Physics Assignment

PHY 1321 HARMONISED LECTURE NOTE, DRAFT VERSION 001
HARMONISED LECTURE NOTE
DRAFT VERSION 001
PHY 1321: ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND MODERN PHYSICS
SECOND SEMESTER 2020/2021 SESSION
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
AL-QALAM UNIVERSITY KATSINA
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ELECTROSTATICS
Study of Electricity in which electric charges are static i.e. not moving, is called electrostatics.
Static cling
• An electrical phenomenon that accompanies dry weather causes these pieces of papers to stick
to one another and to the plastic comb.
• Due to this reason our clothes stick to our body.
• Electric charge: Electric charge is characteristic developed in particle of material due to which
it exerts force on other such particles. It automatically accompanies the particle wherever it goes.
• Charge cannot exist without material carrying it
• It is possible to develop the charge by rubbing two solids having friction.
• Carrying the charges is called electrification.
• Electrification due to friction is called frictional electricity.
Since these charges are not flowing it is also called static electricity.
There are two types of charges, +ve and –ve.
• Similar charges repel each other,
• Opposite charges attract each other.
• Benjamin Franklin made this nomenclature of charges being +ve and –ve for mathematical
calculations because adding them together cancels each other.
• Any particle has vast amount of charges.
• The number of positive and negative charges are equal, hence matter is basically neutral.
• Inequality of charges give the material a net charge which is equal to the difference of the two
type of charges.
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Electrostatic series: If two substances are rubbed together the former in series acquires the
positive charge and later, the –ve.
(i) Glass (ii) Flannel (iii) Wool (iv) Silk (v) Hard Metal (vi) Hard rubber (vii) Sealing
wax (viii) Resin (ix) Sulphur
Electron theory of Electrification
• Nucleus of atom is positively charged.
• The electron revolving around it is negatively charged.
• They are equal in numbers, hence atom is electrically neutral.
• With friction there is transfer of electrons, hence net charge is developed in the particles.
• It also explains that the charges are compulsorily developed in pairs equally. +ve in one body
and –ve in second.
• It establishes conservation of charges in the universe. Proof of this will come later.
• The loss of electrons develops +ve charge. While excess of electrons develop –ve charge
• A proton is 1837 times heavier than electron, hence it cannot be transferred. Transferring
lighter electron is easier.
• Therefore for electrification of matter, only electrons are active and responsible.
Charge and Mass relation
• Charge cannot exist without matter.
• One carrier of charge is electron which has mass as well.
• Hence if there is charge transfer, mass is also transferred.
• Logically, negatively charged body is heavier then positively charged body.
Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors
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• Conductors : Material in which electrons can move easily and freely.
Examples are Metals, Tap water, human body. Brass rod in our hand, if charged by rubbing the
charge will move easily to earth. Hence Brass is a conductor. The flow of this excess charge is
called discharging
• Insulator: Material in which charge cannot move freely. Examples are: Glass, pure water,
plastic etc. Electrons can be forced to move across an insulator by applying strong force (called
electric field.) Then this acts like a conductor.
• dielectric strength.
The maximum electric field an insulator can withstand without becoming a conductor is called
its dielectric strength.
• Semiconductor: is a material which under little stimulation (heat or Elect. Field) converts from
insulator to a conductor, e.g. Silicon, germanium.
• Superconductor: is that material which presents no resistance to the movement of the charge
through it. The resistance is precisely zero.
Basic properties of Electric charge
• Additivity of Electric charges
• Quantization of Electric charge
• Conservation of Electric Charge
Additivity of Charges...
• Charges can be added by simple rules of algebra. Addition of positive and negative charge
makes Zero charge
Quantization of Electric charge
• Principle: Electric charge is not a continuous quantity, but is an integral multiple of minimum
charge (e).
• Reason of quantization:
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• Minimum charge e exists on an electron.
• The material which is transferred during electrification is an electron, in integral numbers.
• Hence charge transferred has to be integral multiple of e.
• Charge on an electron (-e) and charge on a proton (+e) are equal and opposite, and are the
minimum.
This minimum charge is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
One electron has charge - 1.6 x 10-19 C
One proton has charge + 1.6 x 10-19 C
• Charge on a body Q is given by Q = + ne. Where n is a whole number 1,2,3…..and e = 1.6 x

10-19. Since e is smallest value of charge, it is called Elementary Charge or Fundamental charge.
The electron is a fundamental particle; however, the proton is not a fundamental particle. Protons
and neutrons are composed of up and down quarks ( q up quark ∧q down quark). A quark is a type of
+2 −1
elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. q up quark = e and q down quark = e.
3 3
- Proton is composed of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.

