Electric Charge

and
Coulomb’s Law
 Electrostatics

In the international system of units (SI), Q and Q are in coulombs (1C is

approximately equivalent to electrons1 since one
2 electron charge e =
C), the distance r is in meters, and the force F is in newtons so that:

F/m the permittivity

of free space
or m/F

2
Force among two electric charges

• Experiments on charged
objects show that
– Charged objects with same
sign repel each other
– Charged objects with
different sign attract each
other
 Atom
• In 18th century, it was assumed
that electric charge is some type
of weightless continuous fluid.
• Later on 20th century, Ernest
Rutherford investigated structure
of atom and revealed its
constituents.

⚫ Atom consists of electron and nuclei (proton and neutron).

⚫ Electron (e) is negatively charged.
⚫ Proton (p) is positively charged.
⚫ Neutron (n) is neutral (zero charge).
 Charge quantization
⚫ The electric charge , q, is quantized : it exists as a discrete
packets. (i.e. q=±Ne)
⚫ The unit of charge is Coulomb (C).
⚫ Neutron (n) : Mass m = 1.675×10-27 kg ; Charge q = 0
⚫ Proton (p) : Mass m = 1.673×10-27 kg ; Charge q = +1.602×10-19 C
⚫ Electron (e) : Mass m = 9.11×10-31 kg ; Charge q = -1.602×10-19 C
⚫ Note : We use the symbol “-e” and “+e” for the electron and
proton charge, respectively. This is known as the elementary
charge
 Two types of charge:

Positive Charge: A shortage of electrons.

Negative Charge: An excess of electrons.

Conservation of charge – The net charge of a

closed system remains constant.
 -
Nucleus
-

-
n + +nn -
++ + n
n +
n
- + n +
n

- -

Neutral Atom
Number of electrons = Number of protons
 Electric Forces

Like Charges - Repel

F F
+ +

Unlike Charges - Attract

F F +
-
 Coulomb’s Law
• Consider two point charges
and placed at distance
apart.
• The two charges exert
force on each other along
the line between them.
• The force is repulsion if the
two charges are the same
sign, the force is attraction
if the two charges are the
opposite sign.
Coulomb’s Law – Gives the electric force
between two point charges.

Inverse Square
Law

k = Coulomb’s Constant = 9.0x109 Nm2/C2

q1 = charge on mass 1
q2 = charge on mass 2
r = the distance between the two charges

The electric force is much stronger than the

gravitational force.
Example 1
Two charges are separated by a distance r and have a force
F on each other.

F q2 F
q1
r

If r is doubled then F is : ¼ of F

If q1 is doubled then F is : 2F

If q1 and q2 are doubled and r is halved then F is : 16F

Example 2
Two 40 gram masses each with a charge of 3μC are
placed 50cm apart. Compare the gravitational force
between the two masses to the electric force between the
two masses. (Ignore the force of the earth on the two
masses)

3μC 3μC
40g 40g

50cm
The electric force is much greater than the
gravitational force
Example 3

Three charged objects are placed as shown. Find the net

force on the object with the charge of -4μC.

- 5μC

45º

20cm

F1 45º
5μC - 4μC
20cm F2

F1 and F2 must be added together as vectors.

Example 4
Two 8 gram, equally charged balls are suspended on earth
as shown in the diagram below. Find the charge on each
ball.

20º
10º 10º
L = 30cm L = 30cm

FE 30sin10º FE
q q
r
r =2(30sin10º)=10.4cm
 Coulombs Law
Two Positive Charges
•What is the force between two positive charges each 1 nanoCoulomb
1cm apart in a typical demo? Why is the force so weak here?

q1 q2 1 nC 1 cm 1 nC
r

Repulsion

16
 Principle of Superposition
Three charges In a line
• Example of charges in a line

x
1 2 3
– Three charges lie on the x axis: q1=+25 nC at the origin, q2= -12 nC at x
=2m, q3=+18 nC at x=3 m. What is the net force on q1? We simply add the
two forces keeping track of their directions. Let a positive force be one in the
+ x direction.

