Chapter 2

Basic Characteristics of Electromagnetic

Radiation

2.1 Radiation Characteristics in the Classical and Quantum

Electrodynamics

In case of charged particle motion in an external field, one of the most fruitful
approaches allowing to calculate the characteristics of radiation, generated by a
particle with charge e, is an approach, where a trajectory r(t) of the particle in the
given field has been found at first, and then the electric and magnetic components
of the electromagnetic field are defined according to the rules of classical elec-
trodynamics [1]:
h h : ii
 
e 1  b2 ð n  b Þ e n ð n  b Þ b
EðtÞ ¼ þ ; ð2:1:1aÞ
R2 ð 1  n b Þ 3 cRð1  n bÞ3

HðtÞ ¼ ½nðt0 ÞEðtÞ: ð2:1:1bÞ

In these expressions cb ¼ r_ ðtÞ; n is a unit vector in direction connecting the
observation point with a charge at the retarded moment of time t0 ,
j R  r ðt 0 Þj
t  t0 ¼ : ð2:1:2Þ
c
Here R is a radius-vector of the observation point.
It is clear, the similar approach gives the reasonable results in a case when it is
possible to neglect the particle energy losses due to photon emission (radiation
losses), i.e. when the process of radiation has no influence upon a trajectory of the
particle.
The first summand term in the formula (2.1.1a) being proportional to R2 does
not depend on acceleration of the charge b_ and characterizes the quasi-stationary
Coulomb field of the moving charge itself (so called ‘‘velocity field’’) while the

A. P. Potylitsyn, Electromagnetic Radiation of Electrons in Periodic Structures, 5

Springer Tracts in Modern Physics, 243, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-19248-7_2,
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
6 2 Basic Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation

second summand being inversely proportional to the distance R and depending on

the charge acceleration, characterizes the radiation wave field (‘‘acceleration
field’’) [1]. The range of the distances R, where the contribution of the first
summand is negligible in comparison with the contribution of the second one,
refers to the wave (or far-field) zone. In the wave zone both components of the
field (2.1.1a) and (2.1.1b) are perpendicular to the vector n that allows to introduce
the Poynting’s vector S ¼ ½EH; directed along a wave vector and describing the
density of the energy flow of the electromagnetic wave.
The angular distribution of an energy flow (intensity) in a solid angle dX (the
value defined in the observation point) is determined through the Poynting’s
vector:
dI cR2 cR2 2
¼ jSj ¼ jEj : ð2:1:3Þ
dX 4p 4p
The angular distribution of the power of particle radiation losses (with a value
determined in a particle position) is connected with intensity (2.1.3) as follows:
dP dI
¼ ð1  nbÞ : ð2:1:4Þ
dX dX
Going over to Fourier-components of a field, it is possible to get the expressions
Z   
e ikR n ðE  bÞb_ iðxtkrÞ
EðxÞ ¼ e e dt;
cR ð1  bnÞ2 ð2:1:5Þ
H ðxÞ ¼ ½n EðxÞ:

Substituting the received expressions in (2.1.3), it is possible to receive the

spectral–angular distributions:

dI cR2
¼ jEðxÞj2 : ð2:1:6Þ
dx dX 4p
As a rule, the radiation is formed by a source with a finite area S, moreover, this
source can emit the electromagnetic waves (the photons) anisotropically. In this
case the radiation is characterized by brightness
 
dP W
L¼ ð2:1:7Þ
dX dS sr  m2

and spectral brightness:

 
dL dP W
¼ : ð2:1:8Þ
dx dx dX dS s1  sr  m2

For the radiation with frequencies from optical and above ones the spectral
brightness is often assigned through the number of photons. Using the Planck’s
2.1 Radiation Characteristics in the Classical and Quantum Electrodynamics 7

law e ¼ 
hx in semi-classical approach, the energy characteristics are expressed
through the number of photons N:
dN
dP ¼ e : ð2:1:9Þ
dt
Then instead the spectral brightness one may use the brilliance
 
dL dN photon
¼B¼ : ð2:1:10Þ
de dt dX dS de=e s  sr  m2  de=e

The spectral–angular density of radiation is got after the integration on the

source area
Z  
photon
I ðh; w; eÞ ¼ B dx dy : ð2:1:11Þ
s  sr  De=e
S

The spectral flux (spectral density) is calculated after the integration over a
solid angle
Z  
photon
US ðeÞ ¼ B dx dy dX : ð2:1:12Þ
s  De=e