+2 −1 +4 1
( )( )
q proton=2 q up quark +1 q down quark =2
3
e +
3
e=
3
e− e=+ e
3
- Neutron is composed of 1 up quark and 2 down quarks.
+2 −1 +2 2
( ) ( )
q neutron =1 qup quark +2 qdown quark =
3
e +2
3
e=
3
e− e=0
3
A quark can have a charge less than the elementary charge because a single quark has never been
isolated; quarks are always found in groups like they are in the proton and neutron.
The Law of Charges: Unlike charges attract and like charges repel. For example:
• Two positive charges repel one another & two negative charges repel one another. • A positive
and a negative charge attract one another.
k q1 q2
The force they repel or attract one another with is determined using Coulomb’s Law: F e = .
r2
This is called the Electrostatic Force. (Also sometimes called a Coulomb force)
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9N m2
• Coulomb’s Constant, k =8.99 ×10 . q1 & q2 are the charges on the two charged particles.
C2
r is not the radius, it is the distance between the centers of charge of the two charges. (Sometimes
r actually is the radius, however, that is not its definition).
Conservation of Charge: In an isolated system the total charge stays constant. For example, if
we start with two electrically isolated spheres, q 1i =+4 C & q 2i =−2C , we touch them together
and pull them apart:
+ 2C
q t=q1 i +q2 i=+ 4 C + (−2C )=+ 2C & q 1 f =q2 f =q f ⇒ q t=q1 f + q2 f =q f +q f =2q f = =+1C .
2
Each sphere ends up with 6.24 × 1018 excess protons on it:
q1 +1 C
q 1=n1 e ⇒ n1 = ≈ 6.24 ×1018 protons .
e −19 C
1.6022× 10
proton
Electric field
An electric field is a region or space which surrounds a system of electric charges. In such a
region, electric force will act on any electric charge which placed within the region. In
addition to nuclear force, there are three other types of forces which can act between two
charged particles. The three forces are the type which varies with distance according to the
inverse square laws namely:
- Electric force
- Gravitational force and
- Magnetic force
Law of electrostatic state that like charge repel each other while unlike charge attract each other.
Coulumb’s Law
• Coulumb’s law in Electrostatics:
State that in a given medium the force of attraction or repulsion between two stationery point
charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them and acts along the straight line joining the two charges.
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If two charges q1 and q2 are placed at distance r then,
k q1 q2
F e=
r2
Where k is a constant. k is called Coulomb's constant and its value is
2
1 9 Nm
k= =9.0 × 10
4 π ε0 C2
The value of k depends upon system of units and on the medium between two charges.
It is seen experimentally that if two charges of 1 Coulomb each are placed at a distance of 1
meter in air or vacuum, then they attract each other with a force (F) of 9 ×10 9 Newton.
9 N m2
Accordingly value of k is 9 ×10 , ε 0 is permittivity of free space or vacuum and its value is
C2
C2
. If point charges are immersed in a dielectric medium, then ε 0 is replaced
−12
ε 0=8.85 ×10
N m2
by e a quantity-characteristic of the matter involved in such case. For vacuum e=ε 0 .
Example 1:
Two equally charged pith balls are 3cm apart in air and repel each other with a force of4 ×10−5 N
. Compute the charge on each ball.
Solution: q 1 ¿ q 2=q , r =3 cm, F=4 ×10−5 N .
K q2
From Coulomb’s Law, F= .
r2
(q )2
∴ 4 × 10−5 N =( 9 ×109 )
(3 × 10−2)2
Solving, we have q=± 2× 10−9 C .
Exercise
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1. Calculate the value of two equal charges if they repel one another with a force of 0.1N
when situated 50 cm apart in a vacuum. (Answer:q=1.7 ×10−6 C=1.7 μC ).
2. One charge of 2.0 C is 1.5 maway from −3.0 C charge. Determine the force they exert on
each other. (Answer:F e =−2.4 ×1010 N).
Electric field at a point
If a very small electric charge q 0 is brought within the region of space containing an electric
charge q such that the distance between them is r , q 0 will experience a force given by
q0q
F=
4 π ε0 r2
The region of space around charge q within which a test charge q 0 experience electrostatic force
due to q is called electric field of the charge q .
Electric field intensity
The electric field intensity, E at any point in an electric field is define as the electrostatic force
experience by a unit positive test charge q 0 at that point
F
F=
q0
But
q0q
F=
4 π ε0 r2
q0 q 1 q
∴ E= 2
. =
4 π ε0r q0 4 π ε 0 r 2
Electric potential
Electric potential is defined as the work done by the force of electric field per unit positive
charge in moving the unit positive charge from that point to a place of zero potential. It is usually
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convenient to take a point of an infinite distance from the system as zero potential. And for most
practical purposes the earth is taken as having zero potential.
Stored electric potential energy
For a conductor with charge Q:
The potential energy U is the work required to assemble the final charge configuration starting
from an initial condition of infinite separation.
For a conductor the total charge Q resides on the surface
Q=∫ dq=∫ σdA
Also, V is constant on and inside the conductor and
1 1
dU = dQV = VσdA
2 2
and hence
❑ ❑
1 1 1
U= ∫ VdQ = V = ∫ σdA= VQ
2 surface 2 surface 2
1
Stored energy U conductor = QV
2
where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the conductor.
For a System of N Conductors:
N
1
U= ∑QV
2 i=1 i i
where Q i is the charge on the i-th conductor and V i is the electric potential of the i-th conductor.
Potential difference
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Let us assume that a particle of charge Q moved from a point at a potential V 1 to a

potential V 2. From the definition point of view the p.d (V 1−V 2 ) is the work done by the field on
unit charge moved from one point to another.
Therefore, work done on the charge W is W . D=Q ¿).
Electron volt: This is the quantity of energy gained by an electron in accelerating through a p.d
of 1 volt.
The electronic charge q=1.6 ×10−19
Therefore 1 ev=1.6 ×10−19 × 1 v
0.03 ev =0.03×=1.6 ×10−19
Examples:
1. A helium nucleus has a charge of +2 e , and a neon nucleus has a charge of +10 , where e
is the quantity of charge, 1.6 ×10−19 C . Calculate the repulsive force exerted on one by
the other when they are separated by a distance of 4.0 nm . Assume the system to be in a
vacuum.
2. The plates of a parallel capacitor, 5.0 ×10−3 m apart are maintained at a potential
difference of 5.0 ×10 4 V . Calculate the magnitude of the
i. Electric field intensity between the plates
ii. Force on the electron
iii. Acceleration of the electron
(Electronic charge q=1.6 ×10−19 C , Mass of the electron Me=9.1 ×10−31 Kg)
3. Two equal charges, placed 50 cm apart in vacuum, repel each other with a force of 0.1 N .
Calculate the magnitude of each charge.
2
1 9 Nm
Take k = =9.0 × 10
4 π ε0 C2
Capacitors and capacitance
Capacitor: Any arrangement of conductors that is used to store electric charge (will also
store electric potential energy).
Capacitance:
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Q Q
C= or C=
V ∆V
1C
Units: 1 Farad =1 F= 1 μF=10−6 F , 1 pF=10−9 F
1V
1 Q2 1 2
Stored Energy: U conductor = QV = = CV
2 2C 2
where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the conductor and C is
the capacitance of the conductor.
Example (Isolated Conducting Sphere):
KQ R K Q2
For an isolated conducting sphere with radius R, V = and hence C= and U = .
R K (2 R)
Example (Parallel Plate Capacitor):
For two parallel conducting plates of area A and separation d we know that
E=
σ Q
∆ V
Qd A ε0 Q2 Q2 d
= and =Ed= so that C= . The stored energy is U = = .
ε0 A ε0 A ε0 d (2C ) ( 2 A ε 0)
Capacitors in series and in parallel
Parallel:
In this case ∆V1=∆V2=∆V and Q=Q1+Q2. Hence,
Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1∆V1 + C2∆V2 = (C1+C2) ∆. So C = Q/∆V = C1 + C2, where I used Q1 = C1∆V1