17
 Electric Field Intensity

The greater the number of electric field lines. The greater

is thedensity
The field intensity.
of electric field lines around these three
objects reveals that the quantity of charge on C is
greater than that on B which is greater than that on A.
 What is a Field ?
A Field is something that can be defined
anywhere in space

A field represents some physical quantity

(e.g., temperature, wind speed, force)

It can be a scalar field (e.g., Temperature

field)
It can be a vector field (e.g., Electric field)
It can be a “tensor” field (e.g., Space-time
curvature)
 A Scalar Field
77 7 7
3 2 7
8 7 5
28 7
8 1 6 6 7
8 4 5 8 5 4 7
0 5
6 65 7 3
3 7 8 8
8 6
95 0 8
8 9 8
3 0 9
2 1

A scalar field is a map of a quantity that has only

a magnitude, such as temperature.
 Electric Field Lines
• At any given point, there can be only one
field line
• The electric field has a unique direction at
any given point
• Electric Field Lines
• Begin on Positive Charges
• End on Negative Charges
Electric Field Lines
We can use our test charge to determine the electric field due to another charge Q
located a distance r away. From Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the force on q is

so that the magnitude of the electric field due to Q is

This is almost an OSE, but E is a vector, so we need to specify a direction.

 Field Strengths: Point Charge; Point Mass
Suppose a test charge q is placed in the electric field produced by a point-like field
charge Q. From the definition of electric field and Coulomb’s law

F K Qq / r2 KQ
E= = =
q q r2
Note that the field strength is independent of the charge placed in it.

Suppose a test mass m is placed in the gravitational field produced by a point-like

field mass M. From the definition of gravitational field and Newton’s law of universal
gravitation

F G Mm / r2 GM
g= = = 2
m m r
Again, the field strength is independent of the mass place in it.
 Electric field strength
Electric field strength is defined as the force experienced
per unit charge. The charge in the equation refers to the
charge of the particle in the field.
electric field strength = force / charge
E = F/Q

Example: What is the electric field strength around a

point charge if a 3.20 × 10-19 C charge experiences a force
of 7.30 × 10-15 N?
E = F/Q
E = (7.30 × 10-15 ) / (3.20 × 10-19 )
E = 2.28 × 104 N C-1
Electric Charge
and
Coulomb’s Law
 Electrostatics

In the international system of units (SI), Q and Q are in coulombs (1C is

approximately equivalent to electrons1 since one
2 electron charge e =
C), the distance r is in meters, and the force F is in newtons so that:

F/m the permittivity

of free space
or m/F

2
Force among two electric charges

• Experiments on charged
objects show that
– Charged objects with same
sign repel each other
– Charged objects with
different sign attract each
other
 Atom
• In 18th century, it was assumed
that electric charge is some type
of weightless continuous fluid.
• Later on 20th century, Ernest
Rutherford investigated structure
of atom and revealed its
constituents.

⚫ Atom consists of electron and nuclei (proton and neutron).

⚫ Electron (e) is negatively charged.
⚫ Proton (p) is positively charged.
⚫ Neutron (n) is neutral (zero charge).
 Charge quantization
⚫ The electric charge , q, is quantized : it exists as a discrete
packets. (i.e. q=±Ne)
⚫ The unit of charge is Coulomb (C).
⚫ Neutron (n) : Mass m = 1.675×10-27 kg ; Charge q = 0
⚫ Proton (p) : Mass m = 1.673×10-27 kg ; Charge q = +1.602×10-19 C
⚫ Electron (e) : Mass m = 9.11×10-31 kg ; Charge q = -1.602×10-19 C
⚫ Note : We use the symbol “-e” and “+e” for the electron and
proton charge, respectively. This is known as the elementary
charge
 Two types of charge:

Positive Charge: A shortage of electrons.

Negative Charge: An excess of electrons.

Conservation of charge – The net charge of a

closed system remains constant.
 -
Nucleus
-

-
n + +nn -
++ + n
n +
n
- + n +
n

- -

Neutral Atom
Number of electrons = Number of protons
 Electric Forces

Like Charges - Repel

F F
+ +

Unlike Charges - Attract

F F +
-
 Coulomb’s Law
• Consider two point charges
and placed at distance
apart.
• The two charges exert
force on each other along
the line between them.
• The force is repulsion if the
two charges are the same
sign, the force is attraction
if the two charges are the
opposite sign.
Coulomb’s Law – Gives the electric force
between two point charges.

