INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

RADIOMETRIC IMAGE ANALYSIS USING INFRARED

THERMOGRAPHY

Undertaken at

CSIR-CSIO

Submitted by
Jyotica Yadav
Roll No. UE135039

Under the Guidance of

Ms. Aparna Akula (Scientist)
Mr. Ripul Ghosh (Scientist)

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

JUNE, 2017
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

RADIOMETRIC IMAGE ANALYSIS USING INFRARED

THERMOGRAPHY

Undertaken at

CSIR-CSIO

Submitted by
Jyotica Yadav
Roll No. UE135039

Under the Guidance of

Ms. Aparna Akula (Scientist)
Mr. Ripul Ghosh (Scientist)

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

JUNE, 2017
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude and sincere thanks to Ms. Aparna Akula and Mr. Ripul
Ghosh, Scientist, Computational Instrumentation, CSIR-CSIO for their guidance and support
throughout the training duration. They have been a constant source of inspiration during this
period of work. I consider myself extremely fortunate for having the opportunity to learn and
work under their supervision over the entire period.

Furthermore, I would like thank Mr. Vishal Sharma and Mr. Neeraj Sharma, ECE
Department, UIET, Panjab University for recommending and allowing me to work in such a
prestigious organization for my final year industrial training.
 ABSTRACT

Normally, our vision is limited to a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Thermal energy has a much longer wavelength than visible light. With thermal imaging, the
portion of the spectrum we perceive is dramatically expanded, helping us "see" and
"measure" thermal energy emitted from an object. Unlike visible light, in the infrared world,
everything with a temperature above absolute zero emits heat. Even very cold objects, like ice
cubes, emit infrared. And visible light doesn't affect the thermal world, so you can see equally
well in highly lit and totally dark environments. Infrared allows us to see what our eyes
cannot. Infrared thermographic cameras produce images of invisible infrared or "heat"
radiation. The infrared (IR) wavelengths are an important focus of military and defense
research and development because so much of surveillance and targeting occurs under the
cover of darkness.

But, the images captured using thermal cameras are not self-sufficient for providing
necessary information until and unless certain manipulations have been done on the images.
The tool which is most commonly used for such image processing tasks is MATLAB. Image
processing basically involves altering and analyzing pictorial information of images. One
goal for an image processing approach in defense and security applications is to reduce the
workload of human analysts to cope with the ever-increasing volume of image data that is
being collected. A second, more challenging goal for image processing researchers is to
develop algorithms and approaches that will significantly aid the development of fully
autonomous systems capable of decisions and actions based on all sensor inputs.

The report presented here concentrates on the above applications of thermal image
processingwith various aspects of thermography and a detailed analysis of the images being
captured using thermal cameras. In addition to this, the approach used behind developing an
atmospheric model has also been explained.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION................................................................................................................ i
CERTIFICATE ................................................................................................................. ii
JOINING REPORT ......................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... vii

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1-4

1.1 Necessity ..........................................................................................................1
1.2 About CSIO ................................................................................................. 1-2
1.3 Mission .............................................................................................................2
1.4 Organizational Structure ..................................................................................2
1.5 About Computational Instrumentation ........................................................ 3-4

2. PREREQUISITES ................................................................................................. 5-19

2.1 What is Infrared Thermography? .....................................................................6
2.2 Laws Governing Thermal Radiation ............................................................ 6-7
2.3 How Thermal Imaging Works? ................................................................... 7-8
2.4 Infrared Homing ......................................................................................... 8-10
2.5 Infrared Transmission Through Atmosphere ........................................... 10-16
2.6 Tools Used for the implementation .......................................................... 16-18

TIMELINE .....................................................................................................................19

3. IMPLEMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RADIATION LAWS ............... 20-33

3.1 Realization of Radiation Laws ................................................................. 21-23
3.2 Analyzing the effect of Emissivity .......................................................... 23-24
3.3 Comparison of Laws at different values of Emissivity ..................................25
3.4 Emissivity Correction using MATLAB ................................................... 26-31
3.5 Cumulative Histogram Analysis of Thermal Image ................................ 31-33
1. ATMOSPHERIC MODELLING USING MATLAB ..................................... 34-49
4.1 Fundamental Parameters Affecting Infrared Transmission ..................... 34-36
4.2 Input Parameters required for Atmospheric Modelling ........................... 36-37
4.3 Methods for Calculating Atmospheric Transmission ............................. .37-44
4.4 Implementation using GUI ...................................................................... 44-45

5. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 46-47

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. viii

 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title of Figure Pg. No.

Figure 1.1 Organizational Structure of CSIO 2
Figure 2.1 Visible and the corresponding thermal image captured using 5
Thermal Camera
Figure 2.2 Working of a Thermal Imaging Camera 8
Figure 2.3 Target Appearance to an IR seeker 9
Figure 2.4 Relative (normalized to the maximum) emission and absorption 11
spectra of the atmospheric exchange energy
Figure 2.5 Absorption Spectra of various atmospheric molecules 12
Figure 2.6 Absorptivity of Atmospheric Gases 13
Figure 2.7 Vibration Modes of Carbon Dioxide 14
Figure 3.1 Results Obtained through Planck’s Radiation Law 22
Figure 3.2 Results Obtained through Stefan Boltzmann Law 22
Figure 3.3 Effect of Emissivity on Planck’s Radiation Law 23
Figure 3.4 Effect of Emissivity on Stefan Boltzmann Law 24
Figure 3.5 Comparison of Radiation Laws at Emissivity values 0.3, 25
0.55, 0.8 and 1 respectively
Figure 3.6 Plot of Error in calculated temperature values with Temperature 28
with varying emissivity
Figure 3.7 Plot of Error values with Temperature when emissivity is varied 30
Figure 3.8 GUI for Cumulative Histogram Analysis of Thermal Image 33
Figure 4.1 GUI Screen accepting input parameters 37
Figure 4.2 Precipitation as a function of temperature 39
Figure 4.3 A section of Passman and Larmore table showing Spectral 40
Transmittance through water vapor
Figure 4.4 A section of Passman and Larmore table showing Spectral 41
Transmittance through Carbon Dioxide
Figure 4.5 Implementation of Atmospheric Model using GUI 45
CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), established in 1942, is an autonomous

body and the largest research and development (R&D) organization in India. It runs 37
laboratories and 39 field stations or extension centers spread across the nation, with a
collective staff of over 17000.Although it is mainly funded by the Ministry of Science and
Technology, it operates as an autonomous body registered under the Registration of Societies
Act of 1860.

1.1 NECESSITY

After independence, the need for improving the living standards of the common man by
promoting industry and for helping the industry to solve its problems through stimulus of
scientific research was greatly stressed. The Council, through its constituent laboratories, has
helped the country in increasing the economic growth and industrialization. The Council has
also helped the creation of new schools of research and in enlarging facilities for research by
means of grants, training of research personnel, etc.