and Q2 = C2∆V2.
Series:
In this case ∆V=∆V1+∆V2 and Q=Q1=Q2. Hence,
∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 = Q1/C1+Q2/C2 = (1/C1+1/C2)Q so 1/C = ∆V/Q = 1/C1 + 1/C2, where I used
Q1 = C1∆V1 and Q2 = C2∆V2.
Gauss's law
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The flux of electric field lines through any surface is proportional to the number of field lines
passing through that surface. Consider for example a point charge q located at the origin. The
electric flux FE through a sphere of radius r, centered on the origin, is equal to
❑ ❑
1 q q
ΦE= ∮
surface
´
É ∙ da= ∮
4 π ε 0 surface r 2 ( )
r ∙ ( r 2 sinθdθdϕr ) =
ε0
Since the number of field lines generated by the charge q depends only on the magnitude of the
charge, any arbitrarily shaped surface that encloses q will intercept the same number of field
q
lines. Therefore the electric flux through any surface that encloses the charge q is equal to .
ε0
Using the principle of superposition we can extend our conclusion easily to systems containing
more than one point charge:
❑ ❑
ΦE= ∮ ´ ∑
É ∙ da= ∮ ´ 1 ∑ qi
É ∙ da=
surface i surface ε0 i
We thus conclude that for an arbitrary surface and arbitrary charge distribution
❑
Q enclosed
∮ ´
É ∙ da=
surface ε0
where Qenclosed is the total charge enclosed by the surface. This is called Gauss's law. Since this
equation involves an integral it is also called Gauss's law in integral form. Using the divergence
theorem the electric flux Φ E can be rewritten as
❑ ❑
ΦE= ∮ ´
É ∙ da ∫ ( ∇´ ∙ É ) dτ
surface volume
We can also rewrite the enclosed charge Qencl in terms of the charge densityρ:
❑
Qenclosed = ∫ ρdτ
volume
Gauss's law can thus be rewritten as

❑ ❑
∫ ( ∇´ ∙ É ) dτ= 1 ∫ ρdτ
volume ε 0 volume
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Since we have not made any assumptions about the integration volume this equation must hold
for any volume. This requires that the integrands are equal:
´ ∙ É= ρ
∇
ε0
This equation is called Gauss's law in differential form.
Applications of Gauss's law