Inverse Square
Law

k = Coulomb’s Constant = 9.0x109 Nm2/C2

q1 = charge on mass 1
q2 = charge on mass 2
r = the distance between the two charges

The electric force is much stronger than the

gravitational force.
Example 1
Two 40 gram masses each with a charge of 3μC are
placed 50cm apart. Compare the gravitational force
between the two masses to the electric force between the
two masses. (Ignore the force of the earth on the two
masses)

3μC 3μC
40g 40g

50cm
The electric force is much greater than the
gravitational force
Example 2

Three charged objects are placed as shown. Find the net

force on the object with the charge of -4μC.

- 5μC

45º

20cm

F1 45º
5μC - 4μC
20cm F2

F1 and F2 must be added together as vectors.

 Principle of Superposition
Three charges In a line
• Example of charges in a line

x
1 2 3
– Three charges lie on the x axis: q1=+25 nC at the origin, q2= -12 nC at x
=2m, q3=+18 nC at x=3 m. What is the net force on q1? We simply add the
two forces keeping track of their directions. Let a positive force be one in the
+ x direction.

14
 Electric Field Intensity

The greater the number of electric field lines. The greater

is the field intensity.
The density of electric field lines around these three
objects reveals that the quantity of charge on C is
greater than that on B which is greater than that on A.
 What is a Field ?
A Field is something that can be defined
anywhere in space

A field represents some physical quantity

(e.g., temperature, wind speed, force)

It can be a scalar field (e.g., Temperature

field)
It can be a vector field (e.g., Electric field)
It can be a “tensor” field (e.g., Space-time
curvature)
 A Scalar Field
77 7 7
3 2 7
8 7 5
28 7
8 1 6 6 7
8 4 5 8 5 4 7
0 5
6 65 7 3
3 7 8 8
8 6
95 0 8
8 9 8
3 0 9
2 1

A scalar field is a map of a quantity that has only

a magnitude, such as temperature.
 Electric Field Lines
• At any given point, there can be only one
field line
• The electric field has a unique direction at
any given point
• Electric Field Lines
• Begin on Positive Charges
• End on Negative Charges
Electric Field Lines
We can use our test charge to determine the electric field due to another charge Q
located a distance r away. From Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the force on q is

so that the magnitude of the electric field due to Q is

This is almost an OSE, but E is a vector, so we need to specify a direction.

 Field Strengths: Point Charge; Point Mass
Suppose a test charge q is placed in the electric field produced by a point-like field
charge Q. From the definition of electric field and Coulomb’s law

F K Qq / r2 KQ
E= = =
q q r2
Note that the field strength is independent of the charge placed in it.

Suppose a test mass m is placed in the gravitational field produced by a point-like

field mass M. From the definition of gravitational field and Newton’s law of universal
gravitation

F G Mm / r2 GM
g= = = 2
m m r
Again, the field strength is independent of the mass place in it.
 Electric field strength
Electric field strength is defined as the force experienced
per unit charge. The charge in the equation refers to the
charge of the particle in the field.
electric field strength = force / charge
E = F/Q

Example: What is the electric field strength around a

point charge if a 3.20 × 10-19 C charge experiences a force
of 7.30 × 10-15 N?
E = F/Q
E = (7.30 × 10-15 ) / (3.20 × 10-19 )
E = 2.28 × 104 N C-1
 Introduction to Conductors,
Insulators and Semiconductors
By

Dr. ALI A. ATI. A

 Introduction

• Semiconductors are materials whose electronic

properties are intermediate between those of Metals
and Insulators.
-4
• They have conductivities in the range of 10 to 10
+4
S/m.

• The interesting feature about semiconductors is that

they are bipolar and current is transported by two
charge carriers of opposite sign.

• These intermediate properties are determined by

1.Crystal Structure bonding Characteristics.
2.Electronic Energy bands.
 Solids: Conductors, Insulators
and Semiconductors
Conduction Band: white

No gap Band gap

Valence Band
in red

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor 3

 1.2 Semiconductors, Conductors and
Insulators

Conductors
material that easily conducts electrical current.
The best conductors are single-element material (copper, silver, gold,
aluminum).
One valence electron very loosely bound to the atom- free electron.