1.2 ABOUT CSIO

Central Scientific Instruments Organization (CSIO), a constituent unit of Council of

Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), is a premier national laboratory dedicated to
research, design and development of scientific and industrial instruments. It is a multi-
disciplinary and multi-dimensional apex industrial research & development organization in
the country to stimulate growth of Instrument Industry in India covering wide range and
applications.

CSIO is a multi-disciplinary organization having well equipped laboratories manned by

highly qualified and well trained staff with infrastructural facilities in the areas of Agrionics;
Medical Instrumentation and Prosthetic Devices; Optics and Cockpit based Instrumentation;
Fiber/Laser Optics based Sensors & Instrumentation; Analytical Instrumentation; Advanced
Materials based Transducers etc. Large number of instruments ranging from simple to highly
sophisticated ones, have been designed and developed by the Institute and their know-hows

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have been passed on to the industry for commercial exploitation. Having contributed
substantially towards the growth of the scientific instruments industry in the country, CSIO
enjoys high degree of credibility among the users of the instruments as well as the instrument
industry.

1.3 MISSION

 To carry out research in niche areas of measurement sciences and innovative

instrumentation technology for strategic and societal applications.
 To provide quality services and human resource development in advanced
instrumentation.
 To emerge as a global player in the field of instrumentation sciences.

1.4 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Figure 1.1: Organizational Structure of CSIO

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1.5 ABOUT COMPUTATIONAL INSTRUMENTATION

Computational Instrumentation (CI) is an interdisciplinary engineering specialty motivated

by an emerging revolutionary impact of computing on engineering analysis and design.
Through the use of embedded computational intelligence in instruments facilitated scientists
to solve critical problems and new findings in turn enable the development of more powerful
and sometimes novel instruments. Computational Instrumentation simply means
Computational Processing and Analysis and Visualization of data for an end application
result rather than mere means to a purpose. Computational Instrumentation at CSIO implies
treatment and analysis of sensing and measuring parameters with the higher level objectives
of Inspection, Monitoring, Prediction, Forecasting, Recognition, and Diagnosis. The sensing
could be carried out using Arrays, Imaging and Sensor Networks. The computing techniques
those are exhaustively to deployed are: Sensor Fusion / Multi-sensor data fusion, High-
dimensional Data Acquisition, Visualization, Data Mining, Navigation, Pattern Recognition,
Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic, Linguistic Computing and Granular Computing,
Machine Intelligence, Computational Intelligence.

Ongoing projects

 Predictive Maintenance using Infrared Thermography

Infrared thermography is a tool that has become more and more widely used for
preventative maintenance on mechanical and electrical systems over time. It takes
advantage of the infrared radiation properties to extract useful conclusions for the
condition of the equipment under test.
 Fault Detection using Infrared Imaging Technique
Infrared thermography is a vital tool to inspect, control and optimize metallurgic
production processes and installations. As contactless and reliable tools, thermal
cameras provide temperature readings across an entire surface area instead of just at a
few single points. In addition, thermal cameras allow workers to spot potential
problems faster, safer and easier and avert unscheduled shutdowns and failures.
 Earthquake Warning System for Delhi Metro
CSIO has installed five sensors across different metro locations comprising of seismic
warning systems with LAN connectivity with the DMRC network for generation of
alarm signal on major earthquake. The sensor also has a highly sensitive pendulum
which oscillates whenever a vibration is felt inside the earth. They send signals about

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 any seismic activity and communicate it to the central control located at Operation
Control Centre (DMRC-OCC) regarding potential earthquake incidence.
 Direction of Arrival Estimation using Acoustic signals.
Direction of arrival estimates the direction of approaching em waves or acoustic
waves striking on sensor or antenna array. It is used in defense and military
applications to locate and track signal sources.
 Infrared Homing Device
Infrared Homing guidance is a passive weapon guidance system which makes use of
the infrared (IR) light emission from a target to track and follow it. Missiles which use
infrared seeking are often referred to as "Heat-seekers", since infrared is radiated
strongly by hot bodies.[1]

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CHAPTER -2
PREREQUISITES

Infrared Radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation which extends from the nominal red
edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nm to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a
frequency range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz.

Infrared is usually divided into three spectral regions: near, mid and far infrared. The
boundaries between the near, mid and far infrared regions can vary depending upon the type
of detector technology used for gathering infrared light.[2]

Figure 2.1: Visible and the corresponding thermal image captured using thermal camera

Spectral Region Wavelength Region (Microns) Frequency Range (THz)

Visible .4 to .7 430 to 770

Near Infrared 0.7 to 1 430 to 300

Mid Infrared 1 to 5 300 to 60

Far-Infrared 7.5-15 40 to 20

Table 2.1: Spectral Range of Infrared Regions with respect to thermal imaging applications

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2.1WHAT IS INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY?

Infrared thermography is the science of detecting infrared energy emitted from an object,
converting it to apparent temperature, and displaying the result as an infrared image. Infrared
radiation is produced by all warm-blooded animals and all objects with temperatures above
absolute zero; there is no atomic and molecular activity at absolute zero. As the temperature
increases, atomic and molecular activity increases, more heat or thermal radiation is
produced, and thereby more infrared radiation is emitted.[3]

2.2LAWS GOVERNING THERMAL RADIATION

1. Planck’s Radiation Law

Planck's law describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation emitted by
a black body in thermal equilibrium at a given temperature T or Planck’s Law
calculates the radiation energy emitted by a blackbody as a function of frequency (or
wavelength) and temperature T, per unit surface area.[4]
Planck’s Radiation is given by the relation,

𝑹 𝜫
=
𝝀 𝝀− [ − ]
𝝀𝑻

𝑹
Where, 𝝀
is the spectral exitance or spectral radiance which is equivalent to power per
unit area per unit solid angle per unit wavelength.[5][6]

h, Planck’s constant= 6.62 X 10-34 J.s

c, speed of light= 3 X 108 ms-1

𝜆, wavelength of the radiation in meters

k, Boltzmann Constant= 1.38 X 10-23 JK-1

T is absolute temperature in Kelvin

Modification of Planck’s Law considering emissivity

Emissivity is defined as the Ratio of radiation emitted by a surface at a specified

wavelength to radiation emitted by a perfectly black body at same wavelength and
temperature.[7]

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 Value of emissivity varies from 0 to 1 (0 for a highly shiny surface and 1 for a perfectly
black body). Material properties of a given body can be measured to calculate its
emissivity.

𝑹 𝜫
= ∗
𝝀 𝝀− [ − ]
𝝀𝑻

Where, e is emissivity of the body.[8]

2. Stefan Boltzmann Law

This law states that the total energy radiated by a body per unit surface area of a black
body across all wavelengths per unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power of
the black body’s temperature, where temperature must be in Kelvin.
Law can be expressed mathematically as,
𝑹 = 𝝈𝑻

Where, R is the total radiation emitted by the body.[9]

T is the absolute temperature of the body.
This law is derived through Planck’s radiation law by integrating the relation over the
entire wavelength range.