And finally, the radiation flux is received via the integration over a spectrum:
Z 
photon
U¼ US ðeÞ de=e : ð2:1:13Þ
s

The field strength of the monochromatic electromagnetic wave (for example, the
laser radiation) is characterized by the dimensionless parameter:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2e2 hA2 i e E0
a0 ¼ ¼ : ð2:1:14Þ
ðmc2 Þ2 mc x

In the last formula by A2 a mean-square value of an electromagnetic vector

potential is designated, E0 is an amplitude of a wave.
In the majority of experiments the beams of the electromagnetic radiation,
formed by means of different optical systems, including, for instance, mirrors,
apertures, lenses, etc. are used. In this case, the radiation power can be distributed
on the area of the target according to an arbitrary law. Then after the integration
with respect to the beam cross-section, we can receive:
Z
dP
P¼ dr ¼ Ireff ; ð2:1:15Þ
dS
r
8 2 Basic Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation

where I ¼ hdP=dSi is an averaged value of the power flux density, reff is an

effective area of the beam. In the laser physics, the parameter laser field strength
[2] is often used
P
I¼ ; ½I  ¼ W/cm2 ; ð2:1:16Þ
reff
which can be expressed through the density of the energy of the laser flash q:
P  cs W
I¼ ¼ c ¼ cq: ð2:1:17Þ
reff  cs V
In the last expression through s is designated the flash duration, V is a volume,
occupied with laser photons. Then instead of (2.1.14), it is possible to receive a
more evident formula:

2r0 Ik2 2r0 k2 q

a20 ¼ ¼ ; ð2:1:18Þ
p mc3 p mc2
where r0 = 2.82 9 10-13 is the classical radius of an electron, as well as the
‘‘engineering’’ formula:
 
a0 ¼ 0:85  109 k ½l I 1=2 W/cm2 : ð2:1:19Þ

In formulas (2.1.18) and (2.1.19), k is a length of a monochromatic wave.

Going from the energy density to the concentration of photons per volume unit
n: n ¼ q= hx, it is possible to receive the estimation of (2.1.18) through the number
of photons in a volume 4a k2e k; i.e. in a parallelepiped with transverse cross section
k2e (
ke is the Compton wavelength of the electron) and length 4ak:

a20 ¼ 4a k2e k n; ð2:1:20Þ

a ¼ 1=137 is the fine structure constant.

For a field strength parameter a0 C 1, it is spoken about the ‘‘strong’’ elec-
tromagnetic wave, whereas the ‘‘linear’’ model of the classical electrodynamics
remains valid for a0  1.

2.2 Polarization Characteristics of Radiation

Hereinafter, the usage of the term ‘‘the photon beam’’ supposes that it concerns the
electromagnetic radiation propagating along the fixed direction with a negligibly
small angular divergence, the characteristics of which (intensity, polarization,
position of maximum in spectrum, temporal modulation, etc.) are possible to
adjust in a rather large range.
2.2 Polarization Characteristics of Radiation 9

A single photon, i.e. an elementary particle with a spin equal to 1, definitionally

exists in a pure spin state (just as the flat monochromatic electromagnetic wave—a
classical analogue of a photon—is always completely polarized). There is a whole
ensemble of photons in a real beam, therefore, for the description of a beam
polarization as a whole (after averaging on ensemble), the matrix of the density qij
(Hermitian tensor of the second rank determined in a plane, which is perpendicular
to a direction of photon beam propagation) is used:
!
1 1 þ n3 n1  in2 1 
qij ¼ ¼ dij þ nr ; ð2:2:1Þ
2 n1 þ in2 1  n3 2

where r ¼ f r1 ; r2 ; r3 g are the Pauli matrices.