Insulators
material does not conduct electric current
valence electron are tightly bound to the atom – less free electron ( like glass,
rubber and porcelain.
 1.2 Semiconductors, Conductors and
Insulators

Semiconductors
material between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct electric
current
in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator
most commonly use semiconductor ; silicon(Si), germanium (Ge), and
carbon(C).
contains four valence electrons
 Intrinsic
Semiconductor
Valence
Cell
Covalent bonds
S
i

S S S
i i i

S
i
1.2 Semiconductors, Conductors and
Insulators
Energy Bands

at room temperature
27°

eV (electron volt) – the energy absorbed by an electron when it is subjected

to a 1V difference of potential.
 1.3 Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding1-3 Covalent
– holding Bonding
atoms together by
sharing valence electrons

sharing of valence
electron To form Si crystal
produce the
covalent bond
 1.3 Covalent Bonding

The result of the bonding:

1. The atom are held together forming a solid substrate

2. The atoms are all electrically stable, because their valence
shells are complete
3. The complete valence shells cause the silicon to act as an
insulator-intrinsic (pure) silicon is a very poor conductor
 1.4 Conduction in Semiconductor
(Conduction Electron and holes)
Absorbs enough energy
(thermal energy)
to jumps

a free electron
and
its matching
valence
band hole
FIGURE 1-11 Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Electrons in the
conduction band are free.
 1.4 Conduction in Semiconductor
(Conduction Electron and holes)

FIGURE 1-12 Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Free electrons are being
generated continuously while some recombine with holes.
 1.4 Conduction in Semiconductor
(Electron and holes currents)
Electron
current free
electrons

Apply
voltage

FIGURE 1-13 Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the movement of

thermally generated free electrons.
• Silicon and Germanium are elemental semiconductors
and they have four valence electrons which are
distributed among the outermost S and p orbital's.

• These outer most S and p orbital's of Semiconductors

involve in Sp3 hybridanisation.

• These Sp3 orbital's form four covalent bonds of equal

angular separation leading to a tetrahedral arrangement
of atoms in space results tetrahedron shape, resulting
crystal structure is known as Diamond cubic crystal
structure
Types of Semiconductors:
 1.5 N-types and P-types Semiconductors
(Doping)
Doping -the process of creating N and P type materials
-by adding impurity atoms to intrinsic Si or Ge to imporove the
conductivity of the semiconductor
-Two types of doping – trivalent (3 valence e-) & pentavalent (5 valence e-)
p-type material – a semiconductor that has added trivalent impurities
n-type material – a semiconductor that has added pentavalent impurities

Trivalent Impurities: Pentavalent Impurites:

•Aluminum (Al) •Phosphorus (P)
•Gallium (Ga) •Arsenic (As)
•Boron (B) •Antimony (Sb)
•Indium (In) •Bismuth (Bi)
 1.5 N-types and P-types Semiconductors
N-type semiconductor:
- Pentavalent impurities are added to Si or Ge, the result is an
increase the free electrons
- Extra electrons becomes a conduction electrons because it is not
attached to any atom
- No. of conduction electrons can be controlled by the no. of impurity atoms
- Pentavalent atom gives up an electron -call a donor atom
- Current carries in n-type are electrons – majority carries
- Holes – minority carries
Sb
impurity
atom

Pentavalent impurity atom in a Si crystal

 1.5 N-types and P-types Semiconductors
P-type semiconductor:
- Trivalent impurities are added to Si or Ge to create a deficiency of
electrons or hole charges
- The holes created by doping process
- The no. of holes can be controlled by the no. of trivalent impurity atoms
- The trivalent atom can take an electron- acceptor atom
- Current carries in p-type are holes – majority carries
- electrons – minority carries

B
impurity
atom

Trivalent impurity atom in a Si crystal

Semiconductors
Comparison of P & N type Semiconductors

N-type Semiconductor P-type Semiconductor

Doped with pentavalent (1 Doped with trivalent atoms. (1

atoms. Electrons are majority Holes are majority charge
charge carriers. Holes are carriers. Electrons are minority
.minority charge carriers .charge carriers

It gives out electrons, hence, (2 It accepts electrons, hence, (2

.known as donor atoms .known as accepter atoms

Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic (3 Aluminum, Gallium, Indium (3

and Phosphorus are the and Boron are the elements
.elements used for doping .used for doping
PN-Junction
 P-N Junction Diode
•Construction ; It is two terminal devices consisting of a P-N junction formed either in Ge or Si
crystal. It is circuit symbol is shown in fig. (3.2-a). The P and N type regions are referred to as
anode and cathode respectively. In fig. (1-b) arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of
current flow when forward
biased. It is the same direction in which hole flow takes place.

