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Optics by Gulshan Jha Sir

Modern Physics. U
De Broglie Waves E = K +U = –K =
2
h h and the total energy is directly
= =
p mv proportional to the mass of the
Photoelectric Effect electron.
(a) Photons If the potential energy is assumed to
Electromagnetic wave energy is be zero at n=1, then the total energy
emitted and absorbed in package of of the atom will be
(iii) The figure shows the variation of
definite size called photons. The photocurrent i as a function of the 13.6Z 2
energy E of photon is proportional to E=– 2
+ 27.2Z 2
potential V of the anode with respect n
wave frequency f. to cathode for two different light
i.e. E  f  1
frequencies f1 and f2 (>f1) with the or E =  2 – 2 13.6Z 2
hc same intensity. The stopping  n 
or E = hf = potential increases linearly with (d) The wavelength of photon emitted

frequency. when electron jumps from n=n2 to
Where h is called the Plank’s n=n1 is given by
constant (h=6.63 × 10–34 Js)
1 E E2 – E1 13.6Z 2 1 1
C is speed of light in vacuum, and  = = =  2 – 2
is the wavelength of light in vacuum.  hc hc hc  n1 n2 
The expression can be simplified in 1 1 1
the following form for practical or = R Z 2  2 – 2 
applications.   n1 n2 
12400 If the nucleus of atom is not
E ( eV ) =
 ( Å) (iv) The figure shows that the maximum considered to be stationary, then
1 2 equations for radius energy and
The momentum p of a photon of kinetic energy mvmax of ejected
2 wavelength may be modified as
E
energy E is given by p = where c electron is directly proportional to z2  m 
c the frequency f of the incident light rn = 0.53 1 +  Å
Z  M
is the speed of light. The direction of if it is greater than the threshold
momentum is the direction of frequency. Z2  M 
En = –13.6   eV
propagation of light. 1 2 n2  m + M 
(b) Einstein’s photoelectric equation mvmax = eV0 = h ( v – vth )
2 1 R 1 1
The maximum kinetic energy of the
Bohr’s Formulae =  Z 2  2 – 2  m–1
photoelectron is given by  1+ m  z1 z2 
(a) The radius of the nth orbit is defined
1 2 M
mvmax = hf – W n2
2 as rn = 0.53 Å where m is the mass of electron, and
Where f is the frequency of the Z M is the mass of nucleus.
incident photon, and W is the work (b) The speed of electron in nth orbit is Note: (i) Total number of emission lines
function of metal surface. W = hf0 Z c  from some excited state n1 to another
vn = 
n  137  energy state
where f0 is the threshold frequency. n2 (  n1 ) is given by
(i) Photocurrent i is directly Where c = 3 108 ms –1 is the speed
proportional to intensity of incident 2.19 106 Z –1
( n1 – n2 )( n1 – n2 + 1)
radiation and there is no threshold of light. Or vn = ms 2
n
intensity provided the frequency is For example total number of lines
The speed of electron is independent
greater than the threshold frequency. n ( n –1)
(ii) The figure shows variation of
of its mass. from n1 = n to n2 = 1 are
(c) The total energy of an atom is the 2
potential V of the anode with respect (ii) As the principal quantum number
sum total of kinetic and potential. If
to the cathode for a constant light n is increased in hydrogen and
the electron is in the nth shell, then
frequency. The stopping potential Vs hydrogen like atoms, some quantities
Z2
is independent of light intensity I. E = –13.6 2 ( eV ) are decreased and some are
n increased. The table given below
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show which quantities are increased
and which are decreased.
X-Rays
X-rays are highly penetrating
electromagnetic radiations of
wavelength of the order of 1 Å
hc hc
That is, min = =
2 eV
1/ 2 mv
The Cut-off wavelength is
independent of the target material. It
depends only on the kinetic energy of
the electron beam.
The characteristic spectrum depends
only on the target material, and it is
independent of the kinetic energy of
the electron beam.
The figure shows the variation of
intensity I of X-rays as a function of
their wavelength . The graphs
shows a minimum wavelength min
(called out-off wavelength) but there
is no maximum wavelength. The
graph shows two basic features.
(a) a continuous curve with min shows
continuous spectrum of X-rays.
(b) Two sharp peaks of high intensity
shows characteristic spectrum.
(d) Variation of l versus . The target
material is changed (Z2 > Z1) but the
kinetic energy of the electron beam
remains unchanged. It is observed
that the cut-off wavelength remains (d)
same but the characteristic spectrum
is the unique property of the target
material. Probability of a nucleus to
disintegrate in time t is,
P (disintegration) = 1 – p
(survival) = 1– e – t
The corresponding graph is as
shown.
(e) Half life and mean life are related to
Moseley’s Law each other by the relation.
t1/2 = 0.693 tav or tav = 1.44 t1/2
f = a ( Z – b)
(f) As we said in point number (2),
1 2 1
= R ( Z –1) 1– 2  Number of nuclei decayed in time t