Three real-valued parameters ni (i = 1, 2, 3)—so-called Stokes parameters
completely describe a polarization state of a photon beam. The Stokes parameters
n1, n3 characterize the linear polarization of a beam, and n2 the circular one. The
values n21 þ n23 and n2 are the Lorentz-invariants. Parameters n1, n3 are scalars, and
n2 is pseudo-scalar.
In case when none of Stokes parameters is equal to zero, it is spoken about
elliptic polarization, and when n2 = 0—about linear polarization of the radiation.
In the last case, the following values are often used instead of the Stokes
parameters:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P ¼ n21 þ n23 ð2:2:2Þ

is a degree of polarization;
u0 ¼ ð1=2Þ arctg ðn1 =n3 Þ ð2:2:3Þ

—the inclination angle of a plane of the maximal linear polarization concerning

the chosen system of basis vectors (for instance, concerning a plane XZ, if Z-axis is
directed along a photon beam direction).
The degree of linear polarization P can be determined as follows:
   
P ¼ Njj  N? = Njj þ N? ; ð2:2:4Þ

where Njjð?Þ is the number of the photons polarized parallel (perpendicularly) to a

plane of the maximal linear polarization.
Reverse transition to the Stokes parameters follows from (2.2.2), (2.2.3):

n1 ¼ P sinð2u0 Þ; n3 ¼ P cosð2u0 Þ: ð2:2:5Þ

An unpolarized beam can be always presented as superposition of two non-

interacting completely polarized beams of photons with identical intensity and
with mutually perpendicular planes of polarization. Similarly, it is possible to
10 2 Basic Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation

present a partly polarized photon beam (for which 0\n21 þ n22 þ n23 \1) as
superposition of completely polarized and non-polarized beams with various
intensities.
In the classical electrodynamics, the Stokes parameters are calculated as
follows:

E1 E2 þ E1 E2 E1 E2  E1 E2 jE1 j2  jE2 j2

n1 ¼ ; n2 ¼ i ; n3 ¼ : ð2:2:6Þ
jE1 j2 þ jE2 j2 jE1 j2 þ jE2 j2 jE1 j2 þ jE2 j2

The components of the field are calculated in a system, where the third axis
coincides with the direction of a wave vector. If the task has any chosen plane, the
coordinate system is assigned via basis vectors. If in problem there is a chosen
plane, then the coordinate system is

e1 ¼ c1 ½n; b; e2 ¼ ½e1 ; n; n ¼ k=x; ð2:2:7Þ

where b is the vector, perpendicular to the chosen plane; k is a wave vector; x is a

frequency; c1 is a normalization factor.
For the radiation of ultrarelativistic particles the cone of outgoing photons has
an opening of order c-1 (c is the Lorentz-factor) relative to the average value of the
electron momentum. Therefore, it is possible to speak about the mean polarization
of a beam (with accuracy to c-2) if the radiation cone is formed by the aperture
with opening DX  c2 . In this case, for calculation of average Stokes parameters

in (2.2.6), it is necessary to use the bilinear combinations of fields Ei Ek , aver-

aged on the given angular interval:
Z


Ei Ek ¼ dX Ei Ek ; i; k ¼ 1; 2: ð2:2:8Þ
DX

Generally speaking, the averaging similar to (2.2.8) can be carried out not only by the
angular variables but also by any other non-observable kinematic ones. Thus, during
the calculation of polarization characteristics of coherent bremsstrahlung, the
averaging similar to (2.2.8) is carried out by the momentum of a final electron [3].

2.3 The Formation Length of Radiation by a Charged Particle

Ter-Mikaelyan in his monograph [4] considering the spatial region, in which the
bremsstrahlung is generated by ultrarelativistic electron moving in a medium, has
shown that the longitudinal size of this region (along the direction of the initial
electron) sharply increases with the growth of the electron Lorentz-factor and with
decrease of the photon energy. This spatial scale, which was named ‘‘formation
length’’ ‘f, can have macroscopic sizes greatly exceeding the wavelength of the
2.3 The Formation Length of Radiation by a Charged Particle 11

bremsstrahlung photon. After the passage of the length ‘f, the electron and emitted
photon can be considered as independent particles.
The estimation of this spatial scale can be found from classical electrodynamics
(see, for example, [5]). In this approach, the charge, which passes through a rather
small area and where external fields are concentrated, is emitted an electromag-
netic wave with the length k without appreciable distortion of a charge trajectory
and the change of its energy (see Fig. 2.1).
The determination of the formation length follows from the phase relationships:
on the length ‘f, which a charge passes after the area of a field at velocity b, the
front of a wave, emitted in angle h, should ‘‘lag behind’’a charge for a wave length:
‘f
 ‘f cos h ¼ k; ð2:3:1Þ
b
and (2.3.1) directly results in the formula for the formation length:
k
‘f ¼ : ð2:3:2Þ
1=b  cos h