Fig.3.2
•Working; A P-N junction diode is a one way device offering low resistance when forward biased and behaving almost as
an insulator when reverse biased. Hence such diodes are mostly used as rectifiers for converting alternating current into
direct current.
1.7.2 Fermi Function–The Probability of an Energy State
Being Occupied by an Electron
Ef is called the Fermi energy or
the Fermi level.
Boltzmann
approximation:
 Boltzmann Approximation

Probability that a state is empty (i.e. occupied by

a hole):
 Electron and Hole Concentrations

Nc is called the effective

density of states (of the
conduction band) .

Nv is called the effective

density of states of the
valence band.

Remember: the closer f moves up to N c , the larger n is;

the
E closer f moves down to Ev , the larger p
E Si, c = 2.8×1019cm-3 and Nvis.
For = 1.04×1019 cm-3.
N
 1.8.2 The Fermi Level and Carrier Concentrations
Where is Ef for n =1017 cm-3? And for p = 1014 cm-3?

Solution: (a)

(b) For p = 1014cm-3, from Eq.(1.8.8),

0.146 eV
Ec Ec
Ef

Ef
0.31
Ev eV Ev
(a) (b
)
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Slide 1-27
Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)
1.8.3 The np Product and the Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Multiply an
d

• In an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, n = p = ni .

• ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, ~1010 cm-3 for Si.
 EXAMPLE: Carrier Concentrations
Question: What is the hole concentration in an N-type semiconductor
with 1015 cm-3 of donors?

Solution: n = 1015 cm-3.

After increasing T by 60°C, n remains the same at 1015 cm-3 while p

increases by about a factor of 2300 because .
Question: What is n if p = 1017cm-3 in a P-type silicon wafer?

Solution:

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Slide 1-29

Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)
1.9 General Theory of on n and p
I. (i.e., N-type)

If ,
and

II. (i.e., P-type)

If ,
and
Slide
Modern Semiconductor Devices for 1-30 Circuits (C. Hu)
Integrated
 EXAMPLE: Dopant Compensation
What are n and p in Si with (a) Nd = 6×1016 cm-3 and Na = 2×1016 cm-3
and (b) additional 6×1016 cm-3 of Na?
n = 4×1016
(a) + + + + + + cm.-3. . .

Nd =. .6×1016
cm-3
16
N = 2×10
. . . a. . . . .
-3
(b) Na = 2×1016 + 6×1016 = 8×1016 cm-3 > Nd ...cm

++++++ ....
Nd =. .6×1016
cm-3 16
Na = .8×10
- - - - - --3 . . .
cm . . 16
- - p = 2×10
cm-3
Modern Semiconductor Slide 1-31
Devices for Integrated
1.11 Chapter Summary

Energy band diagram. Acceptor. Donor. mn, mp.

Fermi function. Ef .
Conservation of Energy
Dr. ALI A. ATI
Law of Conservation of Energy

■ What you put in is

what you get out

■ Total energy is
conserved
Practical Applications

■ Gasoline converts to energy which

moves the car
■ A battery converts stored chemical
energy to electrical energy
■ Dams convert the kinetic energy of
falling water into electrical energy
Can You Think of Other
Examples?
 Conservation of Mechanical
Energy
m = mass
v = velocity
g = gravitational acceleration
h = height

Kinetic Potential Total

Energy Energy Energy
ILYA, did you
know that
even though it
was a bumpy
ride, our
energy
remained
constant!
Example of Conservation of
Mechanical Energy

