.3.1)
TRTW = 1025 o F = 552 o C
BWT ≡ bridgewall temperature (ºC).

BWT = 1700ºF = 927ºC (from Figure C3)
HA,BWT ≡ heat made available based on the bridgewall temperature (kJ/kg).

HA,BWT = 10,400 BTU/lb = 24,189 kJ/kg (from Figure C1)
QR ≡ heat transfer in the radiant section (GJ/h).
H A, BWT QR
=
H A, FGT QT
(24,189 ) Q
kJ
kg
= R
(B.3.2)
(41,168 ) (108.24 )
kJ
kg
GJ
h
QR = 63.60 GJh
QC ≡ heat transfer in the convective section (GJ/h).
QC = QT − QR
QC = (108.24 − 63.60 ) GJh (C.3.3)
QC = 44.64 GJh
SFA ≡ shield-bank free area (m2).

N ≡ number of tubes per row.
L ≡ horizontal tube length (ft).
s ≡ spacing between tube centers (in).
do ≡ outer diameter of each tube (in).
SFA = N ⋅ L ⋅ (s − do )
SFA = (16)(16 ft )(8.0in − 4.5in) 121ftin ( ) (C.3.4)
SFA = 74.67 ft = 6.94m 2 2
79
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
G ≡ flue gas mass velocity (kg/s⋅m2).
FG
G=
SFA
G=
(
51,905 kgh ) (C.3.5)
(6.94m )(3600 )
2 s
h
G = 2.08 s⋅kgm 2
ASB ≡ surface area of first shield bank row (m2).
ASB = NLπd o
ASB = (16 )(16 ft )π (4.5in ) 121ftin( ) (C.3.6)
ASB = 301.6 ft 2 = 28.02m 2
AR ≡ required radiant surface area (m2).
QR
AR = ''
QR
(63.60 GJh )
AR =
(0.1249 ) GJ
h⋅m 2
(C.3.7)
AR = 509.1m 2
AVT ≡ vertical tube radiant surface (m2).
AVT = AR − ASB
AVT = (509.1 − 28.02 )m 2 (C.3.8)
AVT = 481.1m 2
80
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.4 Determining the Optimum Number of Superheated Steam Passes
FSS’’ ≡ superheated steam mass velocity (kg/s⋅m2).
Optimum Mass Velocity: 146.5 s⋅kgm 2 ≤ FSS ' ' ≤ 366.2 s⋅kgm 2
ρSS ≡ density of superheated steam (kg/m3).
(ρ SS )IN = 75.70 mkg 3

(C.4.1)
(ρ SS )OUT = 36.58 mkg 3
Optimum linear velocity: (VSS )OUT = 10 ms
FSS ' ' = (ρ SS )OUT (VSS )OUT

(
FSS ' ' = 36.58 mkg3 (10 ms )) (C.4.2)
FSS ' ' = 365.8 s⋅kgm 2
AC ≡ cross-sectional area of schedule 40 piping (m2).

t ≡ tube wall thickness (in).
2
⎛d ⎞
AC = π ⎜ o − t ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ (4.5in )
2
AC = π ⎜
⎞
− 0.237in ⎟ ( 6.45 cm 2
in 2
)( m2
10 cm 2
4 ) (C.4.3)
⎝ 2 ⎠
−3
AC = 8.211 × 10 m 2
nSS ≡ number of superheated steam passes.

FSS ≡ superheated steam mass flow rate (kg/s).
FSS
n SS =
FSS ' '× AC
n SS =
(25.1746 ) kg
s
(C.4.4)
(365.8 )(0.008211m )
kg
s ⋅m 2
2
n SS = 8.38 ≈ 9 passes
81
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.5 Determining the Optimum Number of Urea Steam Passes
FUS’’ ≡ urea steam mass velocity (kg/s⋅m2).
Optimum Mass Velocity: 488.2 s⋅kgm 2 ≤ FUS ' ' ≤ 732.4 s⋅kgm 2
ρUS ≡ density of urea steam (kg/m3).
(ρUS )IN = 921.4 mkg 3

(C.5.1)
(ρUS )OUT = 11.20 mkg 3
nUS ≡ number of urea steam passes.

FUS ≡ urea steam mass flow rate (kg/s).
Let FUS’’ = 500 kg/s⋅m2
FUS
nUS =
FUS ' '× AC
nUS =
(6.944 ) kg
s
(C.5.2)
(500 kg
s ⋅m
)(0.008211m )
2
2
nUS = 1.69 ≈ 2 passes
82
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.6 Calculations for the Shield Bank Section
TUS ≡ temperature of urea steam (°C).

(TUS)IN = (TUS)OUT = 220.1°C (in the process of being vaporized)
TFG ≡ temperature of flue gas (°C).

(TFG)IN = 926.7°C
(TFG)OUT = 765.6°C
LMTD ≡ log-mean temperature difference (°C).
[(T )FG IN − (TUS )OUT ] − [(TFG )OUT − (TUS )IN ]

LMTD =
[(T ) − (TUS )OUT ]
ln FG IN
[(TFG )OUT − (TUS )IN ]
LMTD =
[926.7 C − 220.1 C ] − [765.6 C − 220.1 C ] = [706.6] C − [545.5] C
o o o o o o
(C.6.1)
[926.7 C − 220.1 C ] o
ln
[706.6C ] o
ln
[765.6 C − 220.1 C ] o
[545.5 C ] o o
LMTD = 622.6 o C
hC ≡ convection film heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).

(TFG)AVE ≡ average flue gas temperature (°F).
G ≡ water mass velocity (lb/ft2·s).
do ≡ outer tube diameter (in).
2.14 ⋅ G 0.6 ⋅ (TFG ) AVE

0.28
hC = 0.4
do
hC =
(
2.14 ⋅ 0.4257 ) ⋅ (1550 F )
lb 0.6
ft 2 s
o 0.28
(C.6.2)
(4.5in )0.4
hC = 5.913 ftBTU
2
⋅h⋅o F
= 10.36 mW2 ⋅K
hRG ≡ gas radiation heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).
hRG = [0.0025(TFG ) AVE − 0.5] ftBTU

2
⋅h⋅o F
[ (
hRG = 0.0025 1550 o F − 0.5 ) ] BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
(C.6.3)
hRG = 3.3875 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
= 5.936 mW2 ⋅K
83
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
ho ≡ total convection coefficient (W/m2·K).
ho = (1.1)(hC + hRG )
ho = (1.1)(10.36 + 5.936 ) mW2 ⋅K (C.6.4)
ho = 17.93 mW2 ⋅K
hi ≡ in tube heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).

