Switch Mode Power Supplies:

From Circuit Theory to the Workbench

Michael Tse
Power Electronics Research Centre
Department of Electronic & Information Engineering
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Prelude
„ How much can we trust the theory?
„ What can we do if the theory doesn’t match the outcome?
„ Can we live without heuristics?
„ Are complex models always better?
„ What makes the engineers lose faith in the theory?
„ Can theory really be used in practice?

„ How can we get the most of circuit theory for

practical design and analysis?

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The theorists at fault!!
„ My EMI filter isn’t quite doing what it is supposed to do. Let
me change the order and a different filter configuration, and
try again.

„ I need to derive a more accurate model for my power

converter, preferrably up to 10 times the switching
frequency.

„ Oh! I have found the answer from my algebra. A duty cycle

of 1.2 for this theoretical power factor control!! How could I
achieve this?

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The engineers at fault!!
„ The snubber gets pretty hot. Let me choose a smaller
resistance.

„ I would tend to think that the transformer has split

characters. The flyback transformer has never convinced me
that it is related to the forward transformer.

„ Air gap stores more energy.

„ The output voltage of my constant-power-controlled circuit

isn’t high enough. Let me get a few more turns in the
secondary.

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Objectives
„ To show how one can arrive at a practical circuit from
consideration of basic circuit theory.

„ To show how circuit theory can be used to explain

phenomena observed in practical circuits.

„ To show how a switch mode power supply can be

systematically cons-tructed, starting from the simplest
converter topology.

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Contents
„ Basic topologies and practical requirements
„ How theory solves problems:
„ First problem: practical transformer
„ Second problem: real device switching
„ Third problem: closed-loop control
„ Fourth problem: isolation
„ Fifth problem: input filter
„ Conclusion

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 Genesis of converters
„ Aim: To convert controllable power
from a voltage source to a load,
„ Kirchhoff’s laws restrict terminal
with NO LOSS.
conditions.
Source Load
Source Load
?
?
Lossless Simple
Controllable Lossless Simple
Controllable

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An old solution
„ Lossy linear regulator

Source Load

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Elements wanted
„ Lossless requirements
„ current sinking for input
„ current sourcing for
output
„ Ideas
„ An inductor switching
between source and load
„ Relative sourcing and
sinking durations would
control the energy flow
Michael Tse: Switch Mode Power Supplies
„ Bear in mind what
Kirchhoff’s laws say:
Inductors must not be left
open.
-> An inductor switching
between source and load.
-> At least one current path
must be available at all
times.
-> At least two switches are
needed to divert the
inductor current
-> THREE POSSIBILITIES
9
Three possibilities
Source iL Load

„ Boost

Source Load

„ Buck-boost iL

Source Load

„ Buck

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The buck converter
„ Switch S is turned on and off very quickly, at a rate much
greater than the output filter natural frequency

„ Control parameter is duty cycle

Duration when S is on ton
d = =
Period T
ON
iL
+ S L +
E D OFF U
– –

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Steady-state operation
„ Suppose we fix the duty cycle and wait until a steady state is
reached.
„ Inductor current goes up during the ON time, and goes down during
the OFF time.
„ Periodic operation forces

Increment during ON = Decrement during OFF

( E − U ) DT U (1 − D)T
⇒ =
L L

⇒ U = D×E

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Putting it to practice
„ We need Direct
Mandatory
„ transformer isolation Requirements
„ closed-loop control
„ drivers for MOSFETs
Indirect
„ self start-up Mandatory
„ snubbers as switching aids Requirements

„ protection
„ input EMI filter Regulatory
„ Proper component selection Requirements

„ mechanical design: heat sink, layout, packaging, etc

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Practical circuit requirement
?
„ Forward converter— EMI EMI filter needed
transformer isolated protection (over I / V)
buck converter
Does it work?

?
isolation?
? ?
driver
Control
IC and ?
circuits
?
start-up

from
aux
output
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First problem: practical transformer
„ The previous forward converter worked only if the
transformer were ideal.
„ However, practical transformers have magnetising
inductance.
1:n

Lm

Ideal transformer v2 = nv1

1
i2 = i1
n

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What the theory says?
„ If we have to use a transformer for the forward
converter, the transformer should be idea.
„ That means INDEFINITELY LARGE magnetizing
inductance.
⇓
„ Either an infinitely permeable core
„ OR an infinite number of turns
„ THAT’S IMPOSSIBLE!!