Although Gauss's law is always true it is only a useful tool to calculate the electric field if the
charge distribution is symmetric:
1. If the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with
concentric spheres as Gaussian surfaces.
2. If the charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with coaxial
cylinders as Gaussian surfaces.
3. If the charge distribution has plane symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with pill boxes as
Gaussian surfaces.
ELECTRICITY
2.1 Electric current and its unit
There are a number of free electrons in an isolated metallic conductor, the electrons are in a state
of random motion in the same way that gas molecules are in a container. The motion of the
electrons have no any specified direction. If we imagine a given line in the wire, the number of
electrons passing through the line from any given direction are equals to the number of electrons
passing in the opposite direction to the considered line. As such the net electrons passing through
any given plane is zero.
If the ends of the wire are subjected to a potential difference by connecting a battery to the
wire, there will be a flow of the electrons. The electrons that are in a state of random motion will
now be align and will move towards the positive terminal of the battery, thereby establishing a
current. An electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charges, which is always from higher
potential to lower potential.
The current flowing through a conductor is the rate of flow of charges through any cross
section of the wire. If a charge Q passes through a given cross section of the wire in a time t
seconds, the current flowing through the wire will be given by
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If the charges are in Coulomb and the time in seconds, the unit of the current will be in ampere
2.2 Potential difference
Potential difference indicates the difference between the two points or bodies as regards to their
electric states. If two bodies at different potentials are connected together, a redistribution of
charges will take place and some charges will flow from higher potential to a lower one. The
units in which potential difference is measured is volt (V ).
2.3 Resistance
The conducting power of materials differs, some substances resist the flow of electric current
through them, the ability of materials to resist the flow of electric current in them is called
resistance. Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω).
2.4 Ohm’s law
A German Physicist (George Ohm) discovered that current flowing through a conductor is
proportional to the potential difference between its two ends, provided other physical conditions
(eg temperature, cross sectional area) of the conductor remain unchanged.
If current I passed through a conductor and a potential difference V between the terminals of
the conductor, then
V αI or V = IR,
Where, R is a constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor.
2.5 Series and parallel arrangement resistors
Resistors turn up in all kinds of circuits, ranging from hair dryers and space heaters to circuits
that limit or divide current or reduce or divide a voltage. Such circuits often contain several
resistors, so it’s appropriate to consider combinations of resistors. A simple example is a string
of light bulbs used for holiday decorations; each bulb acts as a resistor, and from a circuit
analysis perspective the string of bulbs is simply a combination of resistors.
Suppose we have three resistors with resistances R1 and R2. When several circuit elements
such as resistors, batteries, and motors are connected in sequence as in Fig. 1, with only a single
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current path between the points, we say that they are connected in series. For a series
combination of resistors, the currents in the two resistors are the same because any charge that
passes through R1 must also pass through R2.
Figure 1: Series arrangement of resistors
The resistors in Fig. 2 are said to be connected in parallel between points a and b. Each
resistor provides an alternative path between the points. For circuit elements that are connected
in parallel, the potential difference is the same across each element.
Figure 2: Parallel arrangement of resistors
For any combination of resistors we can always find a single resistor that could replace the
combination and result in the same total current and potential difference. For example, a string of
holiday light bulbs could be replaced by a single, appropriately chosen light bulb that would
draw the same current and have the same potential difference between its terminals as the
original string of bulbs. The resistance of this single resistor is called the equivalent resistance of
the combination.
Consider Fig 1, the potential difference applied across the series combination of resistors will
divide between the resistors, because of the voltage drop1 when the voltage is passing through R1
and R2. Voltage across R1, V1 = IR1 and voltage across R2, V2 = IR2. The total voltage in the circuit
is given by
VT = IRT = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2,
where RT is the total (equivalent resistance) in the circuit.
IRT = I(R1 + R2)
1 The term voltage drop is synonymous with a decrease in electric potential across a resistor and is used
often by individuals working with electric circuits.
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Hence
RT = R1 + R2
The resistance Req or RT is equivalent to the series combination R1 and R2 in the sense that the
circuit current is unchanged when Req replaces R1 and R2.
The equivalent resistance of three or more resistors connected in series is
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
This relationship indicates that the equivalent resistance of a series connection of resistors is
always greater than any individual resistance.
Now consider two resistors connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 2. When the current I
reaches point the junction just before the resistors, it splits into two parts, with I1 going through
R1 and I2 going through R2 . A junction is any point in a circuit where a current can split. This split
results in less current in each individual resistor than the current leaving the battery. Because
charge must be conserved, the current I that enters point a must equal the total current leaving
that point:
IT = I1 + I2
1. Two identical incandescent light bulbs, each with resistance R = 2Ω, are connected to a
source with E = 8V and negligible internal resistance. Find the current through each bulb,
the potential difference across each bulb, and the power delivered to each bulb and to the
entire network if the bulbs are connected
(a) in series and

(b) in parallel.
(c) Suppose one of the bulbs burns out; that is, its filament breaks and current can no
longer flow through it. What happens to the other bulb in the series and parallel
cases?
Soln
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Figure 3:
In the series case, the resistors are arranged in the form
RT + R1 + R2 = 2 + 2 = 4Ω
the current is the same through each bulb
Since the bulbs have the same resistance, the potential difference is the same across each
bulb:
V = IR = 2 × 2 = 4V
the power delivered to each bulb is

P = I2R = 22 × 2 = 8W
(d) In the series case the same current flows through both bulbs. If one bulb burns out,
there will be no current in the circuit, and neither bulb will glow.
In the parallel case the potential difference across either bulb is unchanged if a bulb burns
out. The current through the functional bulb and the power delivered to it are unchanged.
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2. Two resistors when connected in series have resistance of 20 ohm and when connected in
parallel have resistance of 4.8 ohm. Find the value of each resistance. (Ans 12 and 8 ohm)
Soln
In series case
RT = R1 + R2 = 20
in parallel case
Solving the equations, we get R1 = 12Ω and R2 = 8Ω
2.6 Electrical instruments
2.6.1 The Ammeter
A device that measures current is called an ammeter. The current to be measured must pass
directly through the ammeter, so the ammeter must be connected in series with other elements in
the circuit. When using an ammeter to measure direct currents, you must be sure to connect it so
that current enters the instrument at the positive terminal and exits at the negative terminal. An
ammeter should have zero resistance so that the current being measured is not altered.
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2.6.2 The Voltmeter
A device that measures potential difference is called a voltmeter. The potential difference
between any two points in a circuit can be measured by attaching the terminals of the voltmeter
between these points without breaking the circuit. To measure potential difference across an
electrical device, the voltmeter should be connected in parallel to the device. An ideal voltmeter
has infinite resistance so that no current passes through it.
2.6.3 The Galvanometer
The galvanometer is the main component in analogue ammeters and voltmeters. Modern
galvanometers, of the D’Arsonval/Weston type, are constructed with a small pivoting coil of
wire in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a thin pointer that traverses a
calibrated scale. A tiny torsion spring pulls the coil and pointer to the zero position.
When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a magnetic field. This
field acts against the permanent magnet. The coil twists, pushing against the spring, and moves
the pointer. The hand points at a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole
pieces ensures that the magnetic field is uniform, so that the angular deflection of the pointer is
proportional to the current. A useful meter generally contains provision for damping the
mechanical resonance of the moving coil and pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its
position without oscillation. A galvanometer is shown in Fig. 4.
2.6.4 Shunt
Sometimes, a galvanometer may be used in a circuit where large current is flowing. If all the
current in the circuit is allowed to pass through the galvanometer, it will damage the coil of the
meter. To avoid this, a resistor of low resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer, to
bypass the major part of the current and allow only a fraction of the current to pass through the
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Figure 4: Galvanometer
galvanometer. The low resistance resistor connected in parallel to the galvanometer is called
a shunt. A shunt is depicted in Fig. 5. From the figure, we can note that current through the
galvanometer is Ig, current across the shunt is Is and total current in the circuit I = Ig +Is. Voltage
across the shunt Is ×s, voltage across the galvanometer Ig ×G. Since the shunt is connected in
parallel to the galvanometer, the voltage across the galvanometer and the shunt is the same, i.e
I × s = Ig × G. A galvanometer is converted to an ammeter when a low resistance resistor is connected in

parallel to it.
Figure 5: Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter
2.6.5 Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter
Figure 6: Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter
In order to convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high resistance known as ”series
resistance” is connected in series with the galvanometer.
Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and it gives full scale deflection when current Ig is passed
through it. Then
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Vg = IgRg
Let a shunt of resistance Rs is connected in parallel to galvanometer. If total current through the
circuit is I
V = Ig(Rg + Rx) = IgRg + IgRx