Modification of Stefan’s Boltzmann Law considering emissivity

𝑹= ∗ 𝝈𝑻

Where, e is emissivity of the body.[10]

2.3HOW THERMAL IMAGING WORKS?

i. A special lens focuses the infrared light emitted by all of the objects in view.

ii. The focused light is scanned by a phased array of infrared-detector elements. The
detector elements create a very detailed temperature pattern called a thermogram. It
only takes about one-thirtieth of a second for the detector array to obtain the
temperature information to make the thermogram. This information is obtained from
several thousand points in the field of view of the detector array.

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 iii. The thermogram created by the detector elements is translated into electric
impulses.

iv. The impulses are sent to a signal-processing unit, a circuit board with a dedicated
chip that translates the information from the elements into data for the display.

v. The signal-processing unit sends the information to the display, where it appears as
various colors depending on the intensity of the infrared emission. The combination
of all the impulses from all of the elements creates the image.[11]

Figure 2.2: Working of a Thermal Imaging Camera[12]

2.4INFRARED HOMING

Infrared Homing is a passive guidance system which uses the Infrared (IR) light emission
from a target to track and follow it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to
as "heat-seekers", since infrared is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as
people, vehicle engines and aircraft generate and emit heat, and as such, are especially visible
in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background. Infrared Seekers
are passive devices, which, unlike radar, provide no indication that they are tracking a target.

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This makes them suitable for sneak attacks during visual encounters, or over long ranges
when used with a forward looking infrared system. This makes heat-seekers extremely
deadly; 90% of all United States air combat losses over the past 25 years have been due to
infrared homing missiles.[13]

At its most basic level, an Infrared Search and Track system is an infrared energy detection
device or an IR (Infrared) Camera that is usually employed in a spherical glass enclosure on
the front of a fighter aircraft. The Infrared Camera in the seeker works like a normal camera
except that IR Camera forms image using Infrared Radiation. The camera scans the airspace
ahead of the missile for heat signatures caused by engines installed in enemy objects.

Figure 2.3: Target appearance to an IR seeker[14]

Object Tracking: It is defined as the process of tracking the object of interest over a time by
locating its position in every frame of the video. The main aim of the object tracking is to
generate the trajectory of the moving object by locating its position in every frame. Tracking
the object also gives the region occupied by the object in every frame.

In warfare, the missile has to track its enemy object and fire it. The mechanism of Target
Detection in Infrared Seeker involves the tracking of an enemy object all through its way and
gives the information to the missile to fire it down. [Polar plot is used to visualize the
movement of the object in X and Y axis.]

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The MATLAB program corresponding to Target Detection in IR Seeker consists of three
algorithms as stated below:

 Sum of Absolute Difference Algorithm

This section involves the separation of background image from the target using absolute
difference function in MATLAB. (Noises will still remain within the image.)

 Square Mean Quantization Technique

Normalization is used to suppress the noises completely thereby enhancing the target.

Resultant Image = Normalized Intensity*Average value of frame obtained

 Otsu’s method

The above method is used to remove all the pixels whose value is less than an average
pixel value so that we can ‘zero in’ on the desired target.

The next task is to determine the centroid of the image obtained by using the MATLAB
function ‘region props’. This will be used to obtain the coordinates of centroid which
will in turn be used to find out the region of interest box (ROI).[15]

2.5 INFRARED TRANSMISSION THROUGH ATMOSPHERE

The Earth’s atmosphere is an absorbing medium of extraordinary temporal and spatial

variability. The absorption of infrared waves in the atmosphere depends strongly on several
parameters such as pressure, temperature, etc. The effects of atmosphere can be summarized
as a lowering of target’s intensity over a distance and the introduction of systematic and
positional errors at large distances.

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 Figure 2.4: Relative (normalized to the maximum) emission and absorption spectra of the
atmospheric exchange energy[16]

Mechanisms affecting atmospheric transmission

Atmosphere basically affects Infrared energy in five different ways namely

 Self-absorption by atmospheric gases or molecules

 Continuum Absorption
 Scattering by particles
 Atmospheric turbulence (Scintillation/ Refraction)
 Surface Reflectance

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1.Self-absorption

Molecular absorption, that is, attenuation of electromagnetic radiation by the mechanism of

molecules absorbing quanta of energy from transmitted Infrared is of prime significance in
propagation in the atmosphere.Absorption of energy leads to

 Electronic Transitions in the case of Ultra-violet (UV), Visible and Near Infrared
spectra
 Transition in Vibrational states for Middle Infrared spectra
 Alteration of rotational states for Near Infrared Spectra

Self-absorption depends upon local temperature of the atmosphere and the atmospheric
contributors towards infrared absorption are water vapors, ozone molecules, oxygen
molecules, carbon dioxide and Nitric Oxide. Some other constituents of atmosphere may also
lead to attenuation but whose significance is very less as compared to others. The atmosphere
is known to be a selective absorber. In the infrared bands, there are two transmission
windows ranging from 3-5 um and 8-14 um. Infrared missile seekers are designed to work in
these windows.[17]

Figure 2.5: Absorption Spectra of various atmospheric molecules [18]

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 Figure 2.6: Absorptivity of Atmospheric Gases[12]

Affected region of spectra Contributor

Gap occurs at 0.3 um Ozone
Weak absorption bands from 0.24um to Oxygen
0.65um
2.6um, 5.5-7.5um, >20um Water Vapor
2.7, 4.3 and 15 um Carbon Dioxide

Table 2.2: Absorption bands of different constituents of atmosphere

The two major constituents of the atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen, which consist of two
atoms without dipole moments and therefore have no infrared absorption bands. The two, by
importance, outstanding contributors to gas absorption are carbon dioxide, CO2 and water
vapor H2O which absorb whole bands of wavelengths. Other contributors are Ozone,
Methane, Nitrogen, Nitrous Oxide etc.

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Points worth noting:

 Water Vapor results in strong and broad absorption bands.

 Carbon dioxide, being an asymmetric linear molecule with comparatively heavy atoms
leads to a narrower and more compact spectral range than water vapor.
Carbon dioxide has three vibration modes V1, V2 and V3.

Figure 2.7: Vibration Modes of Carbon Dioxide [12]

V2 causes a broad absorption band at 15 um which coincide with the water bands.
V3 causes 100% absorption at 4.3 um thereby dividing the transmission window 3-5 um
into two parts.
Carbon Dioxide also has few other absorption bands at 9.5 um and 10.5 um.
 Ozone, O3, is an asymmetric top polar molecule. The vibration mode V3 causes an
absorption peak with approximately 60% absorption at 9.6 um in the middle of the 8-12
um window.
The other ozone absorption in the IR area drowns in the water band 5.5-7.5 um.
 CH4, Methane, is a spherical-top, non-polar molecule with three IR active rotational
bands located at 3.3, 6.5 and 7.7 um.
Concentrations of Carbon dioxide, Nitrous Oxide, Carbon Mono-oxide, Oxygen, Nitrogen
and Methane can be considered as constant whereas the concentration of water vapor vary
greatly in time and space. Concentration of water vapor can be measured using chemical,
electrical or spectroscopic methods.