N = 2, 3, 4 ………..
 n  ( )
are N0 1– e – t So, to avoid it we
Radioactivity can use.
N
(a) After n half lives, N =
n t
1
(i) number of nuclei left = N0   where, N are the number of nuclei
2
decayed in time t, at the instant
1
n
when total number of nuclei are N.
(ii) fraction of nuclei left =  
 2 But this can be applied only when
and t  t2 .
(g) In same interval of time, equal
(iii) percentage of nuclei left
n percentage (or fraction) of nuclei are
1
= 100   decayed (or left undecayed).
 2

(b)

Number of nuclei decayed after time

t, = N0 – N

(c) Variation of l versus  the kinetic

(
= N0 – N0e – t = N0 1– e – t )  Force Due to Radiation (Photon)
The corresponding graphs is as Case:(I)
energy of the electron beam is
increased from K1 to K2 keeping the shown in figure.
same target. It is observed that cutoff (c) Probability of a nucleus for survival
wavelength of continuous spectrum after time t,
(  2  1 ) but the N N0e–t
decreases P(survival) = = e–t
characteristic spectrum remains N0 N0 a=1, r=0
unchanged. F IA 1
pressure = = =
A cA c
Case:(II)
when r = 1, a = 0
F 2IA 2I
pressure P = = =
A cA c
The corresponding graph is shown
Case:(III)
in figure.
When 0 < r < 1 a + r = 1
Now pressure
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IA 1 1 electron is an integral multiple of

P= (1 + r )  = (1 + r ) h nh
c A c that is, mvr = where
2 2
n = 1, 2,3,...
(B) (c) Energy is emitted or absorbed when
the electron jumps from one level to
Case:I a = r, r = 0 another. For a transition from a
Pressure higher orbit to a lower orbit, the
photon is emitted and the energy
F cos  IA cos2  I
= P= = cos2  difference is hf, where f is the
A cA c frequency of the photon.
Case:II When r=1, a=0 (d) Photon absorption causes a transition
2 IA cos2  2 I cos2  of the electron to higher orbit but
Pressure ,P =
cA c only if the energy and frequency are
Case:III 0 < r < 1, a + r = 1 just appropriate.
Pressure
I cos2  1cos2  I cos2 
= (1– r ) + 2r = (1 + r )
c c c

(C)

r 2 I
Pressure =
c
Note that integration is done only for
the hemisphere that faces the
incident beam.
Atomic Line Spectra:
In 1885, Balmer discovered a
formula for the wavelengths of
certain spectral lines observed
coming from excited hydrogen.
1 1 1
= R  2 – 2  for n = 3, 4, 5 ..
 2 n 
where, R = 1.097 107 m–1 is
called the Rydberg constant. Later
on, other similar formulae were also
discovered for hydrogen atoms.
These are Lyman Series,
I 1 1 
= R  2 – 2  for n = 2, 3, 4 ..
 1 n 
Paschen series
I 1 1
= R  2 – 2  for n = 4, 5, 6
 3 n 
Brackett Series
I 1 1
= R  2 – 2  for n = 5, 6, 7 ..
 4 n 
The Bohr Model
(a) The electrons move in circular orbits
and the centripetal force is provided
by the Coulomb force of attraction
between then nucleus and electron.
(b) Only certain orbits are allowed in
which the angular momentum of the