In the ultrarelativistic approach ð1=b  1 þ c2 =2Þfor the ‘‘straightforward’’

radiation we have

‘f ¼ 2c2 k: ð2:3:3Þ
If the following area of a field concentration is located along a trajectory on the
distance L\‘f (see Fig. 2.1), then in this case the electromagnetic waves, emitted
by a charge in two areas of an external field, will interfere in a destructive manner,
i.e. the intensity of resulting radiation will be less than the sum of intensities from
two independent sources.
Let carry out the quantum consideration of the formation length problem on an
example of bremsstrahlung, following to Ter-Mikaelyan [4].
We shall estimate the minimal value of a longitudinal recoil momentum ql,
which is transferred to a nucleus, during the process of bremsstrahlung of the
ultrarelativistic electron with energy e1. Such situation is realized for collinear
geometry, when the final electron with energy e2 and a photon with energy hx
move along the direction of the initial electron:
ql min ¼ p1  p2  k: ð2:3:4Þ

Fig. 2.1 The scheme

illustrates the concept of the
formation length
12 2 Basic Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation

Here p1, p2, k are momenta of initial and final electrons and photons, accordingly.
Neglecting the energy transferred to a nucleus (i.e. in case of fulfillment of a
condition e1 ¼ e2 þ hx), momentum pi in the ultrarelativistic approach becomes
   
e1 1 e1  hx 1
p1 ¼ 1  2 ; p2 ¼ 1 2 ;
c 2c1 c 2c2

and (2.3.4) results in

mc hx
ql min ¼ : ð2:3:5Þ
2c1 e2
From the uncertainty principle it follows that the last expression defines the length:

h e2
‘¼ ¼ 2c1ke ; ð2:3:6Þ
ql min hx

where ke is the Compton wavelength of an electron. It is clear that for the case
x  e1 ; e2 (i.e. e2  e1 ) from the formula (2.3.6) follows the expression (2.3.3):
h

‘ ¼ 2c2 k ¼ ‘f

that illustrates the generality of the concept of the formation length both for
quantum consideration, where recoil effects are important, and for classical one.
The concept of the formation length plays an important role in considering of
various physical effects (see in detail the review [6]). With regard to the radiation
in periodic structures, where a constructive interference is the reason of mono-
chromaticity of the radiation spectrum (for the fixed radiation angle h), the
wavelength corresponding to the spectral line with minimal frequency (so-called
‘‘fundamental’’ harmonic), is defined from the relationship
‘f ¼ d; ð2:3:7Þ
where d is a period of the structure.
Expression (2.3.7) does not depend on the radiation mechanism and is appli-
cable both in classical electrodynamics (for instance, for undulator radiation or
Smith–Purcell radiation), and in quantum one (the typical example is the coherent
bremsstrahlung). The mentioned mechanisms, as well as some others, are con-
sidered in the following chapters of this book.

2.4 Interference Factor and the Resonance Condition

Let us consider the electromagnetic radiation of the charge moving on a flat

periodic trajectory (Fig. 2.2). Let us designate through E1 ðkÞ the radiation field on
the first period, where k is a wave vector; Dte ¼ d=bk c is time of the electron
2.4 Interference Factor and the Resonance Condition 13

Fig. 2.2 Constructive

interference of the
electromagnetic radiation in
the periodic structure

passing with velocity bk c through the first period; DtK ¼ d cos h=c is time of the
wave front passing from the first period till identical position on the second period.
The phase difference of two wave packages generated by electron on the first
and second periods are the follows:
!
2p d d cos h d 
U ¼ xðDte  DtK Þ ¼ bjj c  ¼ 2p 1  bk cos h : ð2:4:1Þ
k bjj c c k

Thus, the field of radiation on the second period is defined by the expression
E2 ðkÞ ¼ E1 ðkÞ expðiUÞ: ð2:4:2Þ

Reasoning by analogy, it is possible to express the radiation field for the nth
period as:
En ðkÞ ¼ E1 ðkÞ expðiðn  1ÞUÞ: ð2:4:3Þ
Then the total field from the periodic structure containing N elements is repre-
sented as the sum

ER ðkÞ ¼ E1 ðkÞ þ E2 ðkÞ þ E3 ðkÞ þ þ EN ðkÞ

¼ E1 ðkÞf1 þ expðiUÞ þ expði 2 UÞ þ þ expðiðN  1ÞUÞg: ð2:4:4Þ

Having designated (expðiUÞ ¼ q), we shall receive an expression for the total
intensity of the field:
 
ER ðkÞ ¼ E1 ðkÞ 1 þ q þ q2 þ þ qN1
1  qN 1  expðiNUÞ
¼ E1 ðkÞ ¼ E1 ðkÞ ; ð2:4:5Þ
1q 1  expðiUÞ

using the well-known formula for a geometric progression.