2. Continuum Absorption

This kind of absorption has small variations with wavelength, without any absorption peaks,
in difference with the line absorption. These effects may be caused by a summation of the
tails of the absorption lines in the absorption bands.

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3. Scattering

Scattering is basically redirecting photons. Undesired photons from background are directed
onto the sensor thereby reducing the contrast between object and background which is
independent of spatial frequency. Photons from our object of interest can disappear from the
sensory field of view.

Scattering is basically caused by molecules and aerosol in the air. It depends upon the size of
particles. Aerosols and molecules have different impact on the atmospheric transmission
because of their size difference. Aerosols are larger in size whereas molecules are somewhat
smaller. Normally, attenuation caused by the aerosols is the most important scattering
contribution in the infrared wavelength band because of their size. Phenomenon of scattering
is studied using geometric optics or Rayleigh approach if size of particle is greater than
wavelength of radiation whereas, if wavelength is comparable to the particle size then it is
treated using diffraction theory and can be analyzed using Mie theory of scattering.

Clouds and fog contain droplets around 1um in size resulting in extremely low transmission
through most of the Infrared band. Rain droplets are much larger resulting in better IR
transmission through it.

4.Atmospheric Turbulence

Solar radiations when trapped inside the atmospheric layers leads to an increase in
temperature which in turn varies the gas density of gas and leads to phenomenon such as
refraction (can be either partial or total).

Scintillation/ Refraction:-

Radiation is refracted, in the same way as light through a lens, due to the refractive index of
the atmosphere. This refractive index is dependent upon the current temperature. The
refraction induces directional errors and these effects are pronounced at long ranges and low
altitudes over land or sea.

(n − 1)tp = (n − 1)s × 0.00138823 p/(1 + 0.003671 t)

With p in torr, t in °C,

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Refraction is also defined using refractive modulus N which is a function of both wavelength
and density and is different for dry air and water vapor. Formula for N consists of parameters
such as total pressure in mb, wavelength in micrometers and temperature T in Kelvin.

5. Surface Reflectance

A fraction of light beam that is incident on the earth’s surface or on clouds will be reflected
back into the atmosphere where it may undergo further scattering and absorption. The
percentage of light reflected from natural terrain or water surfaces varies with angle of
incidence and look angle and is also a function of wavelength of the radiation.[19, 20]

Parameters affecting Atmospheric Transmission

1.Pressure
2. Temperature
3.Angle of Incidence
4.Particle Size
5.Altitude
6.Wavelength
7.Geometry of gaseous molecules (Dipole moment)
8.Distance travelled by the radiation in absorbing medium.

2.6TOOLS USED FOR IMPLEMENTATION

1. FLIR Tools

FLIR Systems is the world's largest commercial company specializing in the design and
production of thermal imaging cameras, components and imaging sensors. FLIR took its
name from the acronym for forward-looking Infrared. FLIR Tools/Tools+ is a software suite
specifically designed to provide an easy way to update your camera and create inspection
reports. [21]

What can we do using FLIR Tools/ Tools+?

• Import images from your camera to your computer.

• Apply filters when searching for images.
• Lay out, move, and resize measurement tools on any infrared image.
• Group and ungroup files.

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 • Create panoramas by stitching several smaller images into a larger one.
• Create PDF image sheets of any images of your choice.
• Add headers, footers, and logos to image sheets.
• Create PDF/Microsoft Word reports for images of your choice.
• Add headers, footers, and logos to reports.
• Update your camera with the latest firmware.

2. MATLAB

MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical computing environment and

fourth-generation programming language. A proprietary programming language developed
by MathWorks, MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data ,
implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs
written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, C#, Fortran and Python.[22]

Why to use MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory)?

MATLAB has several advantages over other methods or languages:

 Its basic data element is the matrix. A simple integer is considered a matrix of one row
and one column. Several mathematical operations that work on arrays or matrices are
built-in to the MATLAB environment. For example, cross-products, dot-products,
determinants, inverse matrices.
 Vectorised operations: Adding two arrays together needs only one command, instead of a
“for” or “while” loop.
 The graphical output is optimized for interaction. You can plot your data very easily, and
then change colors, sizes, scales, etc., by using the graphical interactive tools.
 MATLAB’s functionality can be greatly expanded by the addition of toolboxes. These are
sets of specific functions that provided more specialized functionality. Ex: Excel link
allows data to be written in a format recognized by Excel, Statistics Toolbox allows more
specialized statistical manipulation of data (Anova, Basic Fits, etc.)
 MATLAB provides a platform for pictorial interface to a program known as GUI.

What is a GUI?

A GUI or A Graphical User Interface provide point and click control of software
applications, eliminating the need to learn a language or type commands in order to run the

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application. A good GUI can make programs easier to use by providing them with a
consistent appearance and with intuitive controls like pushbuttons, list boxes, sliders, menus,
and so forth.

A Graphical User Interface provides the user with a familiar environment containing
pushbuttons, toggle buttons, lists, menus, text boxes, and so forth so that he can concentrate
on using the application rather than on the mechanics involved in doing things.

However, GUIs are harder for the programmer because a GUI- based program must be
prepared for mouse clicks (or possibly keyboard input) for any GUI element at any time.
Such inputs are known as events, and a program that responds to events is said to be event
driven. The three principal elements required to create a MATLAB Graphical User Interface
are

 Components: Each item on a MATLAB GUI (pushbuttons, labels, edit boxes etc.) is a
graphical component. The types of components include graphical controls, static
elements, menus and axed.

 Figures: The components of a GUI must be arranged within a figure, which is a window
on the computer screen.

 Callbacks: Finally, there must be some way to perform an action if a user clicks a mouse
on a button or types information on a keyboard. A mouse click or a key press is an event,
and the MATLAB program must be respond to each event if the program is to perform its
function. For example, if a user clicks on a button, that event must cause the MATLAB
code that implements the function of the button to be executed. The code executed in
response to an event is known as a call back. There must be a call back to implement the
function of each graphical component on the GUI.

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 WORKFLOW

1. Section 1

Implementation of Radiation Laws on a Thermal Image

Analyzing the effect of emissivity on obtained results

Emissivity Corrections using MATLAB

2. Section 2

Determination of factors affecting Infrared Transmission

through atmosphere

Examining the effect of Molecular absorption on Infrared

Transmission

Developing an Atmospheric Infrared Radiance and

Transmission Band Model

Model Execution using MATLAB (GUI)

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CHAPTER- 3
IMPLEMENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RADIATION LAWS

Infrared Emission from a body is the foundation of Infrared Homing. All matter with a
temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. At temperature above absolute
zero, inter atomic collisions cause the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules to change.
This results in charge- acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic
radiation, and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and
accelerations that occur even at a single temperature. For Infrared Radiation, there are two
basic "laws" that describe the type and amount of energy being emitted by an object.

