“GERMAN REVOLUTION 1848”

FINAL DRAFT SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE COURSE TITLED

LEGAL HISTORY

CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, NYAYA NAGAR,

MITHAPUR, PATNA - 800001

SUBMITTED TO:
Dr. PRIYADRASHINI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HISTORY

INDEX

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………….Page 4

* AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

* RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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* SOURCES OF DATA

1. NATIONALISM……………….……………………………….…..…… Page 8

2. CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE ……..…………………..……… Page 9

3. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS……………………………………………......Page 12

4. CULTURAL PROBLEMS…………….…………………..……………...Page 14

5. POLITICAL PROBLEMS…………………..…………………………….Page 17

6. UNIFICATION OF GERMANY……………………………………… .Page 20

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………..….Page 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………..Page 26

Introduction

The German revolutions of 1848–49 (German: Deutsche Revolution 1848/1849), the opening
phase of which was also called the March Revolution (German: Märzrevolution), were initially
part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of

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loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including
the Austrian Empire. The revolutions, which stressed pan-Germanism, demonstrated popular
discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine independent
states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire.1

The middle-class elements were committed to liberal principles, while the working class sought
radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working
class components of the Revolution split, the conservative aristocracy defeated it. Liberals were
forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they became known as Forty-Eighters.
Many emigrated to the United States, settling from Wisconsin to Texas.Weimar Germany was the
name given to the period of German history from 1919 until 1933. It got its name from the fact
that the constitution for the post war republic was drawn up at the town of Weimar in South Eastern
Germany. The town was chosen for the constituent assembly because it was peaceful compared to
revolution torn Berlin and as a signal to the Allied peacemakers in Paris. The hope was that the
Allies would treat more leniently a new peaceful German Republic rather than the militaristic
empire that had led Germany into war.2

The History of the Republic can be divided into three main areas:

1. The Years of Turmoil, 1919-1923

2. The Stresemann Era, 1924-1929
3. The Collapse of Weimar, 1930-1933

The groundwork of the 1848 uprising was laid as early as the Hambacher Fest of 1832, when
public unrest began to grow in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship. The Hambacher
Fest is also noteworthy for the Republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours used on today's
national flag of Germany as a symbol of the Republican movement and of the unity among the
German-speaking people.

1
A people history of the world, Chris Harman
2
Ibid.

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Activism for liberal reforms spread through many of the German states, each of which had distinct
revolutions. They were also inspired by the street demonstrations of workers and artisans led in
Paris, France, from February 22 through 24, 1848, which resulted in the abdication by King Louis
Philippe of France and his going into exile in Britain. In France the revolution of 1848 became
known as the February Revolution.

The revolutions spread from France across Europe; they erupted soon thereafter in Austria and
Germany, beginning with the large demonstrations on March 13, 1848, in Vienna. This resulted in
the resignation of Prince von Metternich as chief minister to Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria, and
his going into exile in Britain.[1] Because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the revolutions
in Germany are usually called the March Revolution.

Fearing the fate of Louis-Philippe of France, some monarchs in Germany accepted some of the
demands of the revolutionaries, at least temporarily. In the south and west, large popular
assemblies and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded freedom of the press, freedom of
assembly, written constitutions, arming of the people, and a parliament.3

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The objective of this research is to study the main causes of german revolution 1848.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

3
Supra note 1

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 The researcher will be relying on doctrinal method of research to complete the project.

SOURCES OF DATA:

The researcher will be relying on both primary and secondary sources to complete the project.

1. Primary Sources: Books

2. Secondary Sources: Internet and websites.

NATIONALISM IN GERMANY

What is Nationalism?

Nationalism can be seen as the want of a people to live independently from the rule or influence
of other nations.Throughout the 19th century, the populations of the separate states began to

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develop a sense they were not just citizens of their own individual states, but also were part of a
German volk (people).4

The graphic below outlines some of the key factors leading to increased nationalism in Germany
from 1815-1850.5

4
Nation and Nationalism in Modern German History, John Breuilly

5
https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zqyrcdm/revision/1

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The Confederation of the Rhine

Napoleon Bonaparte
Before the campaigns of Napoleon, Germany was divided into hundreds of independent states and
cities. Although the people were Germanic, they had little sense of national identity.6

The Napoleonic Wars

In the last decade of the 18th century, war broke out between France and the rest of Europe. French
Emperor Napoleon’s forces were strong enough to conquer and control the whole of mainland
Europe, including the numerous German states. Napoleon reorganized Germany into 39 larger
states. He also established the Confederation of the Rhine, a league of 16 German states. This

6
http://www.germanheritage.com/essays/1848/the_revolutions_of_1848.html

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brought further unification to Germany. Napoleon was defeated firstly at Leipzig in 1813 and then
at Waterloo in 1815, bringing an end to the Confederation of Rhine.7

Effects of the Napoleonic Wars

Following Napoleon’s subjugation of Europe and the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine,
the German states realised that being small and politically divided meant being vulnerable to strong
aggressors. The states realised they needed each other for common defence.8

The German princes stirred up nationalistic feelings in the German population to help raise armies
to drive Napoleon's forces out of German territory. This was aided by the development of
nationalist societies within the German universities.