V − IgRg = IgRx
but
If potential between the points to be measured = V and if galvanometer gives full scale
deflection, when current Ig passes through it. Then
Thus Rx can be found
Examples
1. An ammeter of resistance 0.8 Ω can measure currents up to 1.0 A.
(a) What shunt resistance should be connected to enable it read current of up to 5.0 A?.
(b) What is the combined resistance of the ammeter and the shunt?.
Soln
(a) Shunts are connected in parallel to the meter, as such, the same voltage will pass
the circuit components, but different current.
Current in the shunt = 5 − 1 = 4A. Let the resistance of the shunt be R, hence, voltage in
the shunt = 4 × R.
Voltage in the meter is = 1 × 0.8 = 0.8V
Voltage in the meter = Voltage in the shunt, i.e
4R = 0.8
2Ω
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(b) The resistors are in parallel, hence
16Ω
2. A galvanometer of resistance 50 Ω is shunted with a wire of 10 Ω. Calculate the current

through the galvanometer when the current in the circuit is 12 A.
Soln
Let the current in the galvanometer be Ig. Voltage in the two components is the same, i.e
Exercise
1. What shunt resistance is required to convert 1.00 mA, 20.0 Ω meter into an ammeter with a
range of 0 to 50.0 mA?
2. The current in a loop circuit that has a resistance of R1 is 2.00 A. The current is reduced to
1.60 A when an additional resistor R2 = 3.00Ω is added in series with R1 . What is the value
of R1 ?
3. A television repairman needs a 100Ω resistor to repair a malfunctioning set. He is

temporarily out of resistors of this value. All he has in his toolbox are a 500 Ω resistor and
two 250Ω resistors. How can he obtain the desired resistance using the resistors he has on
hand?
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2.7 Alternating Current Circuits
Every time we turn on a television set, a stereo, or any of a multitude of other electrical
appliances, we are calling on alternating currents to provide the power to operate them.
A current which flows first in one direction in a circuit, called the positive direction, then in
the other reverse or negative direction is called an alternating current. Since the variation of the
current strength is similar to the graph of sine wave, the value of the current at any instant say t
seconds after it had zero value will be given by
I = Imax sinωt,
where Imax is the maximum output current of the ac generator, or the current amplitude, ω is the
angular frequency, given by
where f is the frequency of the generator (the voltage source) and T is the period.
If an ac generator is connected to a series circuit containing resistors, inductors, and

capacitors, we want to know the amplitude and time characteristics of the alternating current. To
simplify our analysis of circuits containing two or more elements, we use graphical constructions
called phasor diagrams. In these constructions, alternating (sinusoidal) quantities, such as
current and voltage, are represented by rotating vectors called phasors. The length of the phasor
represents the amplitude (maximum value) of the quantity, and the projection of the phasor onto
the vertical axis represents the instantaneous value of the quantity. As we shall see, a phasor
diagram greatly simplifies matters when we must combine several sinusoidally varying currents
or voltages that have different phases.
2.7.1 Resistors in an ac circuit
Consider a simple ac circuit consisting of a resistor and an ac generator. At any instant, the
algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop in a circuit must be zero (Kirchhoff’s loop
rule). Therefore,
V − VR = 0
or
Page 23 of 41
V = VR = Vmax sinωt
where VR is the instantaneous voltage across the resistor. Therefore, the instantaneous current
in the resistor is
The current and voltage are in step with each other because they vary identically with time.
Because IR and VR both vary as sinωt and reach their maximum values at the same time, they are
said to be in phase. Thus we can say that, for a sinusoidal applied voltage, the current in a
resistor is always in phase with the voltage across the resistor.
Note that the average value of the current over one cycle is zero. That is, the current is
maintained in the positive direction for the same amount of time and at the same magnitude as it
is maintained in the negative direction. However, the direction of the current has no effect on the
behaviour of the resistor. We can understand this by realizing that collisions between electrons
and the fixed atoms of the resistor result in an increase in the temperature of the resistor.
Although this temperature increase depends on the magnitude of the current, it is independent of
the direction of the current.
We can make this discussion quantitative by recalling that the rate at which electrical energy
is converted to internal energy in a resistor is the power = i2R, where i is the instantaneous
current in the resistor. Because this rate is proportional to the square of the current, it makes no
difference whether the current is direct or alternating, that is, whether the sign associated with
the current is positive or negative. However, the temperature increase produced by an alternating
current having a maximum value I max is not the same as that produced by a direct current equal
to Imax . This is because the alternating current is at this maximum value for only an instant during
each cycle. What is of importance in an ac circuit is an average value of current, referred to as
the rms current. The notation rms stands for root mean square, which in this √case means the
square root of the mean (average) value of the square of the current
Irms = i2. Because i2 varies as sin2 ωt and because the average value of i2 is , the rms current is
Page 24 of 41
This equation states that an alternating current whose maximum value is 2.00 A delivers to a
resistor the same power as a direct current that has a value of (0.707) (2.00 A) = 1.41 A. Thus,
we can say that the average power delivered to a resistor that carries an alternating current is
Alternating voltage also is best discussed in terms of rms voltage, and the relationship is identical
to that for current:
2.7.2 Inductors in an ac circuit
Now consider an ac circuit consisting only of an inductor connected to the terminals of an ac
generator. If is the self induced instantaneous voltage across the inductor, then
Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to this circuit gives = 0 or
Page 25 of 41
we see that the instantaneous current in the inductor and the instantaneous voltage VL across
the inductor are out of phase by radians 2 = 90◦. for a sinusoidal applied voltage, the current in an
inductor always lags behind the voltage across the inductor by 90◦ (one-quarter cycle in time).
We also see that the current in an inductive circuit reaches its maximum value when cosωt = −1
where the quantity XL , called the inductive reactance, is
XL = ωL
Inductive reactance, like resistance, has units of ohms. However, unlike resistance, reactance
depends on frequency as well as on the characteristics of the inductor. Note that the reactance of
an inductor in an ac circuit increases as the frequency of the current increases. This is because at
higher frequencies, the instantaneous current must change more rapidly than it does at the lower
frequencies; this causes an increase in the maximum induced emf associated with a given
maximum current.
2.7.3 Capacitors in and ac circuit
In a capacitive circuit, Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to this circuit gives ∆V − ∆Vc = 0
Page 26 of 41
∆V = ∆Vc = ∆Vmax sinωt
where ∆Vc is the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor. We know from the definition of
capacitance that , hence eqn (50) will give
q = C∆Vmax sinωt (51)
where q is the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. Because , differentiating Equation