G ≡ water mass velocity (lb/ft2·h).
do ≡ outer tube diameter (ft).
k ≡ average fluid thermal conductivity (BTU/ft·h·°F).
cP ≡ average fluid heat capacity (BTU/lb·°F).
u ≡ bulk fluid viscosity (lb/ft·h).
0.8 0.333
⎛ k ⎞⎡ d o G ⎤ ⎡ c P u ⎤
hi = (0.027 )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ do ⎠⎣ u ⎦ ⎣ k ⎦
(
⎛ 0.15263 ftBTU
hi = (0.027 )⎜
⋅h⋅o F ⎟
)
⎞ ⎡ (0.375 ft ) 311720 ( )⎤ ⎡⎢ (0.77725 )(0.13281 )⎤⎥
lb 0.8
BTU lb
0.333
) ⎥⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (0.15263 ) ⎥⎦
ft 2 ⋅h lb⋅o F ft ⋅h
⎢
⎜ (0.375 ft ) ⎟ ⎢
⎝ ⎠⎣ (
0.13281 ftlb⋅h BTU
ft ⋅h⋅o F
hi = 549.6 ftBTU
2
⋅h⋅o F
= 963.2 mW2 ⋅K
(C.6.5)
hw ≡ tube wall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).

KM ≡ tube wall thermal conductivity (BTU·in/ft2·h·°F).
tw ≡ tube wall thickness (in).
KM
hw =
tw
hw =
(324 BTU ⋅in
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
) (C.6.6)
(0.237in )
hw = 1367 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
= 2396 mW2 ⋅K
84
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Rt ≡ total heat transfer resistance (m2·K/W).
Ao ≡ outer surface area per tube length (ft2/ft).
Ai ≡ inner surface area per tube length (ft2/ft).
Ao A 1
Rt = + o +
hi Ai hw Ai ho
(1.178 ) + (1.178 ) + 1
ft 2
ft
ft 2
ft
(963.2 )(1.054 ) (2396 )(1.054 ) (17.93 )

Rt = ft 2 ft 2 W (C.6.7)
W W
m2K ft m2K ft m2 K
Rt = (0.0011603 + 0.0004665 + 0.0557724 ) mWK

2
Rt = 0.0573992 mWK
2
U ≡ overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).
1
U=
Rt
1
U= (C.6.8)
( 2
0.0573992 mWK )
U = 17.42 mW2 K
ASB ≡ shield bank surface area (m2).

NR ≡ number of tube rows.
NT ≡ number of tube per row.
L ≡ horizontal tube length (ft).
ASB = N R ⋅ N T ⋅ L ⋅ Ao
ASB = (3) ⋅ (16 ) ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ 1.178( ft 2
ft
) (C.6.9)
ASB = 904.7 ft 2 = 84.05m 2
QSB ≡ heat absorption in the shield bank section (W).
QSB = U ⋅ LMTD ⋅ ASB

( )
QSB = 17.42 mW2 K ⋅ (622.6 K ) ⋅ 84.05m 2 ( ) (C.6.10)
QSB = 911.6kW = 3.282 GJh
85
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Verifying the flue gas temperature leaving the shield bank section:
HA,SB ≡ heat made available based on the flue gas temperature leaving the shield bank
(kJ/kg).
H A, BWT QR
=
H A, SB QR + QSB
(24,189 ) kJ
kg (63.60 GJh )
= (C.6.11)
H A, SB (63.60 + 3.282) GJh
H A, SB = 25,437 kJ
kg = 12,139 lb
BTU
From chart, @ HA,SB =12,139 BTU/lb, (TFG)OUT ≈ 765.6°C (as initially assumed)*.
*Note that this procedure was repeated via successive substitution on Microsoft Excel
until the outlet flue gas temperature for the shield bank converged.
86
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.7 Finned Bank Section Calculations (Vaporization of Urea Water Stream)
QFB, VAP ≡ convection section heat absorption, vaporization phase (GJ/h).

QFB, LIQ ≡ convection section heat absorption, liquid water heating phase (GJ/h).
QFB, LIQ = 7.400×106 BTU/h = 7.81 GJ/h. (From HYSYS)
QFB ,VAP = QUS − QR ,US − QSB − QFB ,.LIQ

QFB ,VAP = (54.6 − 12.285 − 10.078 − 7.400 ) × 10 6 BTU
h (C.7.1)
QFB ,VAP = 24.84 × 10 6 BTU
h = 26.21 GJh
(TUS)IN ≡ inlet urea steam temperature = 428.2°F = 220.1°C

(TUS)OUT ≡ outlet urea steam temperature = 428.2°F = 220.1°C
(TFG)IN ≡ inlet flue gas temperature = 1410°F = 765.6°C
(TFG)OUT ≡ outlet flue gas temperature = 650.8°F = 34.8°C
LMTD =
[(T )
FG IN − (TUS )OUT ] − [(TFG )OUT − (TUS )IN ]
[(T ) − (TUS )OUT ]
ln FG IN
LMTD =
[(1410 F ) − (428.2 F )] − [(650.8 F ) − (428.2 F )]
o o o o
(C.7.2)
ln
[(1410 F ) − (428.2 F )]
o o
[(650.8 F ) − (428.2 F )]
o o
LMTD = 511.6 o F = 284.2 K
AFREE ≡ finned bank free area (m2).

ft ≡ fin thickness (in).
fh ≡ fin height (in).
Nf ≡ number of fins per inch of tube.
Nt ≡ number of tubes per row.
⎡ s − do 2 ⋅ ft ⋅ fh ⋅ N f ⎤
AFREE = N t ⋅ L ⋅ ⎢ − ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ 12 ft
in
( )
12 inft ⎥⎦
⎡ (8.0 − 4.5)in 2 ⋅ (0.05in ) ⋅ (0.75in ) ⋅ (3) ⎤
AFREE = (16 ) ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ ⎢ − ⎥
⎣⎢ ( )
12 inft ( )
12 inft ⎦⎥
(C.7.3)
AFREE = 69.87 ft 2 = 6.49m 2
87
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
G ≡ flue gas mass velocity (kg/m2·s).
FG ≡ flue gas mass flow rate (lb/h).
FG
G=
AFREE
(114431 lbh )
G= (C.7.4)
(69.87 ft ) 2
G = 1637.85 lb
ft 2 h
= 0.455 lb
ft 2 s
= 2.22 mkg2 s
u ≡ flue gas bulk viscosity (lb/ft·h).