Thermal Images are captured using FLIR Camera. In order to extract useful information out
of it, it is vital to understand the law governing FLIR cameras for image capture. For the
above said, both the laws were first implemented on MATLAB. For such an implementation,
it is required to convert an image into its CSV format.

What is a CSV format?

A CSV is a comma separated values file which allows data to be saved in a table structured
format. CSVs look like a garden-variety spreadsheet but with a ‘.csv’ extension.

FLIR Tools are used to export the per-pixel raw image data into floating point temperature
values thereby converting the image into a matrix of comma separated values which allows
the user to read them in MATLAB easily and manipulate it in the necessary way to draw
conclusions using external software.

Procedure to convert image into its CSV format:

1) On the Library tab, double-click an image

2) Right-click the image and select Export image as *.csv file. You can now open the file
in Microsoft Excel.

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3.1 REALIZATION OF RADIATION LAWS

MATLAB Code for Realizing Radiation Laws

%% Loading Input Variables into MATLAB memory

data= load('data.csv');
num_rows = size(data,1);
num_cols = size(data,2);
planck = randn(num_rows, num_cols);

% Defining Constants
c = 3.0E+8; % Speed of electromagnetic Radiation in vacuum
h = 6.6199999999999993E-34; % Planck’s constant
k = 1.3799999999999998E-23; % Boltzmann constant

%% Planck's Radiation Law

for i=1:1:num_rows
for j=1:1:num_cols
symsT;
symsLam;
T= data(i,j);
𝑹 𝜫
%Planck’s radiation law: =
𝝀 𝝀− [ − ]
𝝀𝑻

planck(i,j) = int((2*h*c*c)./((Lam^5)*(exp((h*c)./(k*T*Lam))-1)),Lam,1,2);
end;
end;

%% Stefen Boltzmann Law

Temp= load ('data.csv');
stefanLaw= randn(240,320);
% Stefan Boltzmann Law: 𝑹 = 𝝈𝑻
stefanLaw= 5.67*10^-8.*Temp.^4;

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Figure 3.1: Results Obtained through Planck’s Radiation Law

Figure 3.2: Results Obtained through Stefan Boltzmann Law

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Results obtained through the implementation of both the radiation laws for a given
range of wavelength differ from each other. Reason behind such a distinction is
explained below:

Planck’s Law calculates the amount of energy emitted at a specific value of wavelength by a
body at temperature T (K). Radiation emitted is considered to be a function of both
temperature and wavelength.

In contrast, Stefan Boltzmann Law calculates the total energy emitted by a body at all
wavelengths. Stefan Boltzmann Law is derived by integrating Planck’s Law over the entire
range of wavelengths therefore it is only a function of temperature.

3.2 ANALYZING THE EFFECT OF EMISSIVITY

Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the energy radiated from a material's surface to that
radiated from a blackbody (a perfect emitter) at the same temperature and wavelength and
under the same viewing conditions.

Effect of emissivity on laws of radiation

Figure 3.3: Effect of Emissivity on Planck’s Radiation Law

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 Figure 3.4: Effect of Emissivity on Stefan Boltzmann Law

Inference:

With increase in emissivity, the amount of radiation emitted by a grey body at a particular
temperature keeps on increasing which can also be verified by the increase in slope of the
curves shown above.

This conclusion complies with the mathematical equation of both Stefan Boltzmann Law and
Planck’s Radiation Law which states that emissivity is in direct relationship with the
radiation being emitted by the body.

𝑹 𝜫
Planck’s Radiation Law: = ∗
𝝀 𝝀− [ − ]
𝝀𝑻

Stefan Boltzmann Law: 𝑹= ∗ 𝝈𝑻

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3.3 COMPARISON OF LAWS AT DIFFERENT VALUES OF EMISSIVITY

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 3.5: Comparison of Radiation Laws at Emissivity

Values 0.3, 0.55, 0.8 and 1 Respectively

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3.4 EMISSIVITY CORRECTION USING MATLAB

Once a thermal image is converted into its corresponding “csv” format, one gets to know
about the temperature values associated with each pixel. In FLIR Tools, there is a provision
to change the value of emissivity from the one that was being used while capturing images
through the camera. Eventually, the image in accordance with the new value of emissivity is
being displayed from which one can extract the new temperature values for each pixel. Such
an image generation process takes into account the fact that the total radiation being emitted
by the body remains constant at both the values.

The same approach was being used in MATLAB as well. The radiation was considered
constant for both the emissivity values and the corresponding equation thus formed was
solved to calculate the final temperature values.

To confirm the validity of the approach, the temperature matrices computed using the above
mentioned methods was compared and the error was noted down. This comparison resulted in
some unexpected variations from the one that was being computed using FLIR tools.

Figure 3.6 (a)

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Figure 3.6 (b)

Figure 3.6 (c)

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 Figure 3.6 (d)

Figure 3.6: Plot of Error in calculated temperature values with Temperature with
varying emissivity

Inference:

Percentage Error between the temperature values calculated using MATLAB and the one
determined using FLIR software keeps on increasing with the increase in difference between
the initial and final values of emissivities.

Emissivity Correction in Stefan Boltzmann Law

Temperature is one of the most frequently measured physical quantities. Temperature

measurement provides information about the object internal energy, so its regulations and
control is of vital importance in many industrial processes.

Temperature measurement using IRT measures the infrared radiation emitted by an object
and converts the energy detected into a temperature value. However, as not all of the
radiation received comes from the target object, to measure temperature accurately, radiation
from other sources (such as surrounding objects or the atmosphere) must be removed in the
conversion of temperature. This process is called compensation.[3]

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If emissivity is varied from a value e1 to e2 then the corresponding temperature of theobject
as measured by the FLIR Camera also changes which in turn alters the radiation emitted by
the body.

An equation is known so as to calculate the final temperature in case of emissivity variation

which has been described below:

Formula to calculate Temperature of sensor, 𝑻 is

𝑻 =[ ∗𝑻 + − ∗𝑻 ]

Where, is the Initial Emissivity

𝑻 is the background temperature
𝑻_ isthe Temperature of a pixel extracted through the csv file of the thermal image.

𝑻 is one of the properties determined using FLIR Tools.

Formula to calculate Final Temperature of object, 𝑻 is

𝑻 − − ∗𝑻
𝑻 =[ ]

Where, is the Final Emissivity

𝑻 is the background temperature

𝑻 is the temperature derived using the above formula

After calculating the final temperature using the above mentioned formulas, radiation emitted
by the body can be calculated usingStefan Boltzmann law with 𝑻 in place of T

(Temperature).