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Probing further into the theory
„ First, consider the ON time .

Practical transformer
1:n
„ Secondary of T/F has
no current.

Ideal transformer
↓
„ Primary has no current
either.
What happens when the FET is off?
↓
„ Current in magnetising
inductance can go
nowhere!!
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Deriving solution: core reset
„ A path must exist during OFF time to bring the
magnetizing current back to zero
Practical transformer
1:n
– – –
Vz
+ 0A 0A
+ +

Ideal transformer

„ Circuit theory works and explains everything!

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Waveforms (with core reset)
Secondary current of ideal t/f
slope
controlled
by output
inductance
0

Primary current of practical t/f

same as
above;
scaled by
Primary current of ideal t/f factor n
Magntizing current

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Requirements for core reset
„ Negative voltage polarity applied to the winding
during OFF time.
„ This voltage must be large enough to bring the
magnetising current back to zero.

„ If d = 0.5, then Vz ≥ Vin.

„ If d = 0.8, then Vz ≥ 4Vin.

„ Technique: clamping the voltage during OFF time.

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 Some core reset possibilities
Tertiary winding as voltage clamp
1:n 1:n
Vz nt

Advantage:
n t controls clamped voltage for re-set
Disadvantage: bulky transformer

Two-wheeler forward converter

1:n

1:n

Advantage: simple transformer

Disadvantage:
Duty cycle restricted below 0.5

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Recapitulation
„ Although we cannot make an ideal transformer, we
solve the problem with a reset circuit.

„ We now care much less how large Lm is, since we

have a way to get around it.

„ QUESTION: Can the magnetizing inductance be used

to advantage?
„ YES, in a flyback converter!

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Flyback converter
„ In this case, we don’t need During ON-time, magnetizing inductance charges up.
an ideal transformer. That’s +
1:n
–
good. We don’t have it 0A 0A
anyway. – +
„ The magnetizing inductance
becomes crucial as part of reverse polarity, current can't go!
the circuit element. ideal t/f primary current = 0

„ Requirement:
„ Linear inductor! During OFF-time, magnetizing current forces its way out
through the ideal t/f primary.
„ Air-gap to augment BH
1:n
curve (then more turns to – +
obtain inductance)
+ –
di/dt negative,
hence reverse
polarity

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Second problem: real switching
i ds
„ Consider turning the + v ds –
switch in a buck + +
converter. E U
5
„ The result of this real – 0 –
device switching is
diode won't conduct unless forward biased
i.e.,v ds reaches the input voltage
„ POWER LOSS
(switching loss) ON i ds OFF
vds ids can't go down
unless diode turns on

turn-off
diode turns on

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Deriving solution: snubber
„ Give the switch current a
chance to go down before the ids
diode turns on. + +
⇓ E
–
5 U
–
0
„ Set up a PARALLEL CURRENT
PATH right after the turn-off
instant.

⇓ ON OFF
„ Place a capacitor across the i ds
switch at turn-off to supply vds ids goes down immediately

current for the output inductor.

turn-off
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Completing the solution
„ What happens when the switch is turned on again in the next cycle?
„ The current will rush through the switch!!

⇓
„ We must protect the switch from such huge in-rush.
„ The complete snubber is: during turn-on

Snubber
„ Energy loss per cycle +

1 during turn-off
= Csnubber vs 2
2
+
E
–

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Other examples (same principle)

+
E
–

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 Third problem: closed-loop control
„ Why?
„ Because the system is dynamic.
„ What is a dynamical system?
„ A simplified definition: a system that does not assume an operating point instantly
when an input parameter is changed.

Consider a buck converter with input 24V. „ Suppose d stays constant, but the load
resistance steps up.
„ Suppose d is forced to step up from 0.2 to 0.4.
output voltage
9.6V
output voltage
4.8V
4.8V

load resistance
duty cycle
0.4

0.2

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The need for control
„ Obviously we need to control
the duty cycle if we want the +
system to have a dynamic –
behaviour different from the
natural behaviour.

voltage-mode fb
„ 2 common approaches
„ Voltage mode control
„ Current mode control

current-mode fb

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Voltage mode control
„ A general feedback circuit representation is:
Vout
vcon
Zf R1