(51) gives the instantaneous current in the circuit:
.. a
Using the trigonometric identity
we can express Equation (a) in the alternative form
we see that the current is rad = 90◦ out of phase with the voltage across the capacitor.
The phasor diagram shows that for a sinusoidally applied voltage, the current in a capacitor
always leads the voltage across the capacitor by 90◦.
we see that the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value when cosωt = 1:
where XC is called the capacitive reactance:
Note that capacitive reactance also has units of ohms.
Page 27 of 41
2.8 The RLC series circuit
An RLC circuit (also known as a resonant circuit, tuned circuit, or LCR circuit) is an electrical
circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C), connected in series or in
parallel. The name of the circuit is derived from the letters that are used to denote the constituent
components of this circuit, where the sequence of the components may vary from RLC.
Figure 7: Series connection of resistor, inductor and capacitor
Series RLC Circuit notations:
V - the voltage of the power source (measured in volts V) I - the current in the circuit
(measured in amperes A) R - the resistance of the resistor (measured in ohms = V/A); L the
inductance of the inductor (measured in henrys = H = VAˆ·s/A) C - the capacitance of the
capacitor (measured in farads = F = C/V = AAˆ·s/V) q - the charge across the capacitor
(measured in coulombs C)
The amplitude of the source voltage across all three components in a series RLC circuit is
made up of the three individual component voltages, VR, VL and VC with the current common to
all three components. The vector diagrams will therefore have the current vector as their
reference with the three voltage vectors being plotted with respect to this reference as shown
below.
Page 28 of 41
Figure 8: Phasor diagram
This means then that we can not simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the supply voltage,
VS across all three components as all three voltage vectors point in different directions with
regards to the current vector. Therefore we will have to find the supply voltage, VS as the Phasor
Sum of the three component voltages combined together vectorially.
To obtain the vector sum of the three voltage phasors in Figure 8, we redraw the phasor
diagram as in Figure 9. From this diagram, we see that the vector sum of the voltage amplitudes
VR , VL , and VC equals a phasor whose length is the maximum applied voltage Vmax , where the
Figure 9: Phasor diagram for resistor, inductive and capacitive circuit
phasor Vmax makes an angle ϕ with the current phasor Imax . Note that the voltage phasors VL and
VC are in opposite directions along the same line, and hence we can construct the difference
phasor VL − VC , which is perpendicular to the phasor VR. From which we can see that
Page 29 of 41
which we can write in term of the impedance Z of the circuit is defined as
where impedance also has units of ohms.
From figure 9 we find that the phase angle ϕ between the current and the voltage is
XL − XC = 0
Note that this frequency also corresponds to the natural frequency of oscillation of an LC circuit. Therefore, the current in a series
RLC circuit reaches its maximum value when the frequency of the applied voltage matches the natural oscillator frequency: which
depends only on L and C. Furthermore, at this frequency the current is in phase with the applied voltage.
Page 30 of 41
MAGNETISM
3.1 Magnetic field
The region round a magnet where a magnetic force occurs is called magnetic field. The
appearance of a magnetic field is quickly obtained experimentally using iron filings and
accurately plotted with a magnetic compass. The direction of magnetic field is taken as the
direction of the force on a north pole if placed in the field.
The field round a bar magnet shown in Figure 1(i) is non-uniform, its strength and
direction vary from place to place.
Figure 1. Magnetic field
A bar magnet of soft iron placed north-south becomes magnetized through induction by the
earth’s field shown in Figure 1(ii) and the lines of force, becomes concentrated in the soft iron
shown in Figure 1(iii). The tangent to a line of force at a point gives the direction of the magnetic
field at that point.
Forces on charges moving in magnetic field
The magnetic field at a point is represented by a vector B which is called magnetic induction
(otherwise known as magnetic flux density). A charge q moving perpendicular to a magnetic
field B with velocity v has a force on it given by
If the velocity v and the field B are inclined to each other at angle θ,
where f is in newton, q is in coulomb and v is in m/s. The unit of B is called Tesla (T) and its cgs
unit is gauss (G)
Page 31 of 41
Force on a current in a magnetic field
Since a current is a stream of positive charges, a current experiences a force due to a magnetic
field. The direction of the force is found by the right-hand rule shown in Figure 2, with the
direction of the current used in place of the velocity vector. The magnitude of the force on a
small length ∆ L of wire carrying current I is given by
where θ is the angle between the direction of the current I and the direction of the field.
Figure 2. Direction of the force acting on a charge
For a straight wire of length L in a uniform magnetic field, the (above) equation becomes
Note that the force is zero if the wire is in line with the field lines. The force is maximum if the
field lines are perpendicular to the wire. In analogy to the case of a moving charge, the force is
perpendicular to the plane defined by the wire and the field lines.
Example 1
A wire carrying a current of 10 A and 2 metres in length is placed in a field of flux density 0·15
T (Wb m-2). What is the force on the wire if it is placed (a) at right angles to the field, (b) at 45°
to the field, (c) along the field.
Torque on a flat coil in a uniform magnetic field