Re ≡ flue gas Reynolds number.
do ⋅ g
Re =
u
Re =
(
( 12 ft ) ⋅ 1637.85
4.5 lb
ft 2 h
) (C.7.5)
(0.0841 ) lb
ft ⋅h
Re = 7304.3
At this number, dimensionless parameter J = 0.01 (from Figure C4)
k ≡ flue gas thermal conductivity (BTU/ft·h·°F).

cP ≡ flue gas heat capacity (BTU/lb·°F).
ho ≡ total convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).
J ⋅ CP ⋅ G
ho = 2
⎛ u ⋅ CP ⎞ 3
⎜ ⎟
⎝ k ⎠
(
(0.01) ⋅ 0.2968 lbBTU
⋅o F
⋅ 1637.85 )( lb
ft 2 h
)
ho = 2
(C.7.6)
( )(
⎛ 0.0841 ftlb⋅h ⋅ 0.2968 BTU
⎜ )⎞⎟ 3
( )
lb⋅o F
⎜ 0.03397 ftBTU ⎟
⎝ ⋅h⋅o F ⎠
ho = 5.97 ftBTU
2
⋅h⋅o F
= 10.46 mW2 K
ef ≡ fin efficiency.
From Figure C5, ef = 0.83 .
88
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
(ho)eff ≡ effective total convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).
At ≡ finned tube surface area per unit tube length (ft2/ft).
⎡[e f ⋅ ( At − Ao )] + Ao ⎤
(ho )eff = ho ⋅ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ At ⎦
⎡[0.83 ⋅ (7.33 ftft − 1.178 ftft )] + 1.178 ftft ⎤
( )
2 2 2
(ho )eff = 5.97 ftBTU

2 o
⋅h⋅ F
⋅⎢ 2
⎥ (C.7.7)
⎢⎣ 7.33 ftft ⎥⎦
2 o
⋅h⋅ F
= 8.97 mW2 K
hi ≡ in-tube film heat transfer coefficient, average water properties used (W/m2·K).
0.8 0.333
⎛ k ⎞⎡ Do ⋅ G ⎤ ⎡ C P ⋅ u ⎤
hi = (0.027)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ Do ⎠⎣ u ⎦ ⎣ k ⎦
⎛ 0.3037 ftBTU
hi = (0.027)⎜
⋅h⋅o F ⎟⎢
(
⎞⎡ 0.375 ft ⋅ 1637.85 ftlb2h )⎤ ⎡⎢ (1.075 )⋅ (0.2423 )⎤⎥
0.8
BTU
lb⋅o F
lb
ft ⋅h
0.333
⎥
⎜ 0.375 ft
⎝
⎟⎢
⎠⎣ (
0.2423 ftlb⋅h ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.3037 ftBTU
⋅h⋅o F ⎥⎦
hi = 731.7 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
= 1282.2 mW2 K
(C.7.8)
Rt ≡ total heat transfer thermal resistance (m2K/W).
At A 1
Rt = + t +
hi Ai hw Ai (ho )eff
2 2
7.33 ftft 7.33 ftft 1
Rt =
(731.66 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
)(1.054 ) (1367
ft 2
ft
+
BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
)(1.054 ) (5.12
ft 2
ft
+ BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
) (C.7.9)
ft 2 ⋅h ⋅o F
Rt = 0.210 BTU
U ≡ total heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).
1
U=
Rt
1
U= ft 2 ⋅h ⋅o F
(C.7.10)
0.210 BTU
U = 4.76 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
= 8.34 mW2 ⋅K
89
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
AFB,VAP ≡ convective heat transfer surface, vaporization phase (m2).
QFB ,VAP
AFB ,VAP =
U ⋅ LMTD
24.84 × 10 6 BTU
AFB ,VAP =
(4.76 )(511.6 F )
h
BTU o
(C.7.11)
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
AFB ,VAP = 10193 ft 2 = 947 m 2
NR ≡ number of required rows.
ACB ,VAP
NR =
N T ⋅ L ⋅ At
10193 ft 2
NR =
(
16 ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ 7.33 ftft
2
)
N R = 3.48 ≈ 4 (C.7.12)
(
AFB ,VAP = N R ⋅ N T ⋅ L ⋅ At = (4 ) ⋅ (16 ) ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ 7.33 ftft
2
)
AFB ,VAP = 11728 ft 2 = 1089.6m 2
90
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.8 Finned Bank Section Calculations (Heating of Liquid Urea Stream)
QFB, LIQ = 7.400×106 BTU/h = 7.81 GJ/h. (From HYSYS)
(TUS)IN ≡ inlet urea steam temperature = 269.2°F = 131.8°C

(TUS)OUT ≡ outlet urea steam temperature = 428.2°F = 220.1°C
(TFG)IN ≡ inlet flue gas temperature = 650.8°F = 343.8°C
(TFG)OUT ≡ outlet flue gas temperature = 419.2°F = 215.1°C
LMTD =
[(T )
FG IN − (TUS )OUT ] − [(TFG )OUT − (TUS )IN ]
[(T ) − (TUS )OUT ]
ln FG IN
LMTD =
[(650.8 F ) − (428.2 F )] − [(419.2 F ) − (269.2 F )]
o o o o
(C.8.1)
ln
[(650.8 F ) − (428.2 F )]
o o
[(419.2 F ) − (269.2 F )]
o o
LMTD = 183.9 o F = 102.2 K
AFREE ≡ finned bank free area (m2).

ft ≡ fin thickness (in).
fh ≡ fin height (in).
Nf ≡ number of fins per inch of tube.
Nt ≡ number of tubes per row.
⎡ s − do 2 ⋅ ft ⋅ fh ⋅ N f ⎤
AFREE = N t ⋅ L ⋅ ⎢ − ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ 12 ft
in
12 inft ( )
⎥⎦
⎡ (8.0 − 4.5)in 2 ⋅ (0.05in ) ⋅ (0.75in ) ⋅ (3) ⎤
AFREE = (16) ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ ⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ ( )
12 inft 12 inft ( )⎥⎦
(C.8.2)
AFREE = 69.87 ft 2 = 6.49m 2
G ≡ flue gas mass velocity (kg/m2·s).

FG ≡ flue gas mass flow rate (lb/h).
FG
G=
AFREE
(114431 lbh )
G= (C.8.3)
(69.87 ft )
2
G = 1637.85 lb
ft 2 h
= 0.455 lb
ft 2 s
= 2.22 mkg2 s
91
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
u ≡ flue gas bulk viscosity (lb/ft·h).
Re ≡ flue gas Reynolds number.
do ⋅ g
Re =
u
Re =
4.5
(
( 12 ft ) ⋅ 1637.85 lb
ft 2 h
)
(0.06365 ) lb
ft ⋅h
(C.8.4)
Re = 9649.5
At this number, dimensionless parameter J = 0.011 (from Figure C4)
k ≡ flue gas thermal conductivity (BTU/ft·h·°F).

cP ≡ flue gas heat capacity (BTU/lb·°F).
ho ≡ total convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).
J ⋅ cP ⋅ G
ho = 2
⎛ u ⋅ CP ⎞ 3
⎜ ⎟
⎝ k ⎠
(
(0.011) ⋅ 0.2793 lbBTU
⋅o F
⋅ 1637.85 )( lb
ft 2 h
)
ho = 2
(C.8.5)
⎜ (
⎛ 0.06365 ⋅ 0.2793
lb
)( BTU
)⎞⎟ 3
( )
ft ⋅h lb⋅o F
⎜ 0.02389 ftBTU ⎟
⎝ ⋅h⋅o F ⎠
ho = 6.13 ftBTU
2
⋅h⋅o F
= 10.74 mW2 K
ef ≡ fin efficiency.
From Figure C5, ef = 0.88 .
(ho)eff ≡ effective total convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).