Constant
An Example
Another Example
Yet Another Example
Last Example
Conservation of Mechanical
Energy using a Basketball
Hi I am
Sookram, lets
do the lab
Lab Procedure
1. Place the motion
detector on a flat
surface, like in the
diagram to the right
2. Toss a basketball
above the ultrasonic
sensor
3. The sensor will detect
the position, velocity,
and acceleration of
the ball’s flight
Lab Analysis

■ Determine which line represents:

⚪ Kinetic energy
⚪ Potential energy
⚪ Total energy
Oscillatory Motion
■ Periodic motion
■ Spring-mass system
■ Differential equation of
motion
■ Simple Harmonic
Motion (SHM)
■ Energy of SHM

*
 Periodic Motion
■ Periodic motion is a motion that regularly returns to a given
position after a fixed time interval.
■ A particular type of periodic motion is “simple harmonic
motion,” which arises when the force acting on an object is
proportional to the position of the object about some
equilibrium position.
■ The motion of an object
connected to a spring is a
good example.

*
 Restoring Force and the
Spring Mass System
❑ In a, the block is displaced to the right of x = 0.
■ The position is positive.
■ The restoring force is directed to
the left (negative).
❑ In b, the block is at the equilibrium position.
■ x = 0
■ The spring is neither stretched nor
compressed.
■ The force is 0.
❑In c, the block is displaced to the left of x = 0.
■ The position is negative.
■ The restoring force is directed to
the right (positive).

*
Recall Hooke’s Law
■ Hooke’s Law states Fs = −kx
⚪ Fs is the restoring force.
■ It is always directed toward the equilibrium position.
■ Therefore, it is always opposite the displacement from
equilibrium.
⚪ k is the force (spring) constant.
⚪ x is the displacement.
■What
is the restoring force for a surface water
wave?
Differential Equation of Motion
■ Using F = ma for the spring, we have
■ But recall that acceleration is the second derivative of
the position:

■ So this simple force equation is an example of a

differential equation,

■ An object moves in simple harmonic motion whenever

its acceleration is proportional to its position and has the
opposite sign to the displacement from equilibrium.
Acceleration
■ Note that the acceleration is NOT constant, unlike our
earlier kinematic equations.
■ If the block is released from some position x = A, then
the initial acceleration is – kA/m, but as it passes
through 0 the acceleration falls to zero.
■ It only continues past its equilibrium point because it
now has momentum (and kinetic energy) that carries it
on past x = 0.
■ The block continues to x = – A, where its acceleration
then becomes +kA/m.

*
Analysis Model, Simple Harmonic Motion
■ What are the units of k/m, in ?

■ They are 1/s2, which we can regard as a frequency-squared, so let’s

write it as

■ Then the equation becomes

■ A typical way to solve such a differential equation is to simply search

for a function that satisfies the requirement, in this case, that its
second derivative yields the negative of itself! The sine and cosine
functions meet these requirements.

*
 SHM Graphical
Representation
■ A solution to the differential
equation is

■ A, ω, φ are all constants:

A = amplitude (maximum position
in either positive or negative x direction,

Remember, the period

ω = angular frequency,
and frequency are:

φ = phase constant, or initial phase angle.

A and φ are determined by initial conditions.

*
 Motion Equations for SHM

The velocity is 90o out of phase with

the displacement and the
acceleration is 180o out of phase with
the displacement.

*
SHM Example 1
■ Initial conditions at t = 0 are
⚪ x (0)= A
⚪ v (0) = 0
■ This means φ = 0
■ The acceleration reaches extremes
of ± ω2A at ± A.
■ The velocity reaches extremes of
± ωA at x = 0.

*
SHM Example 2
■ Initial conditions at t = 0 are
⚪ x (0)= 0
⚪ v (0) = vi
■ This means φ = − π / 2
■ The graph is shifted one-quarter
cycle to the right compared to the
graph of x (0) = A.

*
Consider the Energy of SHM Oscillator
■ The spring force is a conservative force, so in a frictionless
system the energy is constant
■ Kinetic energy, as usual, is

■ The spring potential energy, as usual, is

■ Then the total energy is just

*
Transfer of Energy of SHM
■ The total energy is contant at all times, and is (proportional
to the square of the amplitude)
■ Energy is continuously being transferred between potential energy
stored in the spring, and the kinetic energy of the block.