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 Figure 3.7 (a)

Figure 3.7 (b)

Figure 3.7: Plot of Error values with Temperature when emissivity is varied

In the plots above, ‘no correction’ depicts the temperature values extracted from the thermal
image in FLIR software by varying the value of emissivity. ‘With Correction’ represents the
temperature values calculated using the formulas presented above and ‘Partial correction’
means using Stefan Boltzmann Law with the initial temperature as the one calculated using
formula mentioned above.

The above graphs clearly indicate the deviation of temperature values from the one
determined using FLIR software.

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Emissivity Correction in Planck’s Radiation Law

A band limited version of Planck’s law can be used for the emissivity correction. The band
limiting is based on the 8um to 14 um band.

Sakuma Hattori Equation: The Sakuma- Hattori equation gives the electromagnetic signal
from thermal radiation on an object’s temperature.

When using the Sakuma Hattori equation, always convert the temperature values to Kelvins.
The values of the constants are shown for the 8 um to 14 um band. The measurement
equation is as follows:[23]

𝐶
= 𝑐2
exp 𝑇+
−

Where:
A: Constant [9.364 um for the 8-14 um band]
B: Constant [178.4 um.K for the 8-14 um band]
C: Constant [1.0]
c2: Constant [14387.752 um.K]
T: Temperature [in K]
S (T): Radiometric Signal

3.5CUMULATIVE HISTOGRAM ANALYSIS OF THERMAL IMAGE IN

TEMPERATURE DOMAIN

Histogram is a diagram consisting of rectangles whose area is proportional to the frequency

of a variable and whose width if equal to the class interval. To construct a histogram from a
variable, we first need to split the data into intervals, called bins. Each bin contains the
number of occurrence of values in the data set that are contained within that bin.

A cumulative histogram is a mapping that counts the cumulative number of observations in

all of the bins up to the specified bin.

The format required for the analysis of such image is “csv” so as to extract the temperature
values corresponding to each pixel in the image.

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The major reason behind such an analysis is to give an idea to the user about the frequency of
pixels having a temperature value lying within a specified temperature range. Such type of
computation involves certain steps with its first one being the conversion of an image into its
csv format in order to extract the temperature value for each pixel. After this, the entire
matrix has to be scanned to determine the minimum and maximum values of temperature in
the image. Corresponding to the above values, the user is asked to enter the interval size for
each bin in histogram. Simultaneously, an array will be formed with each cell carrying the
number of points lying within the range evaluated using the interval size defined by the user.
Array reversal has to be done next as means to generate a cumulative histogram.

In the context of thermal image, the information which can be extracted from the cumulative
histogram is the number of pixels whose temperature value lies within a given range.

Accomplishment of this task has been done by creating a GUI in MATLAB which accepts
necessary inputs from the user and displays the intermediate results and the histogram
eventually formed.

Figure 3.8 (a)

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 Figure 3.8 (b)

Figure 3.8 (c)

Figure 3.8: GUI for Cumulative Histogram Analysis of Thermal Image

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CHAPTER- 4
ATMOSPHERIC MODELLING USING MATLAB

The Earth is surrounded by the atmosphere, a circumstance that is in fact essential for almost
on life on this planet. The atmosphere consists of gases and particles and reaches out 500 km
from the surface of the earth.

The Earth’s atmosphere can be defined as an absorbing medium of extraordinary temporal

and spatial variability. The absorption of visible and infrared waves in the atmosphere
depends strongly on the pressure, temperature, and the concentration of the absorbing gases.
Each of these quantities varies with altitude, in time, and as a function of geographical region
within broad limits.[24]The range of an optical sensor in search of a distant object depends
upon the amount of radiation able to penetrate the atmosphere between the object and the
sensor which in turn depends upon these quantities. The emitted infrared energy is attenuated
by the atmosphere, whereas temperature gradients and turbulence create inhomogeneities in
the refractive index of the air, all of which tend to degrade the image quality. [25]Finally,
[17]
atmosphere is itself a source of radiation. Without knowing the patterns of variations of
these elements, no problem that requires quantitative data on the absorption of infrared waves
in the atmosphere can be solved.

Mechanisms affecting atmospheric transmission

Atmosphere basically affects Infrared energy in five different ways namely

 Self-absorption by atmospheric gases or molecules

 Continuum Absorption
 Scattering by particles
 Atmospheric turbulence (Scintillation/ Refraction)
 Surface Reflectance

4.1FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS AFFECTING INFRARED TRANSMISSION

1. Pressure

 Pressure leads to the variation in refractive index.

 Density of gas is directly proportional to pressure.

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 Broadening of Spectral lines as a result of high pressure, of the emitting or absorbing
material. The greater the density and pressure, the greater the width of the spectral lines. This
phenomenon is known as Pressure Broadening. [26]

2. Temperature

 Gas Density is inversely proportional to temperature.

 Temperature leads to the variation in refractive index.
 Temperature causes atmospheric turbulence.
 Self-Absorption is dependent on temperature.

3. Partial Pressure of Water Vapor

 Change in Partial Pressure leads to a change in the refractive index of the medium.

4. Wavelength

 Index of refraction depends upon the wavelength of the signal.

 Absorption is the most wavelength selective attenuation effect.
 Rayleigh scattering is proportional to the inverse fourth power of the wavelength.

5. Geometry of Gaseous Molecules

 Geometry of the gaseous molecules decides the dipole moment associated with it and
the corresponding absorption spectra.

6. Distance Travelled

 Infrared Absorption depends upon the distance travelled by the signal in atmosphere.

7. Altitude

 Refraction is more pronounced at low altitudes over land and sea.

 Spectral Absorption bands become narrower with increasing altitude.
 Ozone Concentration increases with altitude thereby leading to more absorption.

8. Particle size

 Decides the amount of scattering involved during the infrared transmission.

9. Angle of Incidence

 Deciding factor for Surface Reflectance

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Important relationships to validate above points[27]

−
1. 𝑵 = +[ . + . + . ]∗
𝝀 𝝀

Where, N is the index of refraction

𝜆is the wavelength of radiation

[ . ] −
− ( )
. = + − .
. + . +

Where, p is atmospheric pressure in mm Hg

t is temperature in Celsius

e is the vapor pressure in mm Hg

𝜆is the wavelength in um

n is the refractive index of air

4.2 INPUT PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR ATMOSPHERIC MODELING

Certain user defined parameters are required for the execution of atmosphere modelling
which are as follows:

 Upper and lower bound of wavelength over which the analysis has to be done.
Wavelength entered by the user should be in mircometers.

Wavelength can either vary from 0.3 to 6.9 um or 7 to 13.9 um.

 Value of emissivity used while capturing images through Camera. Emissivity can vary
between 0 and 1.

 Distance Travelled by the radiation expressed in kilometers

 Atmospheric temperature in oC

 Relative Humidity of atmosphere. Being a ratioed term, relative humidity can take on
values ranging from 0 to 1.