At ≡ finned tube surface area per unit tube length (ft2/ft).
⎡[e f ⋅ ( At − Ao )] + Ao ⎤
(ho )eff = ho ⋅ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ At ⎦
⎡ [0.88 ⋅ (7.33 ft − 1.178 ⎤
( )
2
ft 2 ft 2
)] + 1.178
(ho )eff = 6.13 ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F ⋅ ⎢
BTU ft
2
ft ft
⎥ (C.8.6)
⎢⎣ 7.33 ftft ⎥⎦
2
⋅h⋅o F
= 9.66 mW2 K
92
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
hi ≡ in-tube film heat transfer coefficient, average water properties used (W/m2·K).
0.8 0.333
⎛ k ⎞ ⎡ Do ⋅ G ⎤ ⎡ c P ⋅ u ⎤
hi = (0.027 )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ Do ⎠⎣ u ⎦ ⎣ k ⎦
⎛ 0.3920 ftBTU
hi = (0.027 )⎜
⋅h⋅o F ⎟⎢
(
⎞ ⎡ 0.375 ft ⋅ 1637.85 lb
ft 2 h
)⎤ ⎡⎢ (1.123 )⋅ (0.3699 )⎤⎥
0.8
BTU
lb⋅o F
lb
ft ⋅h
0.333
⎥
⎜ 0.375 ft
⎝
⎟⎢
⎠⎣ (
0.3699 ftlb⋅h ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.3920 BTU
ft ⋅h⋅o F ⎥⎦
hi = 722.5 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
= 1266.2 mW2 K
(C.8.7)
Rt ≡ total heat transfer thermal resistance (m2K/W).
At A 1
Rt = + t +
hi Ai hw Ai (ho )eff
2 2
7.33 ftft 7.33 ftft 1
Rt =
(722.5 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
)(1.054 ) (1367
ft 2
ft
+
BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
)(1.054 ) (5.51ft 2
ft
+ BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
) (C.8.8)
ft 2 ⋅h ⋅o F
Rt = 0.196 BTU
U ≡ total heat transfer coefficient (W/m2·K).
1
U=
Rt
1
U= ft 2 ⋅h ⋅o F
(C.8.9)
0.196 BTU
U = 5.10 BTU
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F
= 8.93 mW2 ⋅K
AFB,LIQ ≡ convective heat transfer surface, liquid heating phase (m2).
QFB , LIQ
AFB , LIQ =
U ⋅ LMTD
7.400 × 10 6 BTU
=
( )(
h
AFB , LIQ (C.8.10)
5.10 ftBTU
2
⋅h⋅o F
183 . 9o F )
AFB , LIQ = 7893 ft 2 = 733.3m 2
93
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
NR ≡ number of required rows.
AFB , LIQ
NR =
N T ⋅ L ⋅ At
7893 ft 2
NR =
(
16 ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ 7.33 ftft
2
)
N R = 2.69 ≈ 3 (C.8.11)
(
AFB , LIQ = N R ⋅ N T ⋅ L ⋅ At = (3) ⋅ (16 ) ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ 7.33 ftft
2
)
AFB , LIQ = 8796 ft 2 = 817.2m 2
94
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.9 Calculating the Minimum Allowable Tube Wall Thickness
QR’’ ≡ average radiant heat flux (BTU/h·ft2).

r ≡ ratio of maximum radiant heat flux to average radiant heat flux = 1.93
(obtained from Figure C2)
fv ≡ factor for local variation in heat flux = 1.25 (assumed)
fc/c ≡ factor for conductive/convective effects = 0.85 (assumed)
QMAX’’ ≡ maximum local radiant heat flux (BTU/h·ft2).
QMAX ' ' = QR ' '⋅r ⋅ f v ⋅ f c

( )⋅1.93 ⋅1.25 ⋅ 0.85
c
QMAX ' ' = 11000 BTU

h⋅ ft 2
(C.9.1)
QMAX ' ' = 22557 hBTU
⋅ ft 2
= 71154 mW2
FSS ≡ superheated steam mass flow rate = 199847 lb/h = 90650 kg/h
FSS’’ ≡ superheated steam mass velocity per tube = 251177 lb/ft2·h = 1.226×106 kg/m2·h
(TSS)OUT ≡ final superheated steam temperature = 950°F = 510°C
hi ≡ in-tube film heat transfer coefficient, water properties used @ (TSS)OUT (W/m2·K).
0.8 0.333
⎛ k ⎞ ⎡ Do ⋅ G ⎤ ⎡ C P ⋅ u ⎤
hi = (0.027 )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ Do ⎠⎣ u ⎦ ⎣ k ⎦
⎛ 0.04692 ftBTU
hi = (0.027 )⎜
⋅h⋅o F ⎟⎢
(
⎞ ⎡ 0.375 ft ⋅ 251177 lb
ft 2 h
)⎤ ⎡⎢ (0.3998 )⋅ (0.07301 )⎤⎥
0.8
BTU
lb⋅o F
lb
ft ⋅h
0.333
⎥
⎜ 0.375 ft
⎝
⎟⎢
⎠⎣ ( )
0.07301 ftlb⋅h ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.04692 BTU
ft ⋅h⋅o F ⎥⎦
hi = 223.1 ftBTU
2
⋅h⋅o F
= 391.0 mW2 K
(C.9.2)
TM ≡ tube metal temperature (K).

KM ≡ tube metal thermal conductivity (BTU/h·ft·°F).
QMAX ' '⋅d o QMAX ' '⋅d o ⋅ t m

TM = (TSS )OUT + +
hi ⋅ d i K m ⋅ (d o + t m )
( )
(22557 )⋅ (4.5in) + (22557 )⋅ (4.5in) ⋅ (0.237in)
BTU BTU
(223.1 )⋅ (4.026in) (264 )⋅ (4.5in + 0.237in)

h⋅ ft 2 h⋅ ft 2
TM = 950 o F + BTU BTU
(C.9.3)
ft 2 ⋅h⋅o F h⋅ ft ⋅o F
TM = 1084.4 o F = 584.7 o C
95
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
To allow for a safety margin, the maximum design tube temperature is set at
1200°F ≈ 650°C.
PSS ≡ superheated steam operating pressure = 120 bar = 1740 psia
tMIN ≡ minimum allowable tube thickness (cm).

S ≡ design stress, 90% of the yield strength for austenitic steel (psia).
PSS ⋅ d o
t MIN =
2S + PSS
t MIN =
(1740 psia ) ⋅ (4.5in ) (C.9.4)
2(31500 psia ) + (1740 psia )
t MIN = 0.121in = 0.307cm
tMARGIN ≡ margin of tube wall allowance against corrosion and creep (cm).
t MARGIN = t M − t MIN
t MARGIN = (0.602 − 0.307 )cm (C.9.5)
t MARGIN = 0.295cm
96
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.10 Calculating the Required Stack Dimensions
VH = N ⋅ f ⋅ (0.0030 ) ⋅ G 2 ⋅ V g (C.10.1)
VH ≡ velocity head (inH2O).

