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Ch-1 Dam Engineering Res Planning
Ch-1 Dam Engineering Res Planning
I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
1 ELEMENTS OF DAM ENGINEERING AND RESERVOIR PLANNING ........................................... 3
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2. Dam and Reservoir structures ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Storage components ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Reservoirs ...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Classification of dams ................................................................................................................... 5
1.6. General characteristics of Embankment dams ............................................................................. 6
1.7. General Characteristics of Concrete dams .................................................................................... 8
1.8. Selection of site for a dam .......................................................................................................... 10
1.9. Investigation of Dam sites ........................................................................................................... 10
1.10. Foundation of dams and their treatment ............................................................................... 12
1.10.1. Rock Foundations .................................................................................................................... 12
1.10.2. Silt and Clay Foundation (fine grained material for foundations) .......................................... 14
1.10.3. Sand and Gravel Foundation (coarse grained material for foundations) ............................... 14
1.11. Reservoir Planning ................................................................................................................ 14
1.11.1. Mass Inflow and Curve ............................................................................................................ 15
1.11.2. Analytical method ................................................................................................................... 16
1.12. Methods of River diversion for Hydraulic structures construction ................................. 16
Table of Figures
Figure I‐1: Navigation Lock arrangements ................................................................................... 1
Figure 1‐1: Components of reservoir and dam structure ................................................................ 3
Figure 1‐2: Storage components ............................................................................................... 4
Figure 1‐3: Principal variants of earth‐fill and earth‐fill/rock‐fill embankment dams (values of m are only
indicative) ............................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 1‐4: Principal variants rock‐fill embankment dams (values of m are only indicative) .................. 7
Figure 1‐5: Principal variant of concrete dams ............................................................................. 9
Figure 1‐6: Grouting and pressure relief drain systems ................................................................ 13
Figure 1‐7: Mass curve .......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 1‐8: Diversion tunnel/channel ....................................................................................... 16
Figure 1‐9: Two stage construction .......................................................................................... 17
BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
I. Introduction
A hydraulic structure may be defined as any structure which is designed to handle water in any way. This
includes the retention, conveyance, control, regulation and dissipation of the energy of water. Such water
handling structures are required in many fields of civil engineering, the principal ones being water supply
and conservation, hydroelectric power, irrigation and drainage, navigation, flood control, fish and wildlife
services and certain aspects of highway engineering.
In order to insure that the function intended for a structure will actually be achieved, a hydraulic design
must be carried out. Various equations, based on continuity, energy, and momentum principles, may be
used to calculate the most suitable length, width, shape, elevation and orientation of the structure. The
application of these basic principles to the practical problem of the design of hydraulic structures is called
hydraulic design.
The principal hydraulic structures can be grouped under the following three categories as below:
1. Heading‐up or Control of water: ‐ These structures comprises weirs, regulators and barrages. The
weir is simply a dam of relatively small dimension, while a regulator is an opened weir, the barrage
is mainly a regulator constructed across a river with shatter. The main purpose of these hydraulic
structures is to raise the upstream water level to feed the canals/tunnel which take their demands
from the structures upstream and hence they are called heading‐up works. They also serve in
controlling and regulating the rate of flow and measurement of flow in the stream.
2. Navigation works: ‐ These structures comprise navigation locks and channels. In order that
navigation could be possible at drops in water level (downstream of hydraulic structures or
downstream of heading‐up works) along the course of a river or main channel, locks should be
built. Sometimes, it proves necessary to excavate a navigable channel to divert navigation from one
channel to another or from one part of the channel to another part of the same channel.
Figure I‐1: Navigation Lock arrangements
3. Storage works: ‐ These comprise dams to store water for future use. The artificial lake formed
upstream of a dam is called a reservoir. This storage water can be used when the natural flow is
less than the required demand. In many cases dams should be provided with spillway sections to
allow for the spilling of the excess water.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
When the difference in water level between the upstream and downstream sides of the dam proves
satisfactory to develop hydroelectricity at economic rates, a hydroelectric plant is constructed in
combination with the storage dam.
Major required data for design and construction of Hydraulic structures
Investigations to collect data and information are the most important step to design and construct any of
the hydraulic structures. Major important data includes: ‐
♦ Topographical data: data related to project area and natural features
♦ Geological data: data related to geological condition of the site
♦ Hydrological data: data related to hydrological properties of the water way and watershed.
The following points must be considered in collecting data:
♦ temperature data at the project location
♦ average humidity
♦ rating curve for discharge and water levels
♦ monthly average discharge/rainfall at the project location
♦ Daily heaviest rainfall
♦ general description of the project and its components
♦ Test results on the construction materials etc.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
1 ELEMENTS OF DAM ENGINEERING AND RESERVOIR PLANNING
1.1 Introduction
Dams are structures controlling the flow of a river by completely blocking the valley of a given river or
drainage system. Through the blockage, storage is formed, which can be utilized for various water
resources development or water control purposes. The retained body of water is called Reservoir, the
retaining structure whether earth/rock/concrete is called dam.
The preliminary purpose of a dam may be defined as to provide for the safe retention and storage of water.
The specific main functions/advantages of dams and reservoirs are:
9 Temporal and quantitative balancing between available water and demand.
9 Water storage for days, weeks, months, years and over years for power generation and sediment
control;
9 Water supply (municipal, industrial or community);
9 Irrigation purposes;
9 Flood control;
9 Regulation/balancing of river flow (such as navigation, low flow augmentation); and
9 Recreation and multipurpose.
The presence of dam with its storage reservoir interferes with its natural system. Associated to this the
main disadvantages include:
9 Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley
9 Interference in the landscape through dams and reservoirs
9 Change of ground water level
9 Strong influence on sediment balance
9 Change in water temperature
9 Influence on fish etc.
1.2. Dam and Reservoir structures
Structures related to dams include: the dam structure, reservoir, diversion structure, appurtenant
structures such as spillways, bottom outlets, intakes and gates as well as service roads and bridges. The
schematic diagram of the components is shown below.
Figure 1‐1: Components of reservoir and dam structure
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
1.3. Storage components
The reservoir volume is subdivided in to the following parts, when seen in its vertical section.
Figure 1‐2: Storage components
Live storage: ‐ the volume of storage in which water will be taken for demand using service outlet. It is the
portion of the storage capacity in which water will normally be stored and withdrawn for beneficial uses.
Dead storage: ‐ the portion of the storage capacity from which water is not normally withdrawn, in
accordance with operating agreements. It is the storage that lies below the invert of the lowest outlet and
thus cannot be evacuated by gravity.
Bottom outlet: ‐ The outlet which is mainly used to discharge the water from the reservoir for the
environmental flow and for flushing of sediments. Some times it is also opened to discharge when there is
flooding on the upstream.
Service outlet: ‐ It is used to discharge the required amount of water for downstream beneficiaries as their
need.
1.4. Reservoirs
The purpose of a reservoir is to modify the pattern of the natural flow in a river to a pattern which is more
suitable by man. Water is stored in a reservoir when the inflow exceeds the needs and it is released when
the requirement exceeds the inflow. A reservoir acts as a buffer between supply and demand.
A reservoir as a water storage or conservation facility can be regarded as a natural resource and should be
used to its optimum potential. The purpose it can serve includes:
9 Water supply for municipal, industrial and agricultural (irrigation) needs;
9 Water quality improvement by using the self purification capacity of the reservoir and the release
of water of higher quality directly to users or to dilute downstream wastes;
9 Flood control through the provision of available empty storage capacity during periods when floods
are possible and maximum;
9 Hydropower production can be provided by the water head offered by the reservoir; reservoirs
should be operated to maximize energy production and meet energy and power requirements;
9 Navigation can be provided by ensuring sufficient depth of water in navigation channels;
9 Recreation benefits are often associated with the pool of water; appropriate pool levels and limits
on level fluctuations should be maintained to maximize such benefits;
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
9 Fish production and wild life can be enhanced thorough the maintenance of desirable pool levels or
low flows during critical periods in the year.
Reservoir parameters
The most important reservoir parameters are reservoir volume or storage (S) [m3], the reservoir surface
area (A), [m2] which can be related to the elevation or water levels in the reservoirs. These parameters can
be computed with the help of topographic maps or surveying. The reservoir surface area can be computed
using planimetery related to the given contour height.
Based on the derived elevation‐area curve and depth, elevation‐volume can be computed using various
methods:
1. Average area (trapezoidal formula):‐ the storage volume b/n two contours of areas A1 and A2:
ΔV1 =
h
( A1 + A2 )
2
Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by: V =
h
( A1 + 2 A2 + ..... + 2 An−1 + An )
2
2. Cone formula:‐ the storage volume between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2:
ΔV1 =
h
3
( )
A1 + A2 + A1 A2 . The total volume is: V = ΔV1 + ΔV2 + .... + ΔVn = ∑ ΔV
3. Prismoidal Formula: ‐ the storage volume between three successive contours:
ΔV1 =
h
( A1 + 4 A2 + A3 ) The total volume is given by:
3
ΔV = [( A1 + An ) + 4( A2 + A4 + A6 + ...) + 2( A3 + A5 + A7 + ...)]
h
3
1.5. Classification of dams
There are various ways of classification of dams. Some of them are as discussed below:
a) Classification based on function served
b) Classification based on hydraulic design
c) Classification based on material used
d) Classification based on rigidity
e) Classification based on structural behaviour
i. Classification according to use
a. Storage dam: ‐ It is a common type of dam constructed to impound surplus flood water for
use in dry period. It may be constructed of a wide variety of materials such as concrete,
stone, earth and rock‐fill.
b. Diversion dam: ‐ It is a dam of smaller height constructed to raise water level of the river
and not for storage or equalization of flow.
c. Detention dam: ‐ It is constructed to store water during floods and release it gradually at a
safe rate when the flood recedes.
d. Debris dams:‐ is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel and floating woods and
the water that passes over the dam is relatively clear.
e. Coffer dams: ‐ it is constructed to divert the water during period of construction. It is
temporary dams constructed for facilitating construction. It is constructed mainly on
upstream but also on downstream depending the slope of the river at the site.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
ii. Classification according to hydraulic design
a. Overflow dam: ‐ It is designed to pass surplus flood water over the crest. It is generally made of
concrete or masonry. It is also called Spillway dam.
b. Non‐overflow dam: ‐ It is designed to pass surplus flood water without overtopping the dam. It
is constructed of a wide variety of materials such as earth, rock‐fill, concrete or masonry.
iii. Classification according to construction materials used
a) Masonry dams: ‐ made of masonry
b) Concrete dams:‐ made of concrete
c) Earth dams:‐ made of earth
d) Rock‐fill dams:‐ made of rock‐fill
e) Timber dams: ‐made of timber
f) Steel dams: ‐ made of steel
iv. Classification based on rigidity
a. Rigid dam: ‐ It is constructed of rigid materials such as masonry, concrete, steel or timber. These
dams deflect and deform very little when subjected to water pressure and other forces.
b. Non‐rigid dam: ‐ It is constructed of non‐rigid materials such as earth and/or rock‐fill. There are
relatively large settlements and deformations in non‐rigid dam.
v. Based on structural design
1. Gravity dams 5. Earth dams
2. Rock‐fill dams 6. Arch dams
3. Buttress dams 7. Steel dams
4. Timber dams
1.6. General characteristics of Embankment dams
a. Earth‐fill embankment dams:
o Consisting more than 50 % of compacted earth‐fill
o Constructed uniformly and intensively in relatively thin layers and at controlled moisture
content
o Designed to resist load by mechanism of embankment stability
o It resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Although the
weight of the earth dam also helps in resisting the forces, the structural behaviour of an earth
dam is entirely different from that a gravity dam.
o They are strictly non‐overflow types.
b. Rock‐fill embankment dams:
o Consisting more than 50 % of compacted rock‐fill
o Includes a discrete impervious element of compacted earth‐fill or a slender concrete or
bituminous membrane
o Rock‐fill dams require foundation stronger than those for earth dams
o Rock‐fill dams are quite economical when a large quantity of rock is easily available near the
site
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Figure 1‐3: Principal variants of earth‐fill and earth‐fill/rock‐fill embankment dams (values of m are only
indicative)
Figure 1‐4: Principal variants rock‐fill embankment dams (values of m are only indicative)
Relative advantages of Embankment dams:
o Adaptable to any type of foundation. Rock‐fill dam, however, imposes some restrictions on
the quality of foundations
o The construction is effectively continuous and highly mechanized process
o Adaptable for sites in seismic zone
o Economical in first cost if sustainable earth for construction is available near the site
o Permits use of wide variety of available materials
o Comparatively unskilled labour can be employed
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
o Earth dams are more earthquake resistance than gravity dams
Relative disadvantages of Embankment dams:
o Susceptible to damage by overtopping or burrowing of animals
o Can not be used as overflow dam. So, separate spillway is required
o High maintenance cost
o Vulnerable to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam and foundation
o Not suitable for narrow gorges with steep slopes
o Can not be constructed in regions with heavy down pore, as the slopes ‐might be washed
away
o Fails suddenly without any sign of imminent failure
1.7. General Characteristics of Concrete dams
a. Gravity dams:
o It is a dam that depends on self‐weight to resist the action of water stored on the upstream
side
o It is constructed of concrete, approximately triangular in section to ensure stability and to
avoid over stressing of the dam or its foundation
o It may be curved or straight in plan
o It is best suited to sites with relatively sound rock foundation
o They are quite suitable for the gorges with very steep slopes
o Low dams (H < 15 m) might be constructed on alluvial foundation with proper cut‐offs and
foundation treatment
b. Buttress dams:
o Consists of a continuous up stream face supported at regular intervals by down stream
buttresses. It normally needs up to 60 % less concrete than gravity dam of the same height,
but needs form work and reinforcement
o A decked type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses. Buttresses
are triangular concrete walls that transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the
foundation. Buttresses are compression members. The deck is usually a reinforced concrete
slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually equally spaced.
c. Arch dams:
o Loads resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted through abutments.
o It is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks that are capable of resisting the
trust produced by the arch action.
o Suitable in narrow gorges when the length of the crest is not more than five times the height
of the dam.
o Requires solid and strong abutments.
o Its particular derivation is the Cupola or double curvature arch dam, which is the most
sophisticated concrete dam, is extremely economical in concrete.
o An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the up stream.
o The system of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a gravity dam but the section is
comparatively thinner.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Figure 1‐5: Principal variant of concrete dams
d. Other concrete dams:
• These are a less common variant of the major types of concrete dams that also exist. They
include hollow gravity, decked buttress, flat slab (ambushes) buttress, and multiple arch
(multiple cupolas) dams.
Relative advantages shared by most of the concrete dams:
• Concrete dams are suitable to the site topography of wide component rock foundation if
available at shallow depth.
• Concrete dams are not sensitive to overtopping.
• Concrete dams can accommodate crest spillway hence cost of separate spillway is reduced.
• Outlet pipe works, valves and other auxiliary works can be provided with in the body of the
dam.
Relative disadvantages shared by most of the concrete dams:
• They are relatively demanding with respect to foundations requiring sound rock.
• Requires importation of proposed material to the site.
• Traditional mass concrete construction is labour intensive and relatively discontinuous and
requires certain skills.
• Compacted unit costs are very much higher than for embankment fills, which seldom
balanced by the much lower volume of concrete required in a dam of certain height.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
1.8. Selection of site for a dam
As dams require huge amount of investment cost, care should be taken while selecting the suitable site.
The following factors shall be considered when selecting the site of a dam.
1. Topography:‐ As far as possible, the dam should be located where the river has narrow gorge which
opens out upstream to create a large reservoir. In that case, the length of the dam would be small and
the capacity of the reservoir on its upstream would be large.
2. Suitable foundation: ‐ Suitable foundation is necessary for dam site. If not available but can be
improved by adopting various measures, the site may be considered for selection. For gravity dams of
great height, sound rock is essential. Earth dams can be constructed on almost any type of foundation,
provided suitable measures are adopted.
i. Rock foundation: ‐ any type dam can be constructed on good rock foundation. Such
foundations have high bearing capacity and resistant to erosion and percolation and
are ideal for all types of dams.
ii. Gravel and coarse sand foundation: ‐ such foundations have low bearing capacity and
earth and rock fill dams are selected. As there may be high seepage, cut‐off may be
provided.
iii. Fine sand and silt foundations: ‐ it is suitable only for earth and low height concrete
dams. As there is settlement, piping, seepage erosion at the d/s toe and liquefaction
failure, measures should be done.
iv. Clay foundation: ‐ it is not suitable for construction of dam. These foundations have
very low bearing capacity, the settlement is quite large, and hence it needs foundation
treatment before dam construction.
3. Spillway site: ‐ a good site for spillway should exist at or near the dam site.
4. Availability of construction materials: ‐ dam requires large amount of construction materials and
hence, there should be sufficient amount of construction material at near by to reduce transportation
cost. The quantity, quality, and distribution of construction material are an important economic factor
in locating the dam site and determining the type of dam to be constructed.
5. Water tightness of reservoir: ‐ the bed and side should be water tight to reduce seepage loss.
6. Submergence area: ‐ the area submerged on the upstream of the dam should be small and should not
submerge costly land and property.
7. Accessibility: ‐ the site should be easily accessed for transportation of construction material. If there
was no road to the site, access roads should be constructed prior the construction.
8. Environmental consideration: ‐ the area should be free from mosquito and others.
9. Sediment rate: ‐ the incoming water should be relatively free from sediment in order to increase the
life span of the reservoir.
10. Minimum over all cost: ‐ it should be relatively minimum cost including maintenance and operation.
1.9. Investigation of Dam sites
Critical investigation should be done to locate the best suitable dam site. This investigation includes
surveying, geologic studies (surface and subsurface) sescimicity investigation and hydrologic studies.
These investigations can broadly classify in to three categories based upon the extent, time and details of
the investigations.
1. Reconnaissance 2. Preliminary 3. Final Investigations
I. Reconnaissance
9 Is the first survey conducted to collect general information for all possible sites;
9 The following information’s are usually collected:
• Topographic data: topographic map will be collected
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
• Geologic data: nature of rock, foundation and abutments, type of rock and other datas
should be collected. But no subsurface data is needed.
• Hydrologic data: stream flow data, estimated height and volume of dam, spillway
requirement and location should be worked out.
II. Preliminary
9 The collected data in this stage should be more in advance than reconnaissance level of study
9 The data collected is used for preliminary design and economic analysis of the dams at various
sites is made.
9 The following data are usually collected during preliminary level of study:
• Preliminary survey: it should be done at all possible selected dam sites ( longitudinal
profile, river x‐section)
• Geological studies: preliminary subsurface explorations with the help of bore holes to
examine the foundation nature.
• Hydrological studies: the possible runoff, yield, maximum discharge, high flood level, silt
load, reservoir volume etc are collected/analysed.
• Construction material: to locate the sites for construction material and its probable
volume.
III. Final Investigation
9 It is conducted for only one site finally selected in preliminary investigations;
9 Completed design and estimate should be done;
9 Generally the following investigations are done:
• Detailed Survey:
• Geological investigation: complete surface and subsurface investigation. If needed
foundation treatment should also be done.
• Final design, estimates (volume and cost), and location: detail working drawings with
appropriate scale should be produced and with its cost estimates.
Selection of appropriate dam type
The selection of an appropriate dam at a given site depends up on many physical factors such as
topography, geology, foundation conditions, availability of materials, suitable site for spillway, etc. A
summary of the characteristics of the site conditions vis‐à‐vis type of dam suitable for the situation is
discussed in the following table.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Table1‐1: characteristics of the site with type of dam
1.10. Foundation of dams and their treatment
Foundation is that part or area under and adjacent to the dam (bottom and abutment) which is affected by
loading, scour or leakage. A good foundation must:
9 have sufficient strength to withstand the weight of the structure and prevent sliding
9 be tight enough to prevent excessive leakage and uplift must be reduced as much as possible
9 Not be damaged by overflow discharge and outlet discharge
For convenience, foundation may be classified as rock, coarse‐grained materials and fine‐grained materials
foundations.
1.10.1. Rock Foundations
Most un‐weathered cemented rocks posses sufficient strength to support dams of usual height. However,
the usual problems are leakage, sliding because of cracks, faults, fissures, etc. Surface rock is usually
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
weathered hence the weathered portion has to be removed and excavation has to be deep enough to give
a firm “toe hold”. The foundation treatments commonly adopted are surface preparation and foundation
grouting.
A.1. Surface preparation:
9 Removing the entire loose soil till sound bedrock is exposed without damaging the underlying
rock.
9 If faults, seams or shattered rock zones are detected in the exploratory geological
investigations, special steps and remedies must be taken to ensure their removal.
A.2. Foundation grouting:
It is the process of injecting grout consisting of cementitious material in to the foundation of the dam to act
as a binder and fill the voids for improving the stability and impermeability of the pervious foundation.
a. Consolidation grouting:
9 It is also called area or blanket grouting
9 The objectives of consolidation grouting are to strengthen the rock, to stop water passage
through the disintegrated rock, to increase bearing strength of the strata and to seal off major
crevices.
9 It is done in an area, usually the entire dam foundation, by drilling shallow holes (3 to 15 m
deep) on a grid pattern at a spacing of 5 to 30 m. The drilled holes are grouted by a mixture of
cement and water termed as grout at a low pressure of not higher than 3.5 kg/cm2.
9 This comparatively shallow and low pressure grouting is done for the general consolidation of
the foundation before concreting of the dam section and is followed by high pressure grouting
after some concreting of the dam has taken place.
9 It also helps in checking the leakage of high‐pressure grout used later in the curtain grouting.
Figure 1‐6: Grouting and pressure relief drain systems
b. Curtain grouting:
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
9 Curtain against the seepage (leakage) through the foundations, and thus reduces the uplift
pressure. It helps in reducing seepage through the foundation. To achieve this, high pressure
grouting is required and relatively deeper holes are drilled near the heel of the dam.
9 Curtain grouting (or high pressure grouting) is done to form a deep curtain wall or an
impervious barrier in the foundation just down‐stream of the heel of the dam.
9 Holes required for curtain grouting are quite deep. The holes are usually vertical but sometimes
it could be inclined. Inclined holes are required to intercept the inclined joints in the rock to
develop an effective grout curtain.
9 Generally, only one line of grout holes parallel to the axis of the dam is sufficient. However, in
the case of very high dam, another set of holes may also be required after the first set has been
grouted at a relatively lower pressure.
1.10.2. Silt and Clay Foundation (fine grained material for foundations)
Such foundation materials are sufficiently impervious. The main problem is bearing capacity. The method
of treatment of the foundation is based on the type of soil, the location of water table and the state of
compaction of the soil.
The treatment is actually depends on the compression characteristics of the soil foundation. If appreciable
post construction settlement is not expected up on saturation, little foundation treatment is necessary. If
appreciable post construction settlement is expected up on saturation, measures to minimize the
settlement should be adopted.
• Some of the treatment methods for fine‐grained soil foundations are as follows:
9 Remove soil of low shearing strength. Practicable if cost of excavation and removal of soft
strata is less than providing embankment of flatter slopes.
9 Providing drainage of the foundation to permit increase of strength during construction.
9 Use flatter slopes so as to reduce magnitude of average shearing strength along the potential
surface of sliding.
9 If the foundation is quite very bad, the site will be left due to the unsuitability of foundation
condition.
1.10.3. Sand and Gravel Foundation (coarse grained material for foundations)
These types of foundations are largely of alluvial origin, and basically seepage and force exerted by seepage
are the main problems encountered. The extent of treatment of these problems is dependent on:
9 The purpose of the dam (seepage quantity is little concern for detention dams)
9 The necessity of down‐stream releases
However, regardless of seepage, adequate measures have to be provided to reduce the danger of piping.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
By analysis of storage data availability of water is ascertained before any project is contemplated. The next
step in reservoir planning is to fix the reservoir capacity. The reservoir has to provide sufficient storage for
various purposes, namely
i. Dead storage to contain silt deposition,
ii. Storage to account for evaporation loss
iii. Live storage to meet the downstream demands for irrigation domestic or industrial
supply, power generation, etc.
iv. Storage to act as flood protection.
The basis of fixing storage capacity for dead storage and evaporation loss depends upon the amount of
incoming sediment and the annual evaporation loss respectively. Requirement for flood protection
depends on the intensity and volume of flood flow. The live storage capacity of a reservoir depends on the
demand for various purposes. It can be arrived at by plotting the mass curves of demand and inflow of
accumulated flow or rainfall plotted against time. The capacity of the reservoir is fixed in such a way as to
take care of the demands during the minimum flow period in the driest year on record. In some cases it is
necessary to cover a period of successive dry years to consider storing of sufficient water to meet the
demand during the periods of prolonged drought.
1.11.1. Mass Inflow and Curve
The mass curve is a plot of cumulative flow as ordinate against time as abscissa through out the record. It
is used to estimate storage requirement. The slope of the curve at any point shows the rate of inflow at
that particular time.
As shown on the graph, the slope at any point shows the rate of inflow at a particular time. The minimum
storage required is the maximum of the vertical lines of CD, and HJ.
Figure 1‐7: Mass curve
Steps for computing reservoir capacity:
Step 1: Prepare mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph;
Step 2: Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding to the given rate of demand
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Step 3: Draw lines AB, FG, etc such that, parallel to the mass demand curve and tangential to the crests, A,
F, etc of mass curve. Points A, F etc indicate the beginning of the dry periods.
Step 4: determine the vertical intercepts CD, HJ, etc b/n the tangential lines and the mass inflow curve.
These intercepts indicate the volumes by which the inflow volumes fall short of demand.
Step 5: determine the largest vertical intercept. It represents the storage capacity required.
1.11.2. Analytical method
Steps to calculate the reservoir capacity using analytical method:
Step‐1: Adjust inflow from the river (stream flow and rainfall over the reservoir);
Step‐2: Adjust the demand (total out flow from the dam), as evaporation loss, water demand for power
production, environmental losses and others;
Step 3: Compute the storage capacity for each months:
Storage required = Adjusted inflow ‐ Adjusted demand
Note: The storage would be required only in those months in which the demand is greater than the
adjusted inflow.
Step 4: Determine the total storage capacity of the reservoir adding the storage required found above
D/S
U/S coffer dam
Figure 1‐8: Diversion tunnel/channel
ii. By constructing the dam in two stages: in this case, the flow is confined to one side of the channel by
constructing a semi‐circular type of coffer dam. The construction can be done within water free area.
This method is suitable for concrete dam types as it tolerates overflowing.
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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BDU, EF, School of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
U/S U/S
Coffer
dam
Construction
Construction
zone on the
area Completed
portion of 2nd stage
the dam
diverted overtopped
flow flow
D/S
D/S
ii.2nd stage diversion
st stage diversion
Figure 1‐9: Two stage construction
Lecture notes, Hydraulic Structures‐I, 2011; by Chalachew A.
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