*
 Çengel
Boles Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics

An Engineering
Approach
Third Edition

Yunus A. Çengel
Michael A. Boles
Third Edition

WCB/McGraw-Hill
WCB/McGraw-Hill ©
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The McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill Companies,
Companies, Inc.,1998
Inc.,1998
 Çengel
Boles
CHAPTER

1
Thermodynamics

Basic
Concepts of
Thermodynamics

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 What is thermodynamics?

• The study of thermodynamics is concerned with ways energy

is stored within a body and how energy transformations,
Çengel which involve heat and work, may take place.
Boles
Thermodynamics

• Approaches to studying thermodynamics

– Macroscopic (Classical thermodynamics)
• study large number of particles (molecules) that make up the
substance in question
• does not require knowledge of the behavior of individual
molecules
– Microscopic (Statistical thermodynamics)
• concerned within behavior of individual particles (molecules)
• study average behavior of large groups of individual particles

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 1-1
Applications of
Thermodynamics

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems

Car radiators Power plants Refrigeration systems

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 Thermodynamic Systems

Thermodynamic System
Çengel – quantity of matter or a region of
Boles space chosen for study
Thermodynamics

Boundary
– real or imaginary layer that
separates the system from its
surroundings
Surroundings
– physical space outside the system
boundary
Types of Systems
– Closed
– Open

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 1-2

Closed Systems (fixed masses)

Energy, not mass, crosses closed-system boundaries

(Fig. 1-13)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 1-3
Closed System with Moving
Boundry

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 1-4

Open Systems (Control Volumes)

Mass and Energy Cross Control Volume Boundaries

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Isolated System
• Closed system where no heat or work (energy) may cross the system
boundary
– typically a collection of the a main system (or several systems) and its
surroundings is considered an isolated system
Çengel
Boles Isolated system
Thermodynamics

boundary

syst
wor
em
Surr k mas
hea
1 s
Surr t Surr
2 3

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 Total Energy of a System
• Sum of all forms of energy (i.e., thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electrical, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear) that can
exist in a system
Çengel
• For systems we typically deal with in this course, sum of
Boles
internal, kinetic, and potential energies
Thermodynamics

E = U + KE + PE

E = Total energy of system

U = internal energy
KE = kinetic energy = mV2/2
PE = potential energy = mgz

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 1-5

System’s Internal Energy

System’s Internal Energy = Sum of Microscopic Energies

(Fig. 1-19)
Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 Properties

• Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is

called a property.
Çengel • Types of properties
Boles
– Extensive properties - vary directly with the size
Thermodynamics

of the system
Examples: volume, mass, total energy
– Intensive properties - are independent of the size
of the system
Examples: temperature, pressure, color
• Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties.
specific volume v = Volume/Mass = V/m
density ρ = Mass/Volume = m/V

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 State & Equilibrium
• State of a system
– system that is not undergoing any change
Çengel – all properties of system are known & are not
Boles
changing
Thermodynamics

– if one property changes then the state of the system

changes
• Thermodynamic equilibrium
– “equilibrium” - state of balance
– A system is in equilibrium if it maintains thermal
(uniform temperature), mechanical (uniform
pressure), phase (mass of two phases), and
chemical equilibrium
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 Processes & Paths
• Process
– when a system changes from one equilibrium state to another
one
Çengel
Boles – some special processes:
• isobaric process - constant pressure process
Thermodynamics

• isothermal process - constant temperature process

• isochoric process - constant volume process
• isentropic process - constant entropy (Chap. 6) process
• Path
– series of states which a system passes through during a
process

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 1-7

Compression Process

Çengel
Boles
Thermodynamics

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 1-6

Quasi-Equilibrium Processes

• System remains practically in

Çengel equilibrium at all times
Boles • Easier to analyze (equations of state
Thermodynamics

can apply)
• Work-producing devices deliver the
most work
• Work-consuming devices consume
the least amount of work

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 State Postulate & Cycles
• State Postulate
– The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible substance is
completely specified by two independent intensive properties.
Çengel
Boles
• Cycles
Thermodynamics

– A process (or a series of connected processes) with identical end

states
2
P
Process
B

1
Process
A

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Fluids
 Phases of Matter

The three common phases of matter are solid, liquid,

and gas.
A solid has a definite shape and size.
A liquid has a fixed volume but can be any shape.
A gas can be any shape and also can be easily
compressed.
Liquids and gases both flow, and are called fluids.