N ≡ number of tubes per row.
F ≡ correction factor specific to the type of tubes used.
G ≡ flue gas mass velocity at the point in question (lb/s⋅ft2).
Vg ≡ specific volume of the flue gas at the point in question (ft3/lb).
Finding the total velocity for a 25% increase in the flue gas mass velocity:
DUA ≡ draft under arch.
VH DUA = 0.50inH 2 O
SBL ≡ shield bank loss.
VH SBL = N ⋅ f ⋅ (0.0030) ⋅ G 2 ⋅ V g
(
VH SBL = (3)(0.2 )(0.0030) 1.25 × 0.42571 s⋅lbft 2 ) (52.74 )
2 ft 3
lb (C.10.2)
VH SBL = 0.02688inH 2 O
FBL ≡ finned bank loss.
VH FBL = N ⋅ f ⋅ (0.0030) ⋅ G 2 ⋅ V g
(
VH FBL = (7 )(1.0 )(0.0030) 1.25 × 0.4550 s⋅lbft 2 ) (35.98 )
2 ft 3
lb (C.10.3)
VH FBL = 0.2444inH 2 O
SEL ≡ stack entrance loss.
VH SEL = f ⋅ (0.0030) ⋅ G 2 ⋅ V g
(
VH SEL = (0.5)(0.0030) 0.8 s⋅lbft 2 ) (23.00 )
2 ft 3
lb (C.10.4)
VH SEL = 0.02208inH 2 O
DL ≡ damper loss.
VH DL = f ⋅ (0.0030) ⋅ G 2 ⋅ V g
(
VH DL = (1.5)(0.0030 ) 0.8 s⋅lbft 2 ) (23.00 )
2 ft 3
lb (C.10.5)
VH DL = 0.06625inH 2 O
97
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
SOL ≡ stack outlet loss.
VH SOL = f ⋅ (0.0030) ⋅ G 2 ⋅ V g
(
VH SOL = (1.0 )(0.0030 ) 0.8 s⋅lbft 2 ) (19.07 )
2 ft 3
lb (C.10.6)
VH SOL = 0.03660inH 2 O
VH = VH DUA + VH SBL + VH FBL + VH SEL + VH DL + VH SOL

VH = (0.050 + 0.02688 + 0.2444 + 0.02208 + 0.06625 + 0.03660 )inH 2 O (C.10.7)
VH = 0.3962inH 2 O
(stack designed to accommodate a mass velocity of 0.8 lb/s⋅ft2 = 3.9 kg/s⋅m2)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
DG = (0.52 ) ⋅ LS ⋅ Patm ⋅ ⎜ − (C.10.8)
⎜T T ⎟
⎝ a ga ⎠
DG ≡ draft gain (inH2O).

LS ≡ section height (ft).
Patm ≡ atmospheric pressure (psia).
Ta ≡ ambient temperature (°R).
Tga ≡ flue gas temperature (°R).
DGC ≡ convection section draft gain (inH2O).
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
DGC = (0.52 ) ⋅ LS ⋅ Patm ⋅ ⎜ −
⎜T T ⎟
⎝ a ga ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
DGC = (0.52 ) ⋅ (9.5 ft ) ⋅ (14.69 psia ) ⋅ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ (C.10.9)
( o
⎝ 509.67 R ) (
1519.27 o R ) ⎠
DGC = 0.09462inH 2 O
SD ≡ required stack draft (inH2O).
SD = VH − DGC
SD = (0.3962 − 0.09462)inH 2 O (C.10.10)
SD = 0.3016inH 2 O
98
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
SD’ ≡ stack draft gain per foot of stack (inH2O/ft).
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
SD' = (0.52 ) ⋅ LS ⋅ Patm ⋅ ⎜ −
⎜T T ⎟
⎝ a ga ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
SD' = (0.52) ⋅ (1.0 ft ) ⋅ (14.69 psia ) ⋅ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ (C.10.11)
( o
⎝ 509.67 R) (803..27 o R ) ⎠
SD' = 0.005485 inHft2O
D ≡ required diameter of the stack (m).
1.25 ⋅ FG
G=
(π4 )D 2
3.905982 s⋅m 2 =
kg (
1.25 ⋅ 51,905 kgh )( )
1h
3600 s
(C.10.12)
(π4 )D 2
D = 2.42m = 7.95 ft
SFL ≡ stack frictional loss per foot (inH2O/ft).
G 2 ⋅ Tga
SFL =
(211000)D
SFL =
(0.8 ) ⋅ (803.67 R )
lb 2
s ⋅ ft 2
o
(C.10.13)
(211000)(7.95 ft )
SFL = 0.0003066 inHft2O
NSE ≡ net stack effect (inH2O/ft).
NSE = SD'− SFL

NSE = (0.005485 − 0.0003066) inHft2O (C.10.14)
NSE = 0.005179 inHft2O
H ≡ required stack height (m).
SD
H=
NSE
(0.3016inH 2 O )
H= (C.10.15)
(
0.005179 inHft2O )
H = 58.24 ft = 17.75m
99
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.11 Determining the Required Number of Tubes in the Radiant Section
ASS ≡ surface area required for the superheated steam (m2).
QSS
Ass =
QR ' '
(50.64 GJh )
Ass =
(0.1249 ) GJ
h⋅m 2
(C.11.1)
Ass = 405.4m 2
AUS ≡ surface area required for the urea steam (m2).
AUS = AVT − ASS

AUS = (481.1 − 405.4)m 2 (C.11.2)
AUS = 75.7m 2
NSS ≡ number of vertically aligned superheated steam tubes in the radiant section.
NUS ≡ number of vertically aligned urea steam tubes in the radiant section.
For each vertical tube to be the same length:
ASS A
= US
N SS N US
N US A
= US =
(
75.7 m 2 ) (C.11.3)
N SS ASS (
405.4m 2 )
N US
= 0.1868
N SS
NSS must be a multiple of 9 (nine steam passes), NUS must be a multiple of 2 (two steam
passes). For NSS equal to 108:
N US = N SS × 0.1868
N US = (108) × 0.1868 (C.11.4)
N US = 20.17 ≈ 20
NTOTAL = NSS + NUS = 128 vertical tubes (C.11.5)
100
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
ETL ≡ effective vertical tube length (m).
ASS
ETL =
N SS ⋅ π ⋅ d o
ETL =
(4363.64 ft ) 2
(C.11.6)
108 ⋅ π ⋅ ( 412.5 ft )
ETL = 34.30 ft = 10.45m
AUS = (ETL )( N US )(π )(d o )