The torque τ on a coil of N loops, each carrying a current I, an external magnetic field B is given
by
Page 32 of 41
Where, A is the area of the coil, and θ is the angle between the field lines and perpendicular to
the plane of the coil.
Example 2
A uniform magnetic field, B = 3.0 G, exist in the +x-direction. A proton (q = +e) shoots through
the field in the y-direction with a speed of 5.0 × 10 6 m/s. Find the magnitude of the force on the
proton.
3.2 Magnetic Properties of Materials
The magnetic field is an imaginary line of force around a magnet which enables other
ferromagnetic materials to get repelled or attracted towards it. The magnetic field lines are
formed due to various reasons like orbital movement of electrons, current flowing in a conductor
and so on. The properties of magnetic field lines are:
1. The magnetic field lines by convention enter through the south pole and leaves through
the north pole
2. The magnetic field lines are stronger near the poles of the magnet
3. Magnetic field lines do not intersect with one another
4. The more the closeness of the magnetic field lines, the more the strength of the magnet
Magnetic moment
It is a quantity that represents the magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet or other objects
that produces magnetic field. Motion of electrons in an atom give rise to a phenomenon called
magnetism. Basically two types of motion are associated with the electrons:
1. Motion of electrons in an orbit within the nucleus

2. Spin of electrons around its axis
The spin and orbital motion imparts magnetic moment on each electron, forcing them to behave
as tiny magnets.
Classes of magnetic materials
Ferromagnetism
The atomic moments in these materials exhibit very strong interaction. These interactions are
produced by electronic exchange forces and result in a parallel or antiparallel alignment of
Page 33 of 41
atomic moments. The elements such as Fe, Ni, Co and many of their alloys are typical
ferromagnetic materials.
Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are:
1. Spontaneous magnetization: this is the net magnetization that exists inside a uniformly
magnetized microscopic volume in the absence of a field.
2. Magnetic ordering of temperature
Diamagnetism
Substances are composed of atoms which have no net magnetic moments (all the orbital shells
are filled and there are no unpaired electrons). However, when exposed to a field, a negative
magnetization is obtained and thus the susceptibility is negative. For diamagnetic materials, the
susceptibility is temperature dependent. Example include quartz.
Paramagnetism
In this class of materials, some atoms or ions in the material have a net magnetic moment due to
unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals. However, the individual magnetic moments do not
interact magnetically, the magnetization is zero when the field is removed (like diamagnetism).
In the presence of a field, there is partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moment in the
direction of the field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive susceptibility.
3.3 Hall Effect
Hall (1879) found that an e.m.f. or voltage is set up transversely or across a current carrying
conductor when a perpendicular magnetic field is applied. This is called Hall Effect. Consider a
slab of metal (Figure 3) carrying a current,
Figure 3. Demonstration of Hall Effect using a Slab of metal
Page 34 of 41
the flow of electrons is in the opposite direction to the conventional current. If the metal is placed
in a magnetic field B at right angle to the face AGDC of the slab and directed out of the plane of
the paper, a force Bev then acts on each electron in the direction from CD to AG. Thus electrons
collect along the side AG of the metal will make AG negatively charged and lower its potential
with respect to CD. The flow of electrons ceases when the e.m.f. reaches a particular value VH
called the Hall voltage (Figure 3).
Magnitude of Hall Voltage
If d is the width of the slab, then the electric field strength E set up across the slab is numerically
equal to the potential gradient and hence
The force (F) on each electron is given as
The force which is directed upwards from AG to CD is equal to the force produced by magnetic
field when the electrons are in equilibrium
But the drift velocity of the electrons is given by
where n is the number of electrons per unit volume and A is the area of the cross section of the
conductor. In this case
Page 35 of 41
By substituting the value of v, VH becomes
Application of Hall voltage
1. In semiconductors, Hall voltage is used to find whether the current flow is due to positive
or negative charges
2. It is used to measure the charge density (n)
3. It is also used for measuring the flux density B of a magnetic field
Example 3
The number of electrons per unit volume is 1025 per meter3 in a semiconductor of thickness 10-3m
when the magnetic field of 1T is applied to it. Compute the Hall voltage when the charge on the
electron is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb and carries a current of 10A.
Example 4
A current of 0.5A is passed through a rectangular section of a semiconductor 4mm thick which
has majority carriers of negative charges or free electrons. When a magnetic field of 0.2T is
applied perpendicular to the section, a Hall voltage of 6.0 mV is produced between the opposite
edges. Calculate the number of charge carriers per unit volume.
3.4 Electromagnetic Induction
This is the production of electromotive force (e.m.f) across an electrical conductor in a changing
magnetic field. Faraday’s law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a
magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an e.m.f, a phenomenon known as
Page 36 of 41
electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors

and so on.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
If a coil has more than one turn, then the flux through the whole coil is the sum of the fluxes
through the individual turns. This is called flux linkage through the whole coil. If the magnetic
field is uniform, the flux through one turn is
Where A is the area, whose normal makes an angle with a uniform field of flux density B
(Figure 4).
Figure 4. Magnetic flux
If the coil has N turns, the total flux linkage ∅ is given by
According to Faraday’s law, the e.m.f induced in a coil is proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkage , ∅. Hence,
Where k is a positive constant. The minus sign expresses the Lenz’s law. It means that the
induced e.m.f is in such a direction that, if the circuit is closed, the induced current opposes the
Page 37 of 41
change of flux. Note that an induced e.m.f exists across the terminals of a coil is on ‘open
circuit’. A current, of course, does not flow in this case.
If k = 1,
Where ∅ is the flux linage in webers, t is in seconds, and E is in volts. This equation can also be
written as
Where, N is the number of turns in a coil and is the rate of flux change in the whole coil
and
From equation
It follows that one weber is the flux linking a circuit if the induced e.m.f is one volt when the
flux is reduced to zero in one second.
The statement of Faraday’s law
It states that the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linking the circuit or coil.
The statement of Lenz’s law
It states that the induced current opposes the motion producing it
Example 5
Page 38 of 41
A narrow coil of 10 turns and area 4 X 10-2 m2 is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux
density B of 10-2 T so that the flux links the turns normally.
(a) Calculate the average induced e.m.f in the coil if it is removed completely from the field
in 0.5s
(b) If the same coil is rotated about an axis through its middle so that it turns through 60° in
0.2s in the field B, calculate the average induced e.m.f.
3.5 Ampere’s Theorem
Ampere show that if a continuous closed line or loop is drawn round one or more current
carrying conductors and B is the flux density in the direction of the element dl of the loop, then
for free space
where the symbol the integral taken completely round the closed loop and I is the
total current enclosed by the loop. So we have
1. Straight wire
Consider a circular loop L of radius r, drawn concentrically round a straight wire carrying a
current I (Figure 5). The flux lines are circles and so, at every part of the closed line, B is
directed along the tangent to the circle at that part, B has the same value everywhere along the
line
Page 39 of 41
Figure 5. Circular loop round a straight wire carrying a current I
2. Toroid
Consider the closed loop M indicated by the broken line in Figure 6. Again, B is everywhere the
same at M and is directed along the loop at every point
Where L is the total length of the loop M. Hence
where
Page 40 of 41
Figure 6. Current flowing in a toroid
Example 6
A cathode ray beam (an electron beam; Me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg, q = -e) is bent in a circle of radius
2.0 cm by a uniform field with B = 4.5 x 10-3 T. What is the speed of the electrons?
Example 7
Alpha particles (Mα = 6.68 x 10 -27 kg, q = +2e) are accelerated from rest through a p.d of 1.0kV. They
then enter a magnetic field B = 0.20T perpendicular to their direction of motion. Calculate the radius of
their path.
Page 41 of 41

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PHY 1321 HARMONISED LECTURE NOTE, DRAFT VERSION 001

HARMONISED LECTURE NOTE

DRAFT VERSION 001

PHY 1321: ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM AND MODERN PHYSICS

SECOND SEMESTER 2020/2021 SESSION

FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

AL-QALAM UNIVERSITY KATSINA

• Due to this reason our clothes stick to our body.

• Charge cannot exist without material carrying it

• It is possible to develop the charge by rubbing two solids having friction.

• Carrying the charges is called electrification.

• Electrification due to friction is called frictional electricity.

There are two types of charges, +ve and –ve.

• Similar charges repel each other,

• Opposite charges attract each other.

• Any particle has vast amount of charges.

Electron theory of Electrification

• Nucleus of atom is positively charged.

• The electron revolving around it is negatively charged.

• They are equal in numbers, hence atom is electrically neutral.

Charge and Mass relation

• Charge cannot exist without matter.

• One carrier of charge is electron which has mass as well.

• Hence if there is charge transfer, mass is also transferred.

• Logically, negatively charged body is heavier then positively charged body.

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

• Conductors : Material in which electrons can move easily and freely.

Basic properties of Electric charge

• Additivity of Electric charges

• Quantization of Electric charge

• Conservation of Electric Charge

Quantization of Electric charge

• Minimum charge e exists on an electron.

• The material which is transferred during electrification is an electron, in integral numbers.

• Hence charge transferred has to be integral multiple of e.

This minimum charge is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.

One electron has charge - 1.6 x 10-19 C

One proton has charge + 1.6 x 10-19 C

• Charge on a body Q is given by Q = + ne. Where n is a whole number 1,2,3…..and e = 1.6 x

- Proton is composed of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.

Each sphere ends up with 6.24 × 1018 excess protons on it:

• Coulumb’s law in Electrostatics:

If two charges q1 and q2 are placed at distance r then,

Where k is a constant. k is called Coulomb's constant and its value is

Solution: q 1 ¿ q 2=q , r =3 cm, F=4 ×10−5 N .

Solving, we have q=± 2× 10−9 C .

Electric field at a point

Electric field intensity

Stored electric potential energy

For a conductor with charge Q:

For a conductor the total charge Q resides on the surface

Q=∫ dq=∫ σdA

Also, V is constant on and inside the conductor and

For a System of N Conductors:

Let us assume that a particle of charge Q moved from a point at a potential V 1 to a

Therefore, work done on the charge W is W . D=Q ¿).

The electronic charge q=1.6 ×10−19

Therefore 1 ev=1.6 ×10−19 × 1 v

0.03 ev =0.03×=1.6 ×10−19

Capacitors and capacitance

Example (Isolated Conducting Sphere):

Example (Parallel Plate Capacitor):