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 Figure 4.1: GUI Screen accepting input parameters for Atmospheric Modeling

4.3METHODS FOR CALCULATING ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION

Atmospheric Transmittance is made up of a number of contributions, including those due to

water vapor and carbon dioxide. In general, calculations of atmospheric transmission must
take into account the structural parameters of absorption bands, including the band width, the
number of spectral lines within each band, the number of lines with the same intensity, etc.
There are few methods of modelling molecular absorption that employ these parameters.

1.The Line by Line method

This method is based on a procedure of combining a very large number of facts on the
molecular structure of the atmosphere and on the position in the spectrum of all possible
lines. The transmission spectrum is obtained by averaging such data over constant spectral
intervals.

2. The Band Model Method

Here the intensities and positions of absorption lines are assumed to have a distribution that
can be described by a simple mathematical model, and absorption is once again obtained by
averaging over a given band.

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3.The Multiparametric Model

This relies on a polynomial representation of absorption.

4. Practical method for calculating atmospheric transmission

A method that allows the coefficient of atmospheric transmission to be extracted from plots
of basic meteorological parameters such as air temperature, relative humidity and visibility.
The model covers the wavelength range of 0.3 and 13.9 um.

Total transmittance over a distance D is expressed as the ratio of the received flux 𝐹 to the
incident flux 𝐹𝑖.
𝐹
𝜏=
𝐹𝑖
𝜏is the product of two terms representing fundamental causes of attenuation of radiation in
the atmosphere, i.e. molecular absorption and scattering of particles in the atmosphere.
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑚 ∗ 𝜏
𝜏𝑚denotes the molecular absorption which comprises of two further terms i.e. τH2Oand τCO2
Therefore,
𝜏𝑚 =τH2O* τCO2

τH2OandτCO2are important to be considered in case of a horizontal path.

τH2Odepends upon

 Nature of molecular transitions that is responsible for selective absorption spectrum.

 Temperature and Total pressure of gas mixture that governs the spectral width of
absorption lines due to molecular collisions and the Doppler Effect.

 Number of absorbing molecules which in turn depends on

o Partial Pressure of the Water Vapor

o Distance D travelled by radiation in absorbing medium

This is often represented by the height of water that can precipitate over a distance D. It is
defined as the height of the cylinder cross section S whose volume is that of a liquid obtained
by the condensation of the water vapor contained in an air cylinder of cross section S and
length D.

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τCO2is only a function of distance travelled by the radiation. Concentration of gaseous CO2 in
atmosphere is almost independent of pressure at zero altitude.

Determination of τH2O

Absorption by atmospheric water vapor depends; firstly, on the number of absorbing

molecules, i.e. on the partial pressure of water vapor, and the distance D travelled by
radiation in the absorbing medium. This is often represented by the height of water that can
precipitate over a distance D. It is defined as the height h of the cylinder of cross section S
whose volume is that of the liquid obtained by condensation of the water vapor contained in
an air cylinder of cross section S and length D.

There is a relation between the height of the cylinder with water h, temperature Tatmand
relative humidity RH %. [Relative Humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of
water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature.]

An approximation of a graph was obtained using of Newton Method and its dependency on
relative humidity RH and distance was taken into consideration according to the
formula.[28] , 𝑹𝑯 = . .𝑻 + . .𝑻 + . .𝑻 +
. 𝑹𝑯.

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 Figure 4.2: Precipitation as a function of temperature

A variety of experimental and calculated estimates provide the transmittance TH2O as a

function of wavelength and height of precipitable water over the distance travelled. Here we
are using the results of Passman and Larmore (published in Atmospheric transmission, rand
paper, p. 897, Santa Monica, California, the Rand Corporation, 11 July 1956).

0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

0.3 0.98 0.972 0.955 0.937 0.911 0.86 0.802 0.723 0.574 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.012
0.4 0.98 0.972 0.955 0.937 0.911 0.86 0.802 0.723 0.574 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.012
0.5 0.986 0.98 0.968 0.956 0.937 0.901 0.861 0.804 0.695 0.579 0.433 0.215 0.079
0.6 0.99 0.986 0.977 0.968 0.955 0.929 0.9 0.86 0.779 0.692 0.575 0.375 0.21
0.7 0.991 0.987 0.98 0.972 0.96 0.937 0.91 0.873 0.8 0.722 0.615 0.425 0.26
0.8 0.989 0.984 0.975 0.965 0.95 0.922 0.891 0.845 0.758 0.663 0.539 0.33 0.168
0.9 0.965 0.951 0.922 0.89 0.844 0.757 0.661 0.535 0.326 0.165 0.05 0.002 0
1 0.99 0.986 0.977 0.968 0.955 0.929 0.9 0.86 0.779 0.692 0.575 0.375 0.21
1.1 0.97 0.958 0.932 0.905 0.866 0.79 0.707 0.595 0.406 0.235 0.093 0.008 0
1.2 0.98 0.972 0.955 0.937 0.911 0.86 0.802 0.723 0.574 0.428 0.263 0.076 0.012
1.3 0.726 0.611 0.432 0.268 0.116 0.013 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.4 0.93 0.902 0.844 0.782 0.695 0.536 0.381 0.216 0.064 0.005 0 0 0
1.5 0.997 0.994 0.991 0.988 0.982 0.972 0.96 0.944 0.911 0.874 0.823 0.724 0.616
1.6 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.991 0.986 0.98 0.972 0.956 0.937 0.911 0.86 0.802
1.7 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.991 0.986 0.98 0.972 0.956 0.937 0.911 0.86 0.802
1.8 0.792 0.707 0.555 0.406 0.239 0.062 0.008 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.9 0.96 0.943 0.911 0.874 0.822 0.723 0.617 0.478 0.262 0.113 0.024 0 0

Figure 4.3: A section of Passman and Larmore table showing Spectral Transmittance through
water vapor

Determination ofτCO2
The transmittance of gaseous carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is almost independent of
pressure, at zero altitude; this parameter can be considered as constant. The transmittance of
gaseous carbon dioxide, τCO2, is therefore a function of only the distance travelled D. The
Passman- Larmore tables refer to a horizontal path at sea level.

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 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
0.3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.3 1 1 1 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.992 0.987 0.982
1.4 0.996 0.995 0.992 0.988 0.984 0.975 0.964 0.949 0.919 0.885 0.838 0.747 0.649
1.5 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.998 0.997 0.995 0.993 0.99 0.984 0.976 0.967 0.949 0.927
1.6 0.996 0.995 0.992 0.988 0.984 0.975 0.964 0.949 0.919 0.885 0.838 0.747 0.649
1.7 1 1 1 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.992 0.987 0.982
1.8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.9 1 1 1 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.992 0.987 0.982
2 0.978 0.969 0.951 0.931 0.903 0.847 0.785 0.699 0.541 0.387 0.221 0.053 0.006
2.1 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.994 0.992 0.987 0.982 0.974 0.959 0.942 0.919 0.872 0.82
2.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2.3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Figure 4.4: A section of Passman and Larmore table showing Spectral Transmittance
through Carbon Dioxide
What if the water vapor content computed using the formula aboveor the distance
travelled D (as entered by the user) does not directly exist in the Passman and Larmore
Table?