AUS = (34.30 ft )(20 )(π )( 412.5 ft ) (C.11.7)
AUS = 808.08 ft 2 = 75.07 m 2
TCD ≡ tube-circle diameter in the radiant section (m).
N TOTAL ⋅ s
TCD =
π
128 ⋅ (128 ft )
TCD = (C.11.8)
π
TCD = 27.16 ft = 8.28m
ETL 10.45m
= = 1.26 (C.11.9)
TCD 8.28m
101
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
C.12 Summary of Superheater Results
Heating requirements:
• Superheated steam absorption: 50.64 GJ/h
• Saturated urea steam absorption: 57.61 GJ/h
• Natural gas consumption: 2433 kg/h
Flue gas properties:
• Flue gas emission rate: 51.9 tonnes/h
• Radiant section operating temperature: 927ºC
• Exiting flue gas temperature: 132ºC
• Heat extraction efficiency: 87.9%
Radiant section:
• 128 vertically-aligned bare tubes.
• 20 tubes for the saturated urea steam (2 passes, 10 tubes for each pass)
• 108 tubes for the superheated steam (9 passes, 12 tubes for each pass)
• Effective tube length: 10.45 meters
• Tube circle diameter: 8.28 meters (20.3 cm tube-center spacing)
• Ratio of effective tube height to tube circle diameter: 1.26
Shield bank section:
• 3 rows, 16 bare tubes per row (20.3 cm tube-center spacing)
• Saturated steam for the urea plant (2 passes)
102
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Finned bank section:
• 7 rows, 16 finned tubes per row (20.3 cm tube-center spacing)
• 3 circular fins per inch of tube length (1.2 fins/cm)
• Circular fins: ¾ inches high × 0.05 inches thick (1.91 cm high × 0.13 cm thick)
• Surface area: 2.23 m2 per meter of tube length
• Saturated steam for the urea plant (2 passes)
Emission Stack:
• Stack diameter: 2.42 meters
• Stack height: 17.75 meters
Tubing:
• Schedule 40 piping
• Outer diameter: 4.5 inches (11.4 cm)
• Inner diameter: 4.03 inches (10.2 cm)
• Tube wall thickness: 0.237 inches (0.602 cm)
• Construction material: type HK-40 austenitic steel.
• Type HK-40 mass composition: 25% chromium, 20% nickel, 55% iron.
• Minimum allowable tube wall thickness: 0.307 cm
• Tube wall thickness margin against corrosion and creep: 0.295 cm
103
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Figure C.12.1: Heat available from the combustion of a 19,700 Btu/lb (LHV) refinery gas
104
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Figure C.12.2: Distribution of radiant heat transfer rate around the tubes, dependent upon coil
arrangement and firing mode
105
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Figure C.12.3: Determining the duty-split between radiant and convection sections based on the
bridgewall temperature
106
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Figure C.12.4: Finding the dimensionless parameter J to determine the heat transfer coefficients on the
flue-gas side of serrated fins
107
Appendix C
Steam Superheater
Figure C.12.5: Determining the fin efficiency based on the convection film coefficient as well as the fin
design & thermal conductivity
108
Appendix D: Heat Exchangers
109
Appendix D
Heat Exchangers
D.1 Heat Exchanger Specifications
Table D.1.1: Heat exchanger specifications

Surface Overall Heat
Duty Area Transfer Coefficient Shell Tube
Unit (kW) (m2) (kW/K) Passes Passes
Waste Heat
Exchanger 1 27765 162 124 1 2
Waste Heat
Exchanger 2 36835 220 207 1 2
Gas/Gas Heat
Exchanger 65855 2420 2083 1 1
Table D.1.2: Heat exchanger inlet and outlet specifications
Shell Shell Tube Tube

Unit Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
boiler feed boiler feed water synthesis gas synthesis gas
Waste Heat water 130°C 323.7°C 507.8°C 400°C
Exchanger 1 129 bar 120 bar 184.8 bar 183.9 bar
boiler feed boiler feed water synthesis gas synthesis gas
Waste Heat water 130°C 323.7°C 473.0°C 340.1°C
Exchanger 2 129 bar 120 bar 183.4 bar 183.1 bar
ammonia ammonia
synthesis gas synthesis gas product product
Gas/Gas Heat 31.22°C 300°C 340.1°C 55.64°C 1
Exchanger 190 bar 189.9 bar 183.1 bar 182 bar
110
Appendix E: Compressors and Turbines
111
Appendix E
Compressors and Turbines
E.1 Compressor and Turbine Specifications
Table E.1.1: Summary of compressor/turbine information

Cooling Water PSV
Unit Power Required Steam Flow Rate Flow Rate Size
Or Generated (kW) (tonnes/hr) (tonnes/hr) (m)
Synthesis Gas
Compressor 13 704 N/A 295 0.044
CO2
Compressor 6 855 N/A 160 0.019
Synthesis Gas
Turbine 13 704 60.4 N/A N/A
CO2 Turbine 6 855 30.2 N/A N/A
Table E.1.2: Stream compositions as H/N ratio varies
H/N ratio [H2] [N2] [Ar] MW

2.5 0.7061 0.2825 0.0114 5.1239
3 0.7425 0.2475 0.0100 4.6145
3.5 0.7709 0.2202 0.0089 4.2173
112
Appendix E
E.2 Synthesis Gas Compressor Pressure Safety Valve Design
Case: The discharge of the compressor is blocked in. This will result in no flow through
the compressor.
We must determine the largest orifice diameter required for our PSV to vent the
system. The maximum allowable pressure inside the compressor is 21x106 Pa. Using the
mechanical energy balance equation:
⎛P v 2 ⎞ Ws
Δ⎜⎜ + gh + ⎟⎟ = − Flwf
⎝ ρ 2 ⎠ m&
Let us define our control volume as the PSV. Entering this volume is the fluid at
21x106 Pa, and leaving the control volume the fluid is venting to an atmospheric pressure
of 101 Pa.
In this situation, we can make three assumptions:
• No work is being preformed by the system.
• The change in height across the PSV is negligible.
• The friction loss across the PSV will also be negligible.
• The fluid will start from rest, because there will be no flow when the compressor
outlet is blocked in.
These assumptions reduce the MEB equation to:
⎛ Δ P v 22 ⎞
⎜⎜ − ⎟=0
⎝ ρ 2 ⎟⎠
The target composition for the synthesis gas stream is a ‘hydrogen to nitrogen’
(H/N) ratio of 3. However, it is conceivable that this ratio might vary in a worst case
113
Appendix E
scenario. As we can see in Table E2, the as the H/N ratio gets smaller, the density and
molecular weight of the synthesis gas stream gets larger. This smaller H/N ratio will
result in a lower velocity, which will increase the size of the PSV required.
As the synthesis gas is being compressed to 21x106 Pa, its temperature will
increase to approximately 77oC. As a result, the density of the stream, with a H/N ratio
of 2.5 will be 65.43 kg/m3, or 6.681 kmol/m3.
Solving the MEB for the resulting velocity:
ΔP
(21 × 10 6 Pa − 101Pa )
v2 = 2 = 2 = 799m / s (E.1.1)
ρ 65.43kg / m 3
The combined flow entering the fourth stage of the synthesis gas compressor is
8.05 kmol/s. Converting this to a volumetric flow rate:

~
m 8.05kmol / s
Q= ~ = = 1.205m3 / s (E.1.2)
ρ 6.681kmol / m 3
The required diameter for the PSV orifice is then:
π Q 1.205m 3 / s
A= D2 = = = 1.51 × 10 −3 m 2 (E.1.3)
4 v2 799m / s
4 4
D= A= (1.51 × 10−3 m 2 ) = 0.0438m = 1.72in. (E.1.4)
π π
Rounding this value up to 2” allows for some extra capacity, and will be a more
readily available size.
114
Appendix E
E.3 CO2 Compressor Pressure Safety Valve Design
Case: The discharge of the compressor is blocked in, resulting in no flow through the
compressor.
We must determine the largest orifice diameter required for our PSV to vent the
system. The maximum allowable pressure in the CO2 compressor was assumed to be
17.25x106 Pa. This is 15% greater than the outlet pressure of 15x106 Pa that the
compressor will operate at. Following a similar development as in Appendix E.1, we
arrive at the following equation.
ΔP
v2 = 2
ρ
Compressed to this pressure, the CO2 would be 141oC, with a density of
274.1 kg/m3, and a molar density of 6.346 kmol/m3.
ΔP (17 . 25 × 10 6 Pa − 101 Pa )
v2 = 2 = 2 = 354 m / s (E.2.1)
ρ 274 . 1 kg / m 3
The combined flow entering the fourth stage of the CO2 compressor is
0.611 kmol/s. Converting this to a volumetric flow rate:

~
m 0 . 611 kmol / s
Q = ~ = = 0 . 0963 m 3 / s (E.2.2)
ρ 6 . 346 kmol / m 3
The required diameter for the PSV orifice is then:
π Q 0 . 0963 m 3 / s −3
A = D 2
= = = 0 . 272 × 10 m 2
(E.2.3)
4 v2 354 m / s
4 4 −3
D = A = ( 0 . 272 × 10 m 2 ) = 0 . 0186 m = 0 . 733 in . (E.2.4)
π π
115
Appendix E
Rounding this orifice diameter up to 3/4” allows for some extra capacity. This
will also be a more readily available orifice size.
116
Appendix F: Economics
117
Appendix F
Economics
Table F.1.1: Summary of the cost of each piece of process equipment

Price
Process Unit ($CDN)
Synthesis Gas Compressor $17,250,000
Synthesis Gas Turbine $1,610,000
CO2 Compressor $6,612,500
CO2 Turbine $1,086,750
Gas/Gas Heat Exchanger $5,635,000
Waste Heat Exchanger 1 $483,000
Waste Heat Exchanger 2 $442,750
Superheater $5,740,800
Ammonia Convertor 1 $1,312,533
Ammonia Convertor 2 $1,058,613
Total Equipment Cost $41,231,946
Table F.1.2: Feed stream costs

Stream Mass Flow Rate Cost Cost
(tonne/hr) ($/tonne) ($/hr)
Synthesis Gas 79.2 208 16474
Boiler Feed Water 115.9 0.95 110
Cooling Water 455.5 0.50 228
Fuel Gas 2.433 400 973
Combustion Air 49.46 N/A N/A
Low Pressure CO2 95.03 N/A N/A
Total Stream Cost $17,785
Table F.1.3: Product stream prices

Stream Mass Flow Rate Price Price
(tonne/hr) ($/tonne) ($/hr)
Ammonia Product 79.2 341 27007
Low Pressure CO2 95.03 20.00 1901
Steam (23 bar) 25 20.00 500
Turbine Condensate 90.83 0.85 77
Flue Gas 51.89 N/A N/A
Used Cooling Water 455.5 N/A N/A
Total Stream Cost $29,485
118
Appendix F
Economics
F.1 Determining the Bare Module Cost of the Required Equipment
NOTE: Equations and data used were found from Ulrich and Vasudevan, 20043.
Compressors and Turbines:
CO2 (Centrifugal) Compressor:
fluid power = ε i × ws
= 0.75 × 6855 kW (F.1.1)
= 5141 kW
From Figure 5.30 of Ulrich3, Cpur = $2,300,000
C BM = C Pur × FBM
= $2,300,000 × 2.5 (F.1.2)
= $5,750,000
Synthesis Gas (Centrifugal) Compressor:
fluid power = ε i × ws
= 0.75 × 13704kW (F.1.3)
= 10,278 kW
From Figure 5.30 of Ulrich3, Cpur = $6,000,000
C BM = C Pur × FBM
= $6,000,000 × 2.5 (F.1.4)
= $15,000,000
119
Appendix F
Economics
CO2 Turbine:
ws = 6 855 kW FBM = 3.5 for steam turbine
From Figure 5.21 of Ulrich3, Cpur = $270,000
C BM = C Pur × FBM
= $270,000 × 3.5 (F.1.5)
= $945,000
Synthesis Gas Turbine:
ws = 13 704 kW FBM = 3.5 (Steam Turbine)
From Figure 5.21 of Ulrich3, Cpur = $300,000
C BM = C Pur × FBM
= $400,000 × 3.5 (F.1.6)
= $1,400,000
Heat Exchangers:
Gas/Gas Heat Exchanger:
From Figure 5.38 of Ulrich3,
a
FBM = 7
A = 2420 m2
From Figure 5.36 of Ulrich3, C Pur = $700,000
a
C BM = C Pur × FBM
= $700,000 × 7 (F.1.7)
= $4,900,000
120
Appendix F
Economics
Waste Heat Exchanger 1:
a
FBM = 7
A = 220 m2
C Pur = $60,000
a
C BM = C Pur × FBM
= $60,000 × 7 (F.1.8)
= $420,000
Waste Heat Exchanger 2:
a
FBM = 7
A = 162 m2
C Pur = $55,000
a
C BM = C Pur × FBM
= $55,000 × 7 (F.1.9)
= $385,000
121
Appendix F
Economics
Superheater:
C BM = C Pur × FBM × F p
= $1,300,000 × 9.3 × 1.65 (F.1.10)
= $4,992,000
Reactors:
Ammonia Convertor 1:
c = $8.00 / kg ρ B = 800kg / m 3
cρ B = $6400 / m 3
$6400 / m 3
FBM = (F.1.11)
$3750 / m 3
=1.7067
C Pur = $200,000
Catalyst Cost:
C BM1 = C Pur × FBM
= $200,000 × 1.7067 (F.1.12)
= $341,333
Vessel Cost:
I.D. = 2.477m
LVessel = 10.94 m
122
Appendix F
Economics
FP = 7.94 (Operating Pressure = 190 bar)
FM = 1.00 (Carbon Steel)
a
FBM = 16
CPur = $50,000
a
C BM 2 = C Pur × FBM
= $50,000 × 16 (F.1.13)
= $800,000
Total Cost:
C BM = C BM1 + C BM 2
= $341,333 + $800,000 (F.1.14)
= $1,141,333
Ammonia Convertor 2:
c = $8.00 / kg ρ B = 800kg / m 3
cρ B = $6400 / m 3
$6400 / m 3
FBM = (F.1.15)
$3750 / m 3
=1.7067
C Pur = $200,000
123
Appendix F
Economics
Catalyst Cost:
C BM1 = C Pur × FBM
= $200,000 × 1.7067 (F.1.16)
= $341,333
Vessel Cost:
I.D. = 2.794m
LVessel = 10.85 m
FP = 7.94 (Operating Pressure = 190 bar)
FM = 1.00 (Carbon Steel)
a
FBM = 16
CPur = $33,000
a
C BM 2 = C Pur × FBM
= $33,000 × 16 (F.1.17)
= $528,000
Total Cost:
C BM = C BM1 + C BM 2
= $392,533 + $528,000 (F.1.18)
= $920,533
124
Appendix F
Economics
F.2 The Feasibility of Firing the Superheater Using Hydrogen
Synthesis Gas Cost: $6.50/GJ
Required Energy to produce Ammonia: 32 GJ/tonne NH3
$6.50 32 GJ
Cost of Ammonia = × (F.2.1)
GJ tonne NH 3
$208 $0.094
= =
tonne NH 3 lb syn − gas
1 lb syn − gas = 0.11325 lbmol syn − gas
0.7425 molH 2
= × 0.11375 lbmol syn − gas (F.2.2)
lbmol syn − gas
= 0.084088 lbmol H 2
2.0158 lb H 2
= 0.084088 lbmol H 2 ×
lbmol H 2
1 lb syn − gas = 0.1695046 lb H 2
Net Heating Value of Hydrogen Gas: 54 492 kJ/ lb H2
0.054459 GJ 0.1695406 lb H 2
Net Heating Value of syn − gas = × (F.2.3)
lb H 2 lb syn − gas
= 0.009231 GJ / lb syn − gas
$0.094 0.009231 GJ
Energy Cost from H 2 = × (F.2.4)
lb syn − gas lb syn − gas
= $10.22 / GJ
Energy Cost of Natural Gas = $8.50 / GJ
Based on this analysis, natural gas is the more economically viable option for
firing the superheater.
125
Appendix F
Economics
F.3 Stream Cost Analysis
Feed Stream Costs:
Cost of syn − gas feed = flow × cos t
79.2 tonne $208