–
+
+
– Vref R2

Vm

 R1 || R2  R2  Zf 
vcon   = v ref −   vout
 Zf + ( R1 || R2 )  R1 + R2 Z
 f + ( R1 || R )
2 

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 Small-signal analysis
 R1 || R2  R2  Zf 
vcon   = vref −   vout
 Zf + ( R1 || R2 )  R1 + R2  Zf + ( R1 || R2 ) 

„ We can separate the AC from the

DC component.
„ Let’s not worry about the steady- „ If we know the duty-cycle-to-
state operating point. output small-signal transfer
„ The small-signal AC equation is: function, then we can find the
loop gain and hence be able to
Z
∆vcon = − f ∆vout design the required compensator
R1 to give sufficient bandwidth and
„ Taking into account the PWM, we stability.
have
1 Zf
∆d = − ∆vout „ HERE, we need small-signal
Vm R1
models from circuit theory.
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 Design criteria
„ Fast response — high gain and wide bandwidth of loop gain
„ Stability — phase shift must be well below 180deg at 0dB
crossover.

„ The converter is a second-order system which can become

unstable under closed-loop condition, especially when the gain is
high causing the phase shift of the loop gain to get close to
180deg at 0dB crossover.

„ We must limit the bandwidth somehow if we allow a high DC

gain.

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 Workbench construction
„ The concept of POLE — frequency location where the gain begins
to roll off.
„ E.g., if the circuit has a capacitor to ground forming an RC network
with the rest of the equivalent resistance, then a pole exists at
1/2›CR Hz.
„ A simple educated trial-and-error:
„ Select an RC combination (in the compensation circuit associated with
the control IC) for a deep lag compensation — narrow band first.
„ Then, relax the time constant (widen the band) until the circuit begins
to oscillate!
„ Finally, reduce the capacitor value down 10 times to restore stability.

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 Current mode control
„ Essential concept — The system
reduces to first order, more or
less! v con Vout
„ The system is therefore faster, Zf R1
with less chance for instability.
Q S –
–
R +
„ IDEA: + Vref R2
„ Make the inductor current
dependent on the output voltage
by forcing the current peak to driver
follow the output voltage analog.
„ Disqualify the inductor current as current
a state variable. sensor

„ The converter becomes first

order.

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 Fourth problem: isolation
„ Need for isolating the load from
the mains.
Put control in the secondary-side
„ But the control circuit connects
the two! +V
Put control in the primary-side Mains
rectifier Vout

+V
Mains
Vout
driver
rectifier

driver
bootstrap control IC
start-up
control IC

aux. supply
aux. supply

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 Fifth problem: filter
„ An input filter is always needed to
prevent differential-mode and
common-mode noise from getting into
the mains.

L
„ Basic requirement:
~ differential SMPS „ Let 50Hz gets in, but
N prevent high
common frequencies from
E getting out!

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 Basic filter theory Rs

„ Voltage filter (low-pass

50Hz
left-to-right) SMPS load

„ Current filter (low-pass

Rs
x noise current
at switching
right-to-left) frequency
and above

„ Voltage filter (low-pass

Rs
x noise voltage
+ at switching
right-to-left) – frequency
and above

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 Conceptual placement
„ Voltage filter (low-pass Differential-mode filter
L
left-to-right)

SMPS
N

„ Current filter (low-pass E

right-to-left)
Common-mode filter
L

SMPS
„ Voltage filter (low-pass N
right-to-left)
E

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 Practical placement
Ld
Lc differential-mode choke
common-mode choke (may be provided by leakage
of common-mode choke)

L
„ NOTE:

N
SMPS „ The EMI filter often
fails to do what it
E
is supposed to do.
„ Does the theory
fall short of
differential-mode common-mode differential-mode
capacitor and differential-mode capacitor
Cc1 capacitor
Cm1 , Cm2
Cc2 anything?
2Ld Lc +
Ld „ Or have we missed
2
out some
Cc1 +
Cm1 Cc2 + Cm 2 2Cm1 2Cm2 important things?!
2 2

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Conclusion
„ The curses to the theory:
„ A capacitor may not behave as a capacitor.

„ An inductor may not behave as an inductor.

„ Parasitics and nonlinearity strike in.

„ Signals get around the filter, instead of being filtered.

„ The theory does not fail. The engineers fail to identify the
right ingredients for constructing theories that are viable.

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There is nothing more practical than a good theory.

— James C. Maxwell

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