Chapter 2

Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave

Equations

This chapter shows the solution method for Green’s functions of 1, 2 and 3D
Laplace and wave equations. Lengthy and detailed explanations are given in order
to instruct the basic technique of the integral transform. Especially, Fourier
inversion integral for the time-harmonic Green’s function is discussed in detail.

2.1 1D Impulsive Source

Now, we start from the simplest wave equation that has two variables: a single
space variable x and the time t,

o2 / 1 o2 /
¼  PdðxÞdðtÞ ð2:1:1Þ
ox2 c2 ot2
The nonhomogeneous term represents a wave source with magnitude P, and two
Dirac’s delta functions, dðxÞ and dðtÞ, show the location and the impulsive nature
of the source. The Green’s function is a particular solution of the differential
equation corresponding to the impulsive source. The Green’s function is sought
under the quiescent condition at an initial time,

o/
/jt¼0 ¼  ¼ 0 ð2:1:2Þ
ot t¼0
and the convergence condition at infinity,

o/
/jx!1 ¼  ¼0 ð2:1:3Þ
ox x!1
To obtain a particular solution of the wave equation (2.1.1), we apply the
integral transforms and reduce the differential equation to an algebraic equation in
the transformed domain. Since the unknown function /ðx; tÞ has two variables, we

K. Watanabe, Integral Transform Techniques for Green’s Function, 11

Lecture Notes in Applied and Computational Mechanics 71,
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-00879-0_2, Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
12 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

apply the double transform: Laplace transform with respect to the time variable
t : 0  t\ þ 1,
Z1

f ðsÞ ¼ L½f ðtÞ ¼ f ðtÞ expðstÞdt ð2:1:4Þ
0

and Fourier transform with respect to the space variable x : 1\x\ þ 1,

Zþ1 Zþ1
f ðnÞ ¼ 1 f ðnÞ expðinxÞdn
f ðxÞ expðþinxÞdx; f ðxÞ ¼ ð2:1:5Þ
2p
1 1

Firstly, we multiply the kernel of the Laplace transform expðstÞ to both sides
of the differential equation (2.1.1),
Z1  2 
o / 1 o2 /
¼  PdðxÞdðtÞ expðstÞdt ð2:1:6Þ
ox2 c2 ot2
0

and perform the Laplace transform integral term by term. The order of integration
and differentiation are interchanged for the first term in the left hand side of the
equation. The first term in the right hand side is left in its order and then integrated
by parts. The last nonhomogeneous term, which has the delta function, is evaluated
by using the formula (1.2.3). Then, Eq. (2.1.6) is rewritten as
Z1 Z1 Z1
d2 1 o2 /
/ expðstÞdt ¼ expðstÞdt  PdðxÞ dðtÞ expðstÞdt ð2:1:7Þ
dx2 c2 ot2
0 0 0

We define the Laplace transform of the unknown function as

Z1

/ ¼ / expðstÞdt ð2:1:8Þ
0

The time-derivative term is integrated by parts,

Z1 2  t!1 Z1
o / o/ t!1 2
expðstÞdt ¼ expðstÞ þ ½s/ expðstÞt¼0 þ s / expðstÞdt
ot2 ot t¼0
0 0
¼ s2 /
ð2:1:9Þ
where the quiescent condition at the initial time is incorporated. To the last
nonhomogeneous term, the simple integration formula for the delta function,
Z1
dðtÞ expðstÞdt ¼ 1 ð2:1:10Þ
0
2.1 1D Impulsive Source 13

is applied. Then, we have an ordinary differential equation for the function / in

the transformed domain,

d2 /
¼ ðs=cÞ2 /  PdðxÞ ð2:1:11Þ
dx2
It is possible to obtain the exact solution for the above ordinary differential
equation by the elementary method. However, in order to demonstrate the integral
transform technique, we further apply Fourier transform to the ordinary differential
equation (2.1.11). The Fourier transform defined by Eq. (2.1.5) is applied to
Eq. (2.1.11),
Zþ1  
d 2 / 2 
¼ ðs=cÞ /  PdðxÞ expðþinxÞdx ð2:1:12Þ
dx2
1

The Fourier transform integral is applied to each term as

Zþ1 Zþ1 Zþ1
d2 / 
expðþinxÞdx ¼ ðs=cÞ2 / expðþinxÞdx  P dðxÞ expðþinxÞdx
dx2
1 1 1
ð2:1:13Þ
The convergence condition is also transformed, as
Z1    
o/  d/ 
/jx!1 ¼  ¼ 0 expðstÞdt ) / jx!1 ¼ ¼0
ox x!1 dx x!1
0
ð2:1:14Þ
Defining the Fourier transform of the Laplace transformed unknown function,
Zþ1

/ ¼ / expðþinxÞdx ð2:1:15Þ
1

the transform of the space-derivative in Eq. (2.1.13) is carried out with aid of the
convergence condition,
Zþ1 2 
d /
expðþinxÞdx
dx2
1
 x!þ1 Zþ1 ð2:1:16Þ
d/  x!þ1
¼ expðþinxÞ in½/ expðþinxÞx!1  n2
/ expðþinxÞdx
dx x!1
1
~
¼ n2 /
14 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

The integration formula for the delta function

Zþ1
dðxÞ expðþinxÞdx ¼ 1 ð2:1:17Þ
1

is also used for evaluating the last term. The Fourier transform of the ordinary
differential equation (2.1.12) yields a simple algebraic equation for the double

transformed unknown function / ,

 s2 
n2 / ¼ / P ð2:1:18Þ
c2

Then we have the exact expression for the double transformed function / ,
 P
/ ¼ ð2:1:19Þ
n þ ðs=cÞ2
2

The unknown function has just been determined explicitly in the transformed
domain. We shall carry out two inverse transforms successively. As the first
inversion, we apply the Fourier inversion integral which is defined by the second
of Eq. (2.1.5). The formal Fourier inversion is given by the integral
Zþ1
1 P
/ ¼ expðinxÞdn ð2:1:20Þ
2p n þ ðs=cÞ2
2
1

Due to the symmetric nature of the integrand, the integral is reduced to the simpler
semi-infinite integral,
Z1
 P 1
/ ¼ cosðnxÞdn ð2:1:21Þ
p n þ ðs=cÞ2
2
0

This is a simple integral and the integration formula (Erdélyi 1954, pp. 8, 11),
Z1
1 p
cosðxyÞdx ¼ expðajyjÞ ð2:1:22Þ
x2 þa 2 2a
0

can be applied. Then, Eq. (2.1.21) yields to

P
/ ¼ expðsjxj=cÞ ð2:1:23Þ
2ðs=cÞ
The next step is to carry out the Laplace inversion. The symbolical form for the
Laplace inversion is given by
2.1 1D Impulsive Source 15

Fig. 2.1 1D expanding wave

from a source point
cP/ 2

ct

 
cP 1 1
/ ¼ L1 ½/  ¼ L expðsjxj=cÞ ð2:1:24Þ
2 s
Fortunately, we have the Laplace inversion formula (Erdélyi 1954, pp. 241, 1),
  
1 0; t\a
L1 expðasÞ ¼ ¼ Hðt  aÞ ð2:1:25Þ
s 1; t [ a
where Hð:Þ is Heaviside’s unit step function. Applying this formula to Eq. (2.1.24),
the solution for the non-homogeneous 1D wave equation is obtained as
cP cP
/¼ Hðt  jxj=cÞ ¼ Hðct  jxjÞ ð2:1:26Þ
2 2
This solution shows an expanding (or out-going) 1D wave with uniform amplitude
cP=2 as shown in Fig. 2.1. Consequently, we get the Green’s function for the 1D
wave equation,

o2 / 1 o2 / cP
¼  PdðxÞdðtÞ ) /ðx; tÞ ¼ Hðct  jxjÞ ð2:1:27Þ
ox2 c2 ot2 2

2.2 1D Time-Harmonic Source

When the source is time-harmonic, the nonhomogeneous term in Eq. (2.1.1) is

replaced with a harmonic function, but the source location is unchanged. Thus, the
wave equation with a time-harmonic source is given by

o2 / 1 o2 /
¼  QdðxÞ expðþixtÞ ð2:2:1Þ
ox2 c2 ot2
where Q is the source magnitude and x the frequency of the time-harmonic
vibration. We assume that its solution satisfies the convergence condition at
infinity, i.e.
16 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations


o/
/jx!1 ¼  ¼0 ð2:2:2Þ
ox x!1
As the first step of the solution method, we assume that the solution is also
time-harmonic,

/ðx; tÞ ¼ /# ðxÞ expðþixtÞ ð2:2:3Þ

where /# is called the ‘‘amplitude function.’’ Due to this assumption, the con-
vergence condition (2.2.2) is rewritten for the amplitude function,

#
 d/# 
/ x!1 ¼ ¼0 ð2:2:4Þ
dx x!1
Substituting the time-harmonic assumption of Eq. (2.2.3) into the wave equation
(2.2.1), we have the ordinary differential equation for the amplitude function,

d 2 /#
þ ðx=cÞ2 /# ¼ QdðxÞ ð2:2:5Þ
dx2
The exact solution of this ordinary differential equation can be obtained by the
elementary method. However, in order to demonstrate the integral transform
technique, we apply the Fourier transform, which is defined by Eq. (2.1.5), to the
ordinary differential equation (2.2.5),
Zþ1  2 # 
d / 2 #
þ ðx=cÞ / ¼ QdðxÞ expðþinxÞdx ð2:2:6Þ
dx2
1

Defining the Fourier transform of the amplitude function as

Zþ1
#
/ ¼ /# expðþinxÞdx ð2:2:7Þ
1

the space derivative term in Eq. (2.2.6) is integrated by parts as

Zþ1
d2 /#
expðþinxÞdx
dx2
1
 # x!þ1 Zþ1
d/  # x!þ1 2
¼ expðþinxÞ in / expðþinxÞ x!1 n /# expðþinxÞdx
dx x!1
1
ð2:2:8Þ
We apply the convergence condition of Eq. (2.2.4) and the definition of the Fourier
transform (2.2.7) to the above equation. The Fourier transform of the double
derivative is then reduced to
2.2 1D Time-Harmonic Source 17

Zþ1
d 2 /# #
expðþinxÞdx ¼ n2 / ð2:2:9Þ
dx2
1

The nonhomogeneous term is evaluated as

Zþ1
Q dðxÞ expðþinxÞdx ¼ Q ð2:2:10Þ
1

Then, Eq. (2.2.6) yields a simple algebraic equation for the Fourier transformed
amplitude function,
 # þ ðx=cÞ2 /
n2 /  # ¼ Q ð2:2:11Þ
The Fourier transformed amplitude is determined completely,

# ¼ Q
/ ð2:2:12Þ
n2  ðx=cÞ2
Our next task is to invert the transformed amplitude. Applying the formal
Fourier inversion integral to Eq. (2.2.12), we get
Zþ1
# 1 P
/ ¼ expðinxÞdn ð2:2:13Þ
2p n2  ðx=cÞ2
1

Inspecting the integrand, we see that it has two simple poles at n ¼ ðx=cÞ, that is
to say, the poles are located on the integration path (real axis in the complex n-
plane). Since the integration cannot be performed through these singular points, we
have to distort the integration path around the poles. There are two ways of
deforming the path. One is through an upper semi-circle, other is through a lower
semi-circle as shown in Fig. 2.2. We have to determine which semi-circle is
suitable. Discussing the nature of the initial wave equation (2.2.1), we learn that
the wave will expand to the outer region from the source point, i. e. wave radiation

Im(ξ )

+ω / c +∞
−∞ ? Re(ξ )
?
−ω / c

Fig. 2.2 Possible deformations of the integration path around the pole
18 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

from the source. Therefore, we have to choose the path so that the inversion
integral results in the radiation (out-going) wave from the source.
Still, it is somewhat complicated to explain the path selection. To aid the
understanding, two integrals with complex frequency are considered. After dis-
cussing the wave nature derived from each integral, we will determine and
understand the path distortion.
Let us introduce and add a small imaginary number e to the frequency in
Eq. (2.2.13) so that the poles are shifted from the real axis and are not on the
integration path. The frequency is considered in two ways, positive and negative
imaginary parts, x ! -  ie. Employing the complex frequency, we consider the
complex integral,
Z
1 P
U¼ expðinxÞdn ð2:2:14Þ
2p n2  ðx=cÞ2
C

where the integrand is the same as that in the Fourier inversion integral (2.2.13),
but the frequency is complex, x ¼ -  ie. The integration loop C for the two cases
of complex frequency, with positive and negative imaginary parts, is discussed
separately.
(1) Small positive imaginary: x ¼ - þ ie
When the frequency has a small positive imaginary part, the poles are shifted
from the real axis. The integration path C is chosen so that the integrand vanishes
on the large semi-circle with infinite radius. We employ the lower closed loop CðÞ
in the case of positive x and the upper loop C ðþÞ in that of negative x as shown in
Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Integration path in Im(ξ )

the case of the positive
(+)
imaginary part of the C
frequency

x<0
(ϖ + iε ) / c

Re(ξ )

−(ϖ + iε ) / c
x>0

C (−)
2.2 1D Time-Harmonic Source 19

Applying Cauchy’s integral theorem (Jordan’s lemma) to the complex integral

U with the loop C ðÞ in Fig. 2.3, the integral along the real axis is evaluated as the
residue at the lower pole n ¼ x=c ¼ ð- þ ieÞ=c ,
Zþ1 " #
1 P 2pi Pðn þ x=cÞ
 expðinxÞdn ¼ expðinxÞ
2p n2  ðx=cÞ2 2p n2  ðx=cÞ2
n¼x=c
1
ð2:2:15Þ
Rewriting the above equation, we have for positive x,
Zþ1
1 P iP
2 2
expðinxÞdn ¼ expðþixx=cÞ; x[0 ð2:2:16Þ
2p n  ðx=cÞ 2ðx=cÞ
1

On the other hand, when x\0, we employ the upper loop C ðþÞ for the complex
integral U and have
Zþ1 " #
1 P 2pi Pðn  x=cÞ
expðinxÞdn ¼ expðinxÞ ð2:2:17Þ
2p n2  ðx=cÞ2 2p n2  ðx=cÞ2
n¼x=c
1

Then, in the case of negative x, we have

Zþ1
1 P iP
2 2
expðinxÞdn ¼ expðixx=cÞ ; x\0 ð2:2:18Þ
2p n  ðx=cÞ 2ðx=cÞ
1

Unifying the two Eqs. (2.2.16) and (2.2.18), we have for the Fourier inversion
integral, where the frequency has a positive imaginary part, i.e.
Zþ1
1 P iP
2 2
expðinxÞdn ¼ expðþixjxj=cÞ ; x ¼ - þ ie
2p n  ðx=cÞ 2ðx=cÞ
1
ð2:2:19Þ

(2) Small negative imaginary x ¼ -  ie

When the imaginary part of the frequency is negative, the poles are also shifted
from the real axis as shown in Fig. 2.4. In order to guarantee the convergence at
the large semi-circle, the lower loop C ðÞ is taken in the case of positive x, and the
upper C ðþÞ in the case of negative x.
When x [ 0, we employ the loop C ðÞ and apply Jordan’s lemma to the
complex integral U in Eq. (2.2.14). The integral along the real axis is converted to
the residue at the lower pole, n ¼ xð¼ -  ieÞ=c,
20 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

Fig. 2.4 Integration path in Re(ξ )

the case of the negative (+)
imaginary part of the C
frequency

x<0

−(ϖ − iε ) / c

Im(ξ )

(ϖ − iε ) / c
x>0

C (−)

Zþ1 " #
1 P 2pi Pðn  x=cÞ
 expðinxÞdn ¼ expðinxÞ
2p n2  ðx=cÞ2 2p n2  ðx=cÞ2
n¼x=c
1
ð2:2:20Þ
Rewriting the above, we have in the case of positive x,
Zþ1
1 P iP
2 2
expðinxÞdn ¼  expðixx=cÞ ; x [ 0 ð2:2:21Þ
2p n  ðx=cÞ 2ðx=cÞ
1

Similarly, when we employ the upper loop C ðþÞ in the case of x\0,
Zþ1 " #
1 P 2pi Pðn þ x=cÞ
expðinxÞdn ¼ expðinxÞ
2p n2  ðx=cÞ2 2p n2  ðx=cÞ2
n¼x=c
1
ð2:2:22Þ
the Fourier inversion integral is evaluated as
Zþ1
1 P iP
2 2
expðinxÞdn ¼  expðþixx=cÞ ; x\0 ð2:2:23Þ
2p n  ðx=cÞ 2ðx=cÞ
1

Unifying two Eqs. (2.2.21) and (2.2.23), we have for the frequency with the
negative imaginary part,
2.2 1D Time-Harmonic Source 21

Zþ1
1 P iP
2 2
expðinxÞdn ¼  expðixjxj=cÞ ; x ¼ -  ie
2p n  ðx=cÞ 2ðx=cÞ
1
ð2:2:24Þ
Two expressions are obtained for the single Fourier inversion integral. They are
Eqs. (2.2.19) and (2.2.24) and are summarized in a unified expression as
(
iP
 2ðx=cÞ expðixjxj=cÞ; x ¼ -  ie
/# ¼ iP ð2:2:25Þ
þ 2ðx=cÞ expðþixjxj=cÞ; x ¼ - þ ie

The wave nature of the two expressions is discussed by multiplying the time
factor,
(
iP
 2ðx=cÞ expfþixðt  jxj=cÞg ; x ¼ -  ie
/¼ iP ð2:2:26Þ
þ 2ðx=cÞ expfþixðt þ jxj=cÞg ; x ¼ - þ ie

Inspecting the argument of the exponential function in the above Eq. (2.2.26), the
upper solution for the negative imaginary part gives an out-going (radiation) wave
from the source, but the lower solution for the positive imaginary part gives an
incoming wave, coming from infinity. Since a suitable solution must have the out-
going wave behavior, we employ the upper formula in Eqs. (2.2.25) and (2.2.26).
Thus, the frequency with negative imaginary part is the suitable assumption. Then,
the suitable integration contour for the Fourier inversion integral is that of Fig. 2.4
and the final result for the time-harmonic response is given by

o2 / 1 o2 / iQ
2
¼ 2 2  QdðxÞ expðþixtÞ ) /¼ expfþixðt  jxj=cÞg
ox c ot 2ðx=cÞ
ð2:2:27Þ
We have just learned that the proper selection for a complex frequency is
x ¼ -  ie, i.e. negative imaginary part; and the suitable integration loop is CðÞ
in Fig. 2.4. If we do not introduce a small imaginary part and keep the integration
path and the location of the poles on the real axis, the integration path around the
pole should be deformed by a small semi-circle shown in Fig. 2.5. This defor-
mation is only valid in the case of a positive time factor, expðþixtÞ. If we use a
negative time factor expðixtÞ, the integration path on the real axis must be
deformed by that shown in Fig. 2.6. Thus, the selection of the deformed path
around the pole depends on the sign of the frequency. Finally, we could answer to
the initial question about the deformation of the integration path for the Fourier
inversion integral.
22 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

Im(ξ )
Integration path
exp(+iω t)

+ω / c +∞
−∞
Re(ξ )
−ω / c

Fig. 2.5 Path deformation for the positive frequency

Integration path
Im(ξ )
exp(−iω t)

+ω / c +∞
−∞
Re(ξ )
−ω / c

Fig. 2.6 Path deformation for the negative frequency

2.3 2D Static Source

Let us consider Green’s function for a typical partial differential equation, the so-
called Laplace equation. The Laplace equation with a source S is the nonhomo-
geneous differential equation,

o2 / o2 /
þ ¼ SdðxÞdðyÞ ð2:3:1Þ
ox2 oy2
The product of two delta functions in the nonhomogeneous term shows the
location of the source, i.e. the source S is placed at the coordinate origin ð0; 0Þ in
ðx; yÞ-plane. The convergence condition at infinity,
 
o/ o/
/jpxffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼ ¼0 ð2:3:2Þ
2 þy2 !1
ox pxffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 þy2 !1 oy pxffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 þy2 !1

is also imposed.
Now, we apply the integral transforms to Eq. (2.3.1). Since the unknown
function / has two space variables, we apply the double Fourier transform defined
by
2.3 2D Static Source 23

Zþ1 Zþ1
 1 
/ðnÞ ¼ /ðxÞ expðþinxÞdx; /ðxÞ ¼ /ðnÞ expðinxÞdn ð2:3:3Þ
2p
1 1

Zþ1 Zþ1
~ 1 ~
/ðgÞ ¼ /ðyÞ expðþigyÞdy; /ðyÞ ¼ /ðgÞ expðigyÞdg ð2:3:4Þ
2p
1 1

to the differential equation (2.3.1) successively, as

0 þ1 1
Zþ1 Z  2 2 
@ o / o /
þ ¼ SdðxÞdðyÞ expðþinxÞdxA expðþigyÞdy ð2:3:5Þ
ox2 oy2
1 1

With aid of the convergence condition (2.3.2), each term is transformed as follows:
0 þ1 1
Zþ1 Z 2
@ o / ~
expðþinxÞdxA expðþigyÞdy ¼ n2 /
ox2
1 1
0 þ1 1
Zþ1 Z 2
@ o / ~
expðþinxÞdxA expðþigyÞdy ¼ g2 / ð2:3:6Þ
oy2
1 1
0 þ1 1
Zþ1 Z
@ SdðxÞdðyÞ expðþinxÞdxA expðþigyÞdy ¼ S
1 1
~ ¼ S for the double
Then, we have the simple algebraic equation ðn2 þ g2 Þ/
transformed function. and its solution is given by

~
¼ S
/ 2
ð2:3:7Þ
n þ g2
The reader will find that the partial differential equation (2.3.1) is transformed
to a simple algebraic equation. There is thus no need of solving a differential
equation directly. The subsequent inversion process is however crucial for the
solution. The formal Fourier inversion integral with respect to the parameter g,
Zþ1 Z1
¼ 1
/
S
expðigyÞdg ¼
S 1
cosðgyÞdg ð2:3:8Þ
2p 2 2 p 2
n þg n þ g2
1 0

is evaluated with aid of the formula (2.1.22) and yields

 ¼ S expðjnjjyjÞ
/ ð2:3:9Þ
2jnj
24 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

The next inversion is to evaluate the Fourier inversion integral with respect to
the parameter n,
Zþ1
1 S
/¼ expðjnjjyjÞ expðinxÞdn ð2:3:10Þ
2p 2jnj
1

Inspecting the integrand, the singular point at n ¼ 0 lies on the real axis, i.e. on the
integration path. It is impossible to evaluate the integral in the regular sense. So,
we have to deform the integration path around the pole as in the previous section.
But it was somewhat complicated to determine the path deformation. In order to
avoid this troublesome work, we consider a simpler way of inverting the integral.
Since the trouble stems from the singular point at n ¼ 0, in order to avoid the
trouble, we differentiate Eq. (2.3.10) with respect to the space variables, x and y,
respectively,
Zþ1
o/ S in
¼ expðjnjjyjÞ expðinxÞdn ð2:3:11Þ
ox 4p jnj
1

Zþ1
o/ S
¼  sgnðyÞ expðjnjjyjÞ expðinxÞdn ð2:3:12Þ
oy 4p
1

where sgn(.) is the sign function defined by


þ1 ; y[0
sgnðyÞ ¼ ð2:3:13Þ
1 ; y\0
Using the symmetric nature of the integrand in Eqs. (2.3.11) and (2.3.12), the
integrals are reduced to the real valued semi-infinite integrals,
Z1
o/ S
¼ expðnjyjÞ sinðnxÞdn ð2:3:14Þ
ox 2p
0

Z1
o/ S
¼  sgnðyÞ expðnjyjÞ cosðnxÞdn ð2:3:15Þ
oy 2p
0

The two integrals in the above equations are well-known from Calculus and we
have the formulas,
Z1 Z1
x y
expðnyÞ sinðnxÞdn ¼ 2 ; expðnyÞ cosðnxÞdn ¼ ð2:3:16Þ
x þ y2 x2 þ y2
0 0
2.3 2D Static Source 25

Then, Eqs.(2.3.14) and (2.3.15) are evaluated as

o/ S x o/ S y
¼ ; ¼ ð2:3:17Þ
ox 2p x þ y2
2 oy 2p x þ y2
2

The derivative of / is completely determined. We integrate the above two

equations with respect to x and y, respectively. This integration leads to two
expressions for the single function / as
o/ S  
) /¼ log x2 þ y2 þ c0 ðyÞ
ox 4p
  ð2:3:18Þ
o/ S
) / ¼  log x2 þ y2 þ c00 ðxÞ
oy 4p
Since the above two equations must be equal, two constant terms should be
identical,

c0 ðyÞ ¼ c00 ðxÞ ð2:3:19Þ

This condition is satisfied only when the two terms are pure constant and do not
include any space variable:

c0 ðyÞ ¼ c00 ðxÞ ¼ constant ð2:3:20Þ

Then, we have Green’s function for the Laplace equation,

o2 / o2 / S  
þ ¼ SdðxÞdðyÞ ) /¼ log x2 þ y2 þ arbitrary constant
ox2 oy2 4p
ð2:3:21Þ
This Green’s function does not satisfy the convergence condition at infinity. This
is because we could not carry out the Fourier inversion integral of Eq. (2.3.10)
directly.

2.4 2D Impulsive Source

The 2D wave equation with an impulsive source is given by

o2 / o2 / 1 o2 /
þ ¼  PdðxÞdðyÞdðtÞ ð2:4:1Þ
ox2 oy2 c2 ot2
The nonhomogeneous term states that the source with magnitude P is placed at the
coordinate origin and is impulsive in time. The quiescent condition at an initial time,

o/
/jt¼0 ¼  ¼ 0 ð2:4:2Þ
ot t¼0
26 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

and the convergence condition at infinity,

 
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi o/ o/
/j x2 þy2 !1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0 ð2:4:3Þ
ox x2 þy2 !1 oy x2 þy2 !1

are also employed. As the wave equation (2.4.1) has two space variables x and y,
and one time variable t, a triple integral transform is applied to the differential
equation (2.4.1): the Laplace transform with respect to the time variable,
Z1

/ ðsÞ ¼ /ðtÞ expðstÞdt ð2:4:4Þ
0

and the double Fourier transform with respect to the space variables,
Zþ1 Zþ1
 1 
/ðnÞ ¼ /ðxÞ expðþinxÞdx; /ðxÞ ¼ /ðnÞ expðinxÞdn ð2:4:5Þ
2p
1 1

Zþ1 Zþ1
~ 1 ~
/ðgÞ ¼ /ðyÞ expðþigyÞdy; /ðyÞ ¼ /ðgÞ expðigyÞdg ð2:4:6Þ
2p
1 1

Applying this triple integral transform with the quiescent and convergence con-
ditions, the original differential equation (2.4.1) is transformed to the simple
algebraic equation for the unknown function / ~
 ,

~ ~
   g2 /
n2 / ~   P
  ¼ ðs=cÞ2 / ð2:4:7Þ
Then, the exact expression for /~ 
 in the transformed domain is given by

~
 ¼ P
/ ð2:4:8Þ
2
n þ g2 þ ðs=cÞ2
For the inversion, three inversion integrals must be carried out successively.
The first one is the Fourier inversion integral with respect to the parameter g. This
is reduced to a semi-infinite integral, as
Zþ1 Z1
 ¼ 1
/
P
expðigyÞdg ¼
P cosðgyÞ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2 dg
2p 2 2 2 p
n þ g þ ðs=cÞ
1 0 g2 þ n2 þ ðs=cÞ2
ð2:4:9Þ
The integral on the far right side is easily evaluated by applying the formula
(2.1.22). Then, the first Fourier inversion integral in Eq. (2.4.9) yields
2.4 2D Impulsive Source 27

 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  P
/ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jyj n2 þ ðs=cÞ2 ð2:4:10Þ
2 n2 þ ðs=cÞ2

Secondly, we apply the inversion integral with respect to the parameter n,

Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 1 P
/ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jyj n2 þ ðs=cÞ2 expðinxÞdn ð2:4:11Þ
2p
1 2 n2 þ ðs=cÞ2

The above integral is also reduced to a semi-infinite integral, as

Z1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P
 1
/ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jyj n2 þ ðs=cÞ2 cosðnxÞdn ð2:4:12Þ
2p
0 n2 þ ðs=cÞ2

and we apply the integration formula (Erdélyi 1954, pp. 17, 27) to get
Z1  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp c x2 þ a2 cosðbxÞdx ¼ K0 a b2 þ c2 ð2:4:13Þ
x 2 þ a2
0

where K0 ð:Þ is the zeroth order modified Bessel function of the second kind. Then,
Eq. (2.4.12) takes the compact form
P  s pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
/ ¼ K0 x2 þ y2 ð2:4:14Þ
2p c
The last inversion is the Laplace inversion. The Laplace inversion is symbol-
ically expressed as
P 1 h  s pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi i
/¼ L K0 x2 þ y2 ð2:4:15Þ
2p c
We have the suitable inversion formula (Erdélyi 1954, pp. 277, 8),

Hðt  aÞ 0 ; t\a
L1 ½K0 ðasÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 ffi
; t[a ð2:4:16Þ
2
t a 2
t2 a2

Applying this formula to Eq. (2.4.15), we have the simple expression for /,
(
cP H ðct  r Þ cP 0 ; ct\r
/¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
; ct [ r ð2:4:17Þ
2p 2p
ðctÞ2  r 2 ðctÞ2 r 2

where Hð:Þ is Heaviside’s unit step function and the radial distance r from the
source is defined by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r ¼ x2 þ y2 ð2:4:18Þ
28 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

Consequently, we have the exact expression for Green’s function of the 2D

wave equation as

o2 / o 2 / 1 o2 / cP Hðct  rÞ
þ ¼  PdðxÞdðyÞdðtÞ ) /¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:4:19Þ
ox2 oy2 c2 ot2 2p
ðctÞ2  r 2

2.5 2D Time-Harmonic Source

When the source is vibrating harmonically, the nonhomogeneous 2D wave

equation is given by

o2 / o2 / 1 o2 /
þ ¼  QdðxÞdðyÞ expðþixtÞ ð2:5:1Þ
ox2 oy2 c2 ot2
where Q and x are magnitude and frequency of the source, respectively. We also
assume that its Green’s function satisfies the convergence condition at infinity,
 
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi o/ o/
/j x2 þy2 !1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0 ð2:5:2Þ
ox x2 þy2 !1 oy x2 þy2 !1

As the standard technique for the time-harmonic response, the Green’s function
is assumed as the product
/ðx; y; tÞ ¼ /# ðx; yÞ expðþixtÞ ð2:5:3Þ
where /# ðx; yÞ is an amplitude function to be determined. Substituting this
assumption into the nonhomogeneous wave equation (2.5.1), we have the reduced
wave equation (the so-called Helmholtz equation) for the amplitude function
/# ðx; yÞ,
o2 /# o2 /#
þ þ ðx=cÞ2 /# ¼ QdðxÞdðyÞ ð2:5:4Þ
ox2 oy2
The convergence condition (2.5.2) is also rewritten for the amplitude function as
 
 o/#  o/# 
/# pxffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼ ffi ¼0 ð2:5:5Þ
2 þy2 !1
ox pxffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 þy2 !1 oy pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x2 þy2 !1

The double Fourier transform with respect to two space variables as defined by
Eqs. (2.4.5) and (2.4.6) is applied to the nonhomogeneous Helmholtz equation
(2.5.4),
2 3
Zþ1 Zþ1  2 # 2 # 
4 o / o /
þ ¼ ðx=cÞ /  QdðxÞdðyÞ expðþinxÞdx5 expðþigyÞdy
2 #
ox2 oy2
1 1

ð2:5:6Þ
2.5 2D Time-Harmonic Source 29

Defining the double transform of the amplitude function as

2 3
Zþ1 Zþ1
~ #
 ¼
/ 4 / ðx; yÞ expðþinxÞdx5 expðþigyÞdy
#
ð2:5:7Þ
1 1

Equation (2.5.6) is transformed into the algebraic equation for the unknown
~
 #,
amplitude function /
~ # ~
  g2 /
n2 /
# ~  Q
 ¼ ðx=cÞ2 / #
ð2:5:8Þ
Then, the explicit expression for the amplitude function in the transformed domain
is

~
# ¼ Q
/ ð2:5:9Þ
n2 þ g2  ðx=cÞ2
As the first inversion, we apply the Fourier inversion integral with respect to the
parameter g. Its formal inversion integral is simplified as
Zþ1 Z1
# 1 Q Q cosðgyÞ
/ ¼ expðigyÞdg ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2 dg
2p n2 þ g2  ðx=cÞ2 p
1 0 g2 þ n2  ðx=cÞ2
ð2:5:10Þ
The far right integral is evaluated with aid of the formula (2.1.22) and yields
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 Q
#
/ ¼ q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jyj n2  ðx=cÞ2 ð2:5:11Þ
2 2
2 n  ðx=cÞ

The second Fourier inversion integral with respect to the parameter n is given
by
Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Q 1
#
/ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jyj n2  ðx=cÞ2 expðinxÞdn ð2:5:12Þ
4p
1 n2  ðx=cÞ2

The integrand in the above inversion integral has two branch points at n ¼ x=c
which are on the real axis in the complex n-plane, i.e. on the integration path.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Thus, the radical n2  ðx=cÞ2 changes its sign around the branch point and we
have to discuss the path deformation around these as was done in the case of the
1D time-harmonic problem in Sect. 2.2. Since a detailed discussion for the
introduction of branch cuts is somewhat complicated, we shall follow the math-
ematical procedure described in the book of Ewing, Jardetzky and Press (Ewing
et al. 1957, pp. 44–51) and explain it concisely.
30 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

In order to evaluate the inversion integral of Eq. (2.5.12), we define the integral
I as
Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
I¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp inx  y n2  ðx=cÞ2 dn ð2:5:13Þ
2p
1 n2  ðx=cÞ2

and consider the complex integral having the same integrand as that in the above
equation,
Z  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
U¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp inx  y n2  ðx=cÞ2 dn ð2:5:14Þ
2p 2 2
C n  ðx=cÞ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The radical n2  ðx=cÞ2 has two branch points, and two branch cuts are
introduced in order to keep the radical single-valued. If we add a small negative
imaginary number to the frequency, as was done in Sect. 2.2, the branch points are
shifted from the real axis. Two branch cuts are introduced along the hyperbola as
shown in Fig. 2.7. When the imaginary part of the frequency vanishes, the branch
cut lies on the real and imaginary axes as shown by the red line in Fig. 2.8. Then,
the closed loop C for the complex integral is composed of four contours. One is a
straight line ABC along the real axis (green line), the second one is the line DEF
\
and GHI along the branch cut (blue line), a small circle FG around the branch
\ \
point and the last is two quarter circles, CD and AI , with infinite radius (dotted
curve). The integral along the small circle around the branch point vanishes as its
radius tends to zero, and the two integrals along the large arcs also vanish as the

Im(ξ )
branch cut

arg ( β ) = −π / 2
for x < 0

ξ = −(ω / c) Re(ξ )
arg ( β ) = +π / 2

ξ = +(ω / c)

for x > 0 arg ( β ) = −π / 2

branch cut

Fig. 2.7 Branch cuts in the case of the negative imaginary part of the frequency
2.5 2D Time-Harmonic Source 31

Im(ξ )
A
Fourier inversion line
F
B
E
C Re(ξ )
H G

arg ( β ) = −π / 2
arg ( β ) = +π / 2

For x > 0
D I

Fig. 2.8 Closed loop C for the complex integral U in Eq. (2.5.14)

radius tends to the infinity. It is enough to consider two dominant integration paths
for the complex integral. One is the line ABC along the real axis and other is the
lines DEF and IHG along the branch cut. The argument and value of the radical
along the branch cut is shown in Table 2.1
Then, the closed loop C for the complex integral is ABCDEFGHIA in Fig. 2.8
and we can apply Cauchy’s theorem to the complex integral U. As no singular
point is included within the loop, and the integrals around all circular paths vanish,
the line integral along the real axis, i.e. the Fourier inversion integral, is converted
to the integrals along the branch line DEF and GHI. For the branch line integrals,
we replace the integration variable with n ¼ g or ig, where g is real and
positive. Then, the line integral is converted to real valued integrals, as
Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp inx  y n2  ðx=cÞ2 dn
2p
1 n2  ðx=cÞ2
Z1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos y g2 þ ðx=cÞ2 expðgxÞdg
p
0 g2 þ ðx=cÞ2
ð2:5:15Þ
Zx=c  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos y ðx=cÞ2  g2 sinðgxÞdg
p
0 ðx=cÞ2  g2
Zx=c  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
i 1
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos y ðx=cÞ2  g2 cosðgxÞdg
p
0 ðx=cÞ2  g2
32 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

Table 2.1 Argument of the qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

Line n
radical along the branch line n2  ðx=cÞ2
! qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n ¼ ig
DE þi g2 þ ðx=cÞ2
! qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n ¼ þg
EF þi ðx=cÞ2  g2
! qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n ¼ þg
HG i ðx=cÞ2  g2
! qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
n ¼ ig
HI i g2 þ ðx=cÞ2
g is positive real

The Fourier inversion integral has just been converted to three real integrals.
Fortunately, we can evaluate these integral with aid of integration formulas. Two
integration formulas (Gradshteyn and Ryzhik 1980, pp. 755, 6.677, No. 4)*
Z1  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Za  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos b a2 þ x2 expðcxÞdx  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos b a2  x2 sinðcxÞdx
2
a þx 2 a 2  x2
0 0
p  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼  Y0 a b2 þ c2
2
ð2:5:16Þ
and (Erdélyi 1954, pp. 28, 42)
Za  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 p  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos b a2  x2 cosðcxÞdx ¼ J0 a b2 þ c2 ð2:5:17Þ
a2  x 2 2
0

are applied to the right hand side of Eq. (2.5.15) and the Hankel function (Watson
1966, pp. 73) is also introduced. Equation (2.5.15) is simplified as
Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp inx  y n2  ðx=cÞ2 dn
2p
1 n2  ðx=cÞ2
1 x pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  i x pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:5:18Þ
¼  Y0 x2 þ y2  J0 x2 þ y2
2 c 2 c
i ð2Þ x pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
¼  H0 x2 þ y2
2 c
where J0 ð:Þ and Y0 ð:Þare Bessel functions of the first and second kind, respectively.
Finally, we have a simple expression for the Fourier inversion integral. That is
2.5 2D Time-Harmonic Source 33

Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp inx  y n2  ðx=cÞ2 dn
2p
1 n2  ðx=cÞ2
i ð2Þ x pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
¼  H0 x2 þ y2 ð2:5:19Þ
2 c
It will be shown later that the above equation is valid for the case of the positive
frequency, expðþixtÞ.

*Derivation of formula (2.5.16).

For the integration formula (Gradshteyn and Ryzhik 1980, pp. 755, 6.677, No. 4),
8  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z1  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi >
< pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 ffi
sin z a2  b2 ; b\a
a2 b2 
2 2
Y0 a x þ z cosðbxÞdx ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
:  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 ffi
exp z b2  a 2 ; b [ a
0 2 2 b a

ð2:5:20Þ
if we consider the above as the Fourier cosine transform with the transform
parameter b, its inverse cosine transform is given by
Za  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  1
Y0 a x2 þ z2 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sin z a2  b2 cosðbxÞdb
2 a 2  b2
0
ð2:5:21Þ
Z1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp z b2  a2 cosðbxÞdb
b2  a2
a
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Introducing the variable transform, u ¼ b2  a2 for the second integral in the
right hand side, the formula (2.5.16) is obtained as

 Za  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
2
Y0 a x þ z ¼ 2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sin z a2  b2 cosðbxÞdb
2 a 2  b2
0
ð2:5:22Þ
Z1  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi expðzuÞ cos x u2 þ a2 du
u2 þ a2
0

The Fourier inversion integral has just been evaluated and is expressed by the
Hankel function of the second kind and the amplitude function of Eq. (2.5.12) is
expressed in a compact form as
iQ ð2Þ x pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
/# ¼  H0 x2 þ y2 ð2:5:23Þ
4 c
Thus the 2D Green’s function for the time-harmonic source is given by
34 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

o2 / o2 / 1 o2 /
þ ¼  QdðxÞdðyÞ expðþixtÞ )
ox2 ox2 c2 ot2 ð2:5:24Þ
iQ ð2Þ
/ ¼  H0 ðxr=cÞ expðþixtÞ
4
where r is the 2D radial distance from the source, defined by Eq. (2.4.18).
Let us examine our Green’s function to see if it satisfies the radiation condition
at infinity. Assuming a large distance from the source, i.e. r ! 1, we employ the
asymptotic formula for the Hankel function (Watson 1966, pp. 198),
rffiffiffiffiffi
ð2Þ 2
Hm ðzÞ  expfiðz  mp=2  p=4Þg ; z ! 1 ð2:5:25Þ
pz
The asymptotic form of the Green’s function (2.5.24) is thus given by
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
iQ 2c
/  expfþixðt  r=cÞ þ ip=4g ; r ! 1 ð2:5:26Þ
4 pxr
It is clear that this equation shows an out-going wave from the origin, since the
argument of the exponential function includes only the wave propagation character
t  r=c. Furthermore, its amplitude decays with the inverse square root of the
radial distance. Thus, our selection of the closed loop is correct and the Green’s
function of Eq. (2.5.24) is the suitable solution for our wave equation with a time-
harmonic source.

2.6 3D Static Source

The static 3D Green’s function for the Laplace equation is a particular solution of
the nonhomogeneous differential equation,

o 2 / o2 / o2 /
þ þ 2 ¼ SdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ ð2:6:1Þ
ox2 oy2 oz
where S is magnitude of the source, which is placed at the coordinate origin
ð0; 0; 0Þ. The convergence condition at infinity,
  
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi o/ o/ o/
/j x2 þy2 þz2 !1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0
ox x2 þy2 þz2 !1 oy x2 þy2 þz2 !1 oz x2 þy2 þz2 !1
ð2:6:2Þ
is applied to the Green’s function /.
The Green’s function is obtained by the method of integral transform. For three
space variables, the triple Fourier transform defined by
2.6 3D Static Source 35

Zþ1 Zþ1
 1 
/ðnÞ ¼ /ðxÞ expðþinxÞdx; /ðxÞ ¼ /ðnÞ expðinxÞdn ð2:6:3Þ
2p
1 1

Zþ1 Zþ1
~ 1 ~
/ðgÞ ¼ /ðyÞ expðþigyÞdy; /ðyÞ ¼ /ðgÞ expðigyÞdg ð2:6:4Þ
2p
1 1

Zþ1 Zþ1
^ 1 ^ expðifzÞdf ð2:6:5Þ
/ðfÞ ¼ /ðzÞ expðþifzÞdz; /ðzÞ ¼ /ðfÞ
2p
1 1

is applied to Eq. (2.6.1),

2 3
Zþ1 * Zþ1 Zþ1  2 +
4 o / o2 / o2 / 5
þ þ 2 ¼ SdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ expðþinxÞdx expðþigyÞdy expðþifzÞdz
ox2 oy2 oz
1 1 1

ð2:6:6Þ
Applying the convergence condition (2.6.2), the above Eq. (2.6.6) is transformed
^~
to the algebraic equation for the triple transformed function /,
^
~
 ¼ S
ðn2 þ g2 þ f2 Þ/ ð2:6:7Þ
Thus, the transformed function is determined explicitly,
^
~
¼ S
/ ð2:6:8Þ
n þ g2 þ f 2
2

The first Fourier inversion integral with respect to the parameter f is

Zþ1 Z1
¼ 1
~
/
S
expðifzÞdf ¼
S 1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2 cosðfzÞdf ð2:6:9Þ
2p 2 2 2 p
n þg þf f þ n2 þ g2
2
1 0

The above integral is easily evaluated with aid of the formula (2.1.22) which yields
 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
~ S
 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
/ ffi exp jzj n2 þ g2 ð2:6:10Þ
2 n2 þ g2
The second inversion integral with respect to the parameter g is reduced to the
semi-infinite integral
36 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 1
/
S
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jzj n2 þ g2 expðigyÞdg
2p 2 n2 þ g2
1
ð2:6:11Þ
Z1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S 1
¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jzj n2 þ g2 cosðgyÞdg
2p n2 þ g2
0

The latter semi-infinite integral can be evaluated by using formula (2.4.13). It

follows that
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ¼ S K0 jnj y2 þ z2
/ ð2:6:12Þ
2p
The last inversion integral with respect to the parameter n is also reduced to a
semi-infinite integral,
Zþ1  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S
/¼ K0 jnj y2 þ z2 expðinxÞdn
4p2
1
ð2:6:13Þ
Z1  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S
¼ K0 n y2 þ z2 cosðnxÞdn
2p2
0

Fortunately, we have the integration formula, (Erdélyi 1954, pp. 49, 40)
Z1
p
K0 ðanÞ cosðbnÞdn ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:6:14Þ
2 a2 þ b2
0

Applying this formula to Eq. (2.6.13), the last inversion integral is exactly eval-
uated as
S
/¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:6:15Þ
4p x þ y2 þ z2
2

Consequently, we have the static 3D Green’s function for the Laplace equation,

o2 / o2 / o 2 / S
þ þ 2 ¼ SdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ ) /¼ ð2:6:16Þ
ox2 oy2 oz 4pR
where R is the 3D radial distance from the source,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R ¼ x2 þ y2 þ z2 ð2:6:17Þ
2.7 3D Impulsive Source 37

2.7 3D Impulsive Source

Green’s function for the 3D wave equation is discussed. The wave equation with
an impulsive point source located at the coordinate origin is given by

o2 / o2 / o2 / 1 o2 /
2
þ 2 þ 2 ¼ 2 2  PdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞdðtÞ ð2:7:1Þ
ox oy oz c ot
where P is the magnitude of the source. The quiescent condition at an initial time,

o/
/jt¼0 ¼  ¼ 0 ð2:7:2Þ
ot t¼0
and the convergence condition at infinity,
  
p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi o/ o/ o/
/j x2 þy2 þz2 !1 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0
ox x2 þy2 þz2 !1 oy x2 þy2 þz2 !1 oz x2 þy2 þz2 !1
ð2:7:3Þ
are also imposed.
Our dynamic Green’s function has four variables: three space and one time
variables. Laplace transform with respect to the time,
Z1
/ ðsÞ ¼ L½/ðtÞ ¼ /ðtÞ expðstÞdt ð2:7:4Þ
0

and the triple Fourier transform with respect to three space variables,
Zþ1 Zþ1
 1 
/ðnÞ ¼ /ðxÞ expðþinxÞdx; /ðxÞ ¼ /ðnÞ expðinxÞdn ð2:7:5Þ
2p
1 1

Zþ1 Zþ1
~ 1 ~
/ðgÞ ¼ /ðyÞ expðþigyÞdy; /ðyÞ ¼ /ðgÞ expðigyÞdg ð2:7:6Þ
2p
1 1

Zþ1 Zþ1
^ 1 ^ expðifzÞdf ð2:7:7Þ
/ðfÞ ¼ /ðzÞ expðþifzÞdz; /ðzÞ ¼ /ðfÞ
2p
1 1

are applied to the nonhomogeneous wave equation (2.7.1). With aid of the qui-
escent and convergence conditions, the wave equation is transformed to the simple
^~ 
algebraic equation for the multi-transformed unknown function / ,
^~ 
fn2 þ g2 þ f2 þ ðs=cÞ2 g/ ¼ P ð2:7:8Þ
38 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

The inversion starts from the transformed function,

^
~ 
 ¼ P
/ ð2:7:9Þ
2
n þ g2 þ f2 þ ðs=cÞ2
As the first inversion, the Fourier inversion integral with respect to the parameter f
Zþ1
 ¼ 1
~
/
P
expðifzÞdf
2p 2
n þ g2 þ f2 þ ðs=cÞ2
1
Z1 ð2:7:10Þ
P cosðfzÞ
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2 df
p
0 f2 þ n2 þ g2 þ ðs=cÞ2

is carried out by applying the formula (2.1.22). It follows

 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
~
  P
/ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jzj n2 þ g2 þ ðs=cÞ2 ð2:7:11Þ
2 n2 þ g2 þ ðs=cÞ2

The second inversion is the integral with respect to the parameter g,

Zþ1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 P
/ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp jzj n2 þ g2 þ ðs=cÞ2 expðigyÞdg
2p 2 2 2
1 2 n þ g þ ðs=cÞ
Z1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P 1
¼ q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi exp jzj n2 þ g2 þ ðs=cÞ2 cosðgyÞdg
2p 2 2
0 n þ g2 þ ðs=cÞ
ð2:7:12Þ
The latter semi-infinite integral is also evaluated by the formula (2.4.13) and it
yields
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  ¼ P K0
/ n2 þ ðs=cÞ2 y2 þ z2 ð2:7:13Þ
2p
The third inversion integral with respect to the parameter n is
Zþ1 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 P 1
/ ¼ K0 n2 þ ðs=cÞ2 y2 þ z2 expðinxÞdn
2p 2p
1
ð2:7:14Þ
Z1 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P
¼ 2 K0 n2 þ ðs=cÞ2 y2 þ z2 cosðnxÞdn
2p
0

The integration formula (Erdélyi 1954, pp. 56, 43)

2.7 3D Impulsive Source 39

Z1  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p
K0 a n2 þ b2 cosðcnÞdn ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp b a2 þ c2 ð2:7:15Þ
2 a2 þ c 2
0

is very helpful for our task. Then, applying the above formula (2.7.15) to the last
integral in Eq. (2.7.14), we have
P  s pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
/ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp  x 2 þ y 2 þ z2 ð2:7:16Þ
4p x2 þ y2 þ z2 c

The last inversion is the Laplace inversion

P h  s pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffii
/ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi L1 exp  x2 þ y2 þ z2 ð2:7:17Þ
4p x2 þ y2 þ z2 c

The transform parameter ‘‘s’’ is included only in the argument of the exponential
function. We remember the simple Laplace inversion formula for the delta
function,

L1 ½expðasÞ ¼ dðt  aÞ ð2:7:18Þ

Thus, Eq. (2.7.17) is fully inverted as
P
/¼ dðt  R=cÞ ð2:7:19Þ
4pR
where the radial distance R from the source is defined by Eq. (2.6.17). Finally, we
have the 3D Green’s function for the wave equation with the impulsive point
source,

o2 / o2 / o2 / 1 o2 / P
þ þ ¼  PdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞdðtÞ ) /¼ dðt  R=cÞ
ox2 oy2 oz2 c2 ot2 4pR
ð2:7:20Þ

2.8 3D Time-Harmonic Source

This section derives the 3D Green’s function for a time-harmonic source. It is the
convolution integral of the impulsive Green’s function obtained in the previous
section. The wave equation with the time-harmonic source is given by

o2 / o2 / o2 / 1 o2 /
þ þ ¼  QdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ expðþixtÞ ð2:8:1Þ
ox2 oy2 oz2 c2 ot2
where Q is magnitude of the source and x frequency of the time-harmonic
vibration. The convergence condition at infinity,
40 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

  
o/ o/ o/
/jpffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x2 þy2 þz2 !1
¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0
ox x2 þy2 þz2 !1 oy x2 þy2 þz2 !1 oz x2 þy2 þz2 !1
ð2:8:2Þ
is imposed.
The standard multiple integral transform technique is available for getting the
time-harmonic Green’s function. However, as shown in the case of 2D Green’s
function in Sect. 2. 5, a tiresome complex integration must be carried out. In order
to avoid this difficulty, we take a very simple way. That is, the convolution integral
of the Green’s function for the impulsive source.
In the previous section we get the Green’s function for the impulsive source as

o2 / o2 / o2 / 1 o2 / P
2
þ 2
þ 2
¼ 2 2
 PdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ ) / ¼ dðt  R=cÞ ð2:8:3Þ
ox oy oz c ot 4pR
Replacing the source magnitude P with the time-harmonic function with the fre-
quency x,

P ! Q expfþixðt  t0 Þg ð2:8:4Þ
and denote the time variable in the Green’s function (2.8.3) with t0 . The convo-
lution integral yields
Zt
Q
/¼ dðt0  R=cÞ expfþixðt  t0 Þgdt0 ð2:8:5Þ
4pR
0

It is very easy to evaluate the above integral, since the integrand includes Dirac’s
delta function and we can apply the simple integration formula (1.2.3) in Sect. 1.2,
Zb 
f ðcÞ ; a\c\b
f ðxÞdðx  cÞdx ¼ ð2:8:6Þ
0 ; c\a or b\c
a

Then, we can evaluate the integral in Eq. (2.8.5) and have for /
Q
/¼ Hðt  R=cÞ expfþixðt  R=cÞg ð2:8:7Þ
4pR
The step function ahead of the equation means that Eq. (2.8.7) is the transient
response to the time-harmonic source and the disturbance starts from the wave
arrival t ¼ R=c. When sufficient long time has passed and the response becomes
steady, the step function is meaningless. Then, we have the steady-state time-
harmonic response as
Q
/¼ expfþixðt  R=cÞg ð2:8:8Þ
4pR
Table A Green’s function for Laplace and Wave equations
Differential equation Source Green’s function
2
1D o2 / PdðxÞdðtÞ /ðx; tÞ ¼ cP
ox2 ¼ c12 oot/2  Source 2 Hðct  jxjÞ
2.8 3D Time-Harmonic Source

QdðxÞ expðþixtÞ iQ
/ðx; tÞ ¼  2ðx=cÞ expfþixðt  jxj=cÞg
2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2D o2 / SdðxÞdðyÞ S
ox2 þ ooy/2 ¼ Source /ðx; yÞ ¼  2p logðrÞ þ arbitrary constant ; r ¼ x2 þ y2
2 2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
o2 / PdðxÞdðyÞdðtÞ cP
2
ox2 þ oox/2 ¼ c12 oot/2  Source /ðx; y; tÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi H ðct  rÞ ; r ¼ x2 þ y2
2
2p ðctÞ r
ð2Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
QdðxÞdðyÞ expðþixtÞ /ðx; y; tÞ ¼  iQ r ¼ x2 þ y2
4 H0 ðxr=cÞ expðþixtÞ ;

2 2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3D o2 / SdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ S
ox2 þ ooy/2 þ ooz/2 ¼ Source /ðx; y; zÞ ¼ 4pR ; R¼
x2 þ y2 þ z 2
2 2 2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
o2 / PdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞdðtÞ P
ox2 þ ooy/2 þ ooz/2 ¼ c12 oot/2  Source /ðx; y; z; tÞ ¼ 4pR dðt  R=cÞ ; R ¼ x2 þ y2 þ z2
Q
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
QdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ expðþixtÞ /ðx; y; z; tÞ ¼ 4pR expfþixðt  R=cÞg ; R ¼ x2 þ y2 þ z2
41
42 2 Green’s Functions for Laplace and Wave Equations

The 3D Green’s function for the wave equation with the time-harmonic source is
given by

o2 / o2 / o2 / 1 o2 /
2
þ 2 þ 2 ¼ 2 2  QdðxÞdðyÞdðzÞ expðþixtÞ
ox oy oz c ot ð2:8:9Þ
Q
) /¼ expfþixðt  R=cÞg
4pR

Exercises
(2.1) Using the impulsive response (2.1.27) for 1D wave equation, derive the
time-harmonic Green’s function through the convolution integral and com-
pare it with the time-harmonic Green’s function (2.2.27).
(2.2) Using the impulsive Green’s function (2.4.19) for 2D wave equation, derive
the time-harmonic Green’s function (2.5.23) through the convolution
integral.

References

Erdélyi A (ed) (1954) Tables of integral transforms, vol I. McGraw-Hill, New York
Ewing WM, Jardetzky WS, Press F (1957) Elastic waves in layered media. McGraw-Hill, New
York
Gradshteyn IS, Ryzhik IM (1980) In: Jefferey A (ed) Table of integrals, series, and products, 5th
edn. Chap.6, Academic Press, San Diego
Watson GN (1966) A treatise on the theory of bessel functions. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
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