Solution for such a problem was to look for an approach by means of which the values which
are not directly available in the Passman and Larmore tables can be evaluated.

The two methodologies by virtue of which such values can be calculated are

 Nearest Neighbor Approach

In this method, a weightage is assigned to the values (extracted from the Passman and
Larmore tables)lying adjacent to the one that has been entered by the user according to
the proximity of the user-entered input from the two neighboring cells.

The value generated by this method will always lie between the values within two
adjoining cells.

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 Curve Fitting method
According to the values in a specific row of Passman and Larmore Tables, a polynomial
is generated whose coefficients are stored in a separate matrix. Whenever the user enters
an input for the program, the value is substituted in the polynomial and the corresponding
result is calculated.

Nearest Neighbor Approach is more efficient as compared to Curve Fitting method. Reason
behind the above conclusion is that in Curve Fitting Method, the values are available at only
certain points whereas the range of x i.e. distance/ path length varies over such a large scale
extending from 0.1 to 1000 km. Because of the above reason, the transmittance calculated
using the above methodology can take up certain spurious values.

On contrary, the result obtained through nearest neighbor approach can only take a value
between its two adjacent neighbors therefore this approach is acceptable in all cases.

Example:

Q: Evaluate the atmospheric transmittance due to molecular absorption under the

conditions:

Temperature, Tatm = 40.5oF = 4.72oC

Relative Humidity, RH= 0.48

Distance travelled, D= 16.2 km

Wavelength= 10 um

According to Passman Larmore tables τCO2= 0.982

From the formula mentioned above, h = 3.3 mm/km and for D=16.2 km,

Height of precipitable water becomes 3.3*16.2= 53mm

Using the above derived value of h, value of TH2O can be determined using the table, which
comes out to be 0.538

𝜏𝑚= τH2O * τCO2

𝜏𝑚= 0.53

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5.Empirical Methods employing band model

The aggregate model is a combination of band models chosen for the individual wavelength
ranges. It involves calculations of atmospheric scattering, and covers the wavelength range
from 1.05 to 30 um, with a resolution of 0.01 to 0.44 um.

LOWTRANis an atmospheric model which is used for the prediction of atmospheric

transmittance and thermal radiation emitted by the atmosphere and earth at a spectral
resolution of 20 cm-1. After a certain time, LOWTRAN was replaced by another atmospheric
modelling software i.e. MODTRAN. The advantage of MODTRAN over LOWTRAN is the
better spectral resolution being offered by the former.

MODTRAN is one of the most significant models used to simulate the transmission of
radiation through atmosphere. The model covers a spectral range from 0 to 50000cm-1 and
delivers a resolution of 2 cm-1. The atmosphere in MODTRAN is described as 32 layers from
0 to 100 km altitude. Layer thickness varies somewhat, but up to the altitude of 25 km each
layer is 1 km thick. Each layer is physically characterized by standard models valid for
various geographical regions and seasons. MODTRAN supports six different reference model
atmospheric profiles which specify gas contents etc. for each layer.

 Tropical
 Mid-Latitude Summer
 Mid-Latitude Winter
 Sub-Arctic Summer
 Sub-Arctic Winter
 US Standard

The six model atmospheres in MODTRAN differ most significantly in their temperature
profiles, and in their water vapor and ozone profiles.

MODTRAN uses an approximate exponential function to calculate transmittance.

𝑊 𝑎
𝜏 = 𝑒−

=( ) .( ) .

𝐶= . 𝐶′

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 −4
= .77 . .𝜌 .

Equation used to calculate the value for all absorbers except water vapor

= . . 𝜌𝑤.

Equation used to calculate the value for water vapor

Parameters in these equations are:

Symbol Depiction Units

, Pressure Atm
T, To Temperature Kelvin
R Mixing Ratio Ppmv
𝝆 ,𝝆 Density, index a for the air, w for g/m3
water
U Absorber amount atm.cm [for all absorbers]
g/cm2 [for water vapors]
Z Path length Km

4.4IMPLEMENTATION USING GUI:

Figure 4.5 (a)

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 Figure 4.5 (b)

Figure 4.5 (c)

Figure 4.5: Implementation of Atmospheric Model using GUI

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CHAPTER- 5
CONCLUSION

Molecular absorption, that is, attenuation of electromagnetic radiation by the mechanism of

molecules absorbing quanta of energy to alter vibrational and rotational states, is of prime
significance in propagation in the atmosphere. Methods presented above for the calculation of
atmospheric transmittance considered only the effects of absorption due to carbon dioxide
and water vapor. There is a valid reason behind such an assumption which has been stated
below:

A gas molecule absorbs radiation of a given wavelength only if the energy can be used to
increase the internal energy level of the molecule. This internal energy is quantized in a series
of electronic, vibrational, and rotational states. An increase in the internal energy is achieved
by transition to a higher state. Vibrational Transitions require near-IR radiation. Rotational
Transitions require far-IR radiation. When a vibration causes a change in charge distribution
(or dipole moment to be more specific) the IR radiation is absorbed.

Carbon Dioxide has four fundamental modes of vibration namely Symmetrical Stretching,
Asymmetrical Stretching and two bending or scissoring modes. In the “symmetric stretch”
mode the carbon dioxide molecule has no dipole moment, since the distribution of charges is
perfectly symmetric; transition to a higher energy level of that mode does not change the
dipole moment of the molecule is therefore forbidden. Changes in energy levels of the other
two, asymmetric, modes change the dipole moment of the molecule and are therefore
allowed. In this manner, carbon dioxide has absorption lines in the near Infrared. Same
situation arises in case of Water vapor. H2O is a non-linear molecule having three
fundamental modes of vibration. Symmetrical Stretching, asymmetrical Stretching and
Scissoring (Bending).Because of asymmetrical and bending modes, Water Vapor becomes
capable of absorbing IR radiation. Contrast the case of Nitrogen. The Nitrogen molecule has
a uniform distribution of charge and its only vibrational mode is the symmetric stretch.
Transitions within this mode are forbidden, and as a result the Nitrogen Molecule does not
absorb near Infrared.

46 | P a g e
One of the major problems which raise a question on the validity of the atmospheric model
developed above is the sustainability of Passman and Larmore Tables. These tables were
published in the Rand Corporation on 11 July 1956 and were used to calculate the
transmittance at different value of distance in case of carbon dioxide and different values of
precipitable water vapor in case of water Vapor. But, the values might have changed in these
years therefore the authentication of this model is still on stake. Other Problem associated
with this model is that the wavelength range cannot contain the boundary line i.e. 7 um
because after 7 um, values at some distance or water vapor concentration is not available.

47 | P a g e
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