Allied victory at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 was partially a result of successful political and
military cooperation between the German states.

The lessons learned by the defeat of Napoleon and the strong nationalism that was stirred up to
finally drive him out, helped strengthen the sense of a common German identity.

The Congress of Vienna (1814-15), convened after Napoleon's defeat, sought to restore order to a
Europe disrupted by revolutionary and imperial France. Its members' objective was a constellation
of states and a balance of power that would ensure peace and stability after a quarter-century of
revolution and war. In addition to the delegates of many small states, the congress included
representatives of five large European states: Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, and France. After
months of deliberations, the congress established an international political order that was to endure
for nearly 100 years and that brought Europe a measure of peace.9

At the congress of Vienna in 1815, the allied forces decided to dissolve the confederation of the
Rhine. They wanted to eradicate the memory of French occupation. The German states now formed
the GERMAN CONFEDERATION, ALSO KNOWN AS THE BUND. It aimed to protect its

7
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa13

8
Ibid.

9
Ibid.

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members and give them a stronger voice in Europe. It had a diet (parliament) but it did not achieve
much as decisions had to be unanimous.10

CONGRESS OF VIENNA

GERMAN CONFEDERATION

10
Supra note 1

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Economic and factors for nationalization

Industrial revolution and the economic ambitions of Prussia increased nationalistic feeling in the
German Bund.

Industrialization and demographic change

In the early 19th century, industrialization was gaining pace in the German states. The exploitation
of Germany’s vast raw materials brought wealth for an emerging middle class. One of the states
which benefitted most was Prussia, which was granted control of industrial land on the River Rhine
in 1815.11

The industrial revolution brought demographic change. Urbanization increased as people moved
to the towns to work in the new industries. The population rose and people living in such close
proximity meant there was potential for uprisings.

The development of the railways greatly improved communication between the states and allowed
for the growth of increased inter-state trade.

However, industrial growth for the German states was severely hampered by trade barriers and
differences in laws and currencies. The new middle class began to push for change to improve
their economic standing.12

Trade barriers and the Zollverein

Most existing trade was conducted within and between the 39 states. But it was hampered by tariff
barriers.

11
http://idea-of-history.blogspot.in/2012/12/revolutions-of-1848.html

12
https://www.ohio.edu/chastain/dh/germrev.htm

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With growing production and improved transportation, businesses looked to maximise profits by
increasing the markets available for their goods. A single Germany without so many taxes and
tariffs would increase prosperity13.

Much push for economic change came from Prussia. The profits of Prussian businesses were
limited by taxes which had to be paid for moving goods between the two Prussian territories.

In 1818, Prussia scrapped trade tariffs within its own territories and lowered import rates.
Throughout the 1820s and early 1830s, other German states joined this voluntary customs union.
This became known as the Zollverein.

By 1836, 25 of the 39 German states had joined this economic alliance. This indicated that a more
permanent, political union could be beneficial. The historian William Carr referred to the
Zollversin as “the mighty lever of German unification.”14

13
Supra note 12

14
Ibid.

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Cultural factors for nationalism

The Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 1818 by Caspar David Friedrich

Throughout the 19th century, the people living in Germany's different states began to realize that
culturally, they were very similar. This led many to believe that the German people should be
united politically.

The French occupation of German lands before 1815 resulted in a growth of resentment towards
the occupying forces. These feelings led people to react against French ideas and culture. Instead
of French Rationalism, German Romanticism flourished. Artists and writers looked to the inner
life of individuals. Others evoked the idea of a national spirit or "volk" - something that had existed
in the past but been suppressed under Napoleon's rule. A culture emerged that encouraged people
of the subjugated states to consider their identity and their roots.15

15
Modern world history, Norman Lowe

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Although there were different dialects among the states, academic studies were showing that these
variations emerged from the same source. Hence the German people had language in common.

They shared a common culture and the same taste in literature and music. What became the
German national anthem was at the time very popular and sang about ‘