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 10-2 Density and Specific Gravity

The density ρ of an object is its mass per unit volume:

The SI unit for density is kg/m3. Density is also

sometimes given in g/cm3; to convert g/cm3 to kg/m3,
multiply by 1000.
Water at 4°C has a density of 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3.
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its
density to that of water.
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 10-3 Pressure in Fluids

Pressure is defined as the force per unit area.

Pressure is a scalar; the units of pressure in the SI system
are pascals:
1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Pressure is the same in every

direction in a fluid at a given
depth; if it were not, the fluid
would flow.

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 10-3 Pressure in Fluids

Also for a fluid at rest, there

is no component of force
parallel to any solid surface—
once again, if there were the
fluid would flow.

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 10-3 Pressure in Fluids

The pressure at a depth h below the surface of the liquid

is due to the weight of the liquid above it. We can
quickly calculate:

(10-3a)

This relation is valid for

any liquid whose density
does not change with depth.
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 10-4 Atmospheric Pressure and
Gauge Pressure

At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about

1.013 × 105 N/m2; this is called one atmosphere (atm).
Another unit of pressure is the bar:
1 bar = 1.00 × 105 N/m2
Standard atmospheric pressure is just over 1 bar.
This pressure does not crush us, as our cells maintain an
internal pressure that balances it.

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 10-4 Atmospheric Pressure and
Gauge Pressure

Most pressure gauges measure the pressure above the

atmospheric pressure—this is called the gauge pressure.
The absolute pressure is the sum of the atmospheric
pressure and the gauge pressure.
P = PA + PG

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 10-5 Pascal’s Principle

If an external pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the

pressure at every point within the fluid increases by that
amount.
This principle is used, for example, in hydraulic lifts and
hydraulic brakes.

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 10-6 Measurement of Pressure;
Gauges and the Barometer

There are a number of different types of pressure

gauges. This one is an
open-tube manometer. The
pressure in the open end is
atmospheric pressure; the
pressure being measured
will cause the fluid to rise
until the pressures on both
sides at the same height are
equal.

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 10-6 Measurement of Pressure;
Gauges and the Barometer

Here are two more devices for

measuring pressure: the aneroid
gauge and the tire pressure
gauge.

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 10-6 Measurement of Pressure;
Gauges and the Barometer

This is a mercury barometer,

developed by Torricelli to measure
atmospheric pressure. The height
of the column of mercury is such
that the pressure in the tube at the
surface level is 1 atm.
Therefore, pressure is often quoted
in millimeters (or inches) of
mercury.

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 10-7 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

This is an object submerged in a fluid. There is a net

force on the object because the pressures at the top and
bottom of it are different.
The buoyant force is found
to be the upward force on
the same volume of water:

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 10-7 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

The net force on the

object is then the
difference between
the buoyant force
and the gravitational
force.

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 10-7 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

If the object’s density is

less than that of water,
there will be an upward
net force on it, and it will
rise until it is partially
out of the water.

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 10-7 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

For a floating object, the fraction that is submerged is

given by the ratio of the object’s density to that of the
fluid.

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 10-7 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

This principle also works in the air;

this is why hot-air and helium
balloons rise.

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 10-11 Viscosity

Real fluids have some internal friction, called viscosity.

The viscosity can be measured; it is found from the
relation
(10-8)

where η is the coefficient of viscosity.

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 10-13 Surface Tension and Capillarity

The surface of a liquid at rest is not perfectly flat; it

curves either up or down at the walls of the container.
This is the result of surface tension, which makes the
surface behave somewhat elastically.

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 10-13 Surface Tension and Capillarity

Soap and detergents lower the surface tension of water.

This allows the water to penetrate materials more easily.
Water molecules
are more strongly
attracted to glass than
they are to each other;
just the opposite is
true for mercury.

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 10-13 Surface Tension and Capillarity

If a narrow tube is placed in a fluid, the fluid will exhibit

capillarity.

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