= × (F.3.1)
hr tonne
= $16500 / hr
Cost of boiler feed water = flow × cos t
115.9 m 3 $0.95
= × (F.3.2)
hr m3
= $100 / hr
Cost of Cooling water = flow × cos t
455.5 m 3 $0.50
= × (F.3.3)
hr m3
= $200 / hr
Cost of fuel gas = flow × cos t
2.433 tonne $400

= × (F.3.4)
hr tonne
= $1000 / hr
126
Appendix F
Economics
Product Stream Prices:
Calculation of Ammonia Price:
ammonia product price = energy cos t + profit m arg in + utility cos t
32GJ $8.00 $75 $10

= × + + (F.3.5)
tonne GJ tonne tonne
$341
=
tonne
Pr ice of ammonia product = flow × price
79.2 tonne $341

= × (F.3.6)
hr tonne
= $27,000 / hr
Pr ice of compressed CO2 = flow × price
90.53 tonne $20

= × (F.3.7)
hr tonne
= $1,900 / hr
Pr ice of 23bar steam = flow × price
25 tonne $20
= × (F.3.8)
hr tonne
= $500 / hr
Pr ice of turbine condensate = flow × price
90.83 m 3 $0.85
= × (F.3.9)
hr m3
= $75 / hr
127
Appendix F
Economics
Overall Revenue:
Overall Re venue = ∑ price − ∑ cos t
= ($27000 / hr + $1900 / hr + $500 / hr + $75 / hr ) (F.3.10)
− ($16500 / hr + $100 / hr + $200 / hr + $1000 / hr )
= $11,700 / hr
128

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Ammonia Synthesis with

Department of Chemical Engineering

option considered by the company is producing ammonia from a mixture of hydrogen

developed an ammonia synthesis process designed to meet the specifications described

Table A.1.1: Ammonia synthesis loop streams………………………………………….47

Figure 3.1: Ammonia synthesis loop…………………………………………………….10

Saskferco is one of the largest producers of nitrogen fertilizers in North America.

urea ammonium nitrate, in both 28% and 32% solutions.

The existing feed to their ammonia synthesis loop has a composition of

pressure required for the reaction.

Determining the behaviour of the ammonia synthesis reaction was accomplished

by finding an equation for the conversion of hydrogen as a function of equilibrium

when calculating the outlet compositions. To complete these calculations, some

superheated steam, and exhausts it at a vacuum pressure of 30 kPa.

Figure 3.3: Ammonia synthesis loop

The ammonia synthesis reaction, shown as equation B.1.1, is highly exothermic.

This leads to a significant temperature rise across both reactors. As is shown in

hydrogen was determined to be 32.8%, resulting in an exit temperature of 507.8oC. The

steam. It is discussed in detail in Section 5.0, and in Appendix E. Conversion across

8R2 was determined to be an additional 11.8%, resulting in an outlet synthesis gas

temperature of 473.0oC. Concentrations in each stream are summarized in Table B.4.6.

stream. These heats of reaction estimated in Appendix B.5 to be approximately

38.2 MJ/kmol of hydrogen under the conditions present in 8R2.

superheater as a liquid at a pressure of 23 bar and a temperature of 131.8°C. This water

transfer in this section is assumed to be a combination of convective and radiant heat

Figure 4.1: Steam superheater schematic

furnace is classified as being vertical-cylindrical with a cross flow convection section.

The superheater was designed based on the published recommendations of

Herbert Berman found in the Journal of Chemical Engineering2. The calculations

4.2 Heating Requirements:

kilogram of natural gas combusted.

Based on implementing the Peng-Robinson thermodynamic model in the HYSYS

was specified to be leaving the convection section at a temperature of 215.1°C. Based on

found in sections 1 & 2 of Appendix C.

4.3 Optimum Steam Passes and Number of Tubes:

in Berman’s publication2, the optimum mass velocity for superheated steam in a

4.4 Radiant Section:

As previously stated, entirely radiant heat transfer is assumed to occur in the

completely saturated steam once sent to the urea plant.

pertaining to this analysis can be found in section 3 of Appendix C.

within this paragraph can be found in section 11 of Appendix C.

4.5 Shield Bank Section:

of heat absorbed in this section was determined to be 3.28 GJ/h.

complete. The iterative process used can be found in section 6 of Appendix C.

4.6 Finned Bank Section:

then be 2.22 kg/m2·s.

corresponds to the dimensionless J parameter having a value of 0.01. The parameter J is

rounded up to 4 rows. This analysis can be found in section 7 of Appendix C.

4.7 Emission Stack:

It was recommended from Berman2 that the stack be designed to accommodate a

require a diameter of 2.42 meters.

4.8 Construction Material:

long periods of time.

of withstanding high operating temperatures. Because the operating temperature of the

coefficient at the outlet temperature and thermodynamic properties of the superheated

will not be an issue in the designed superheater.

5.2 Gas/Gas Heat Exchanger

entering the first ammonia convertor to a reasonable reaction temperature as well as

5.3 Waste Heat Exchangers

the steam turbines to power the compressors.

temperature of each stream was calculated.

exchange areas of 163 m2 and 220 m2 respectively.

5.4 Heat Exchanger Summary