14 2 Basic Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation

The spectral–angular distribution of the radiation intensity can be calculated,

knowing the field intensity:

d 2 WR
¼ const jER ðkÞj2
dx dX
j1  exp ðiNUÞj2 d2 W
¼ const jE1 ðkÞ j2 ¼ FN : ð2:4:6Þ
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} j1  exp ðiUÞj2 dx dX
d2 W
dx dX

2 2
d W
Here dx dX ¼ const jE1 ðkÞj describes the radiation ‘‘collected’’ from one period of
a trajectory, and a multiplier
 
1  expðiNUÞ2

FN ¼   ð2:4:7Þ
1  expðiUÞ 

refers to as an interference factor, since it describes the interference from

N identical radiators.
Using known trigonometric rules, the last formula can be rewritten as

sin2 ðNU=2Þ
FN ¼ : ð2:4:8Þ
sin2 ðU=2Þ

The function FN has a set of sharp maxima for the values of an argument, which
makes a denominator zeroth:

U d 
¼p 1  bk cos h ¼ m p; m is an integer:
2 km

The last formula is reduced to the following expression for the case b  bk

d
km ¼ ð1  b cos hÞ; ð2:4:9Þ
m
which was received regardless to any fixed radiation mechanism and can be
applied to any type of radiation, which is characterized by the periodic disturbance
of a trajectory. The received relationship is generalization of the resonance con-
dition (2.3.7) for m 6¼ 1.
Frequently, the index m ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . . refers to harmonic number. The harmonic
m = 1 for ultrarelativistic particles with frequency

4pc2 c 2c2 x0
x1 ¼   ¼ ð2:4:10Þ
d 1 þ c 2 h2 1 þ c 2 h2
2.4 Interference Factor and the Resonance Condition 15

Fig. 2.3 An interference

factor for periods N = 5, 10

is identified as fundamental. The resonance condition brings to the following

conclusion: the frequencies of the higher harmonics in m time differ from fun-
damental ones:
xm ¼ m x1 : ð2:4:11Þ

The diagram of the function FN is presented in Fig. 2.3 for h = 0 at N ¼ 5 and 10.
As expected, the function FN differs from zero in a small range of frequencies
close by xm, and the width of this range is defined by a number of the periods:
Dxm 1
 : ð2:4:12Þ
xm N
As it follows from the picture, the maximal value of the function is

FN max ¼ N2: ð2:4:13Þ

From (2.4.12) and (2.4.13) it follows that the area under the peak is
S  Dxm  FN max ¼ Nxm ð2:4:14Þ

and linearly increases with a number of periods.

For big values N
10 the function FN (2.4.7) is approximated well by
d-function:
 
N x
FN  2p NdðU  2m pÞ ¼ d ð1  b cos hÞ  1 : ð2:4:15Þ
m m x0

References

1. Jackson, J.D.: Classical Electrodynamics. Wiley, New York (1998)

2. Nikishov, A.I., Ritus, V.I.: Quantum electrodynamics of effects in strong field. Trudy FIAN
111, (1979) (in Russian)
16 2 Basic Characteristics of Electromagnetic Radiation

3. Diambrini Palazzi, G.: High-energy Bremsstrahlung and electron pair production in thin
crystals. Rev. Mod. Phys. 40, 611 (1968)
4. Ter-Mikaelyan, M.L.: High-Energy Electromagnetic Processes in Condensed Media. Wiley-
Interscience, New York (1972)
5. Akhiezer, A.I., Shulga, N.F.: High Energy Electrodynamics in Matter. Gordon and Breach,
Amsterdam (1996)
6. Baier, V.N., Katkov, V.M.: Concept of formation length in radiation theory. Phys. Rep. 409,
261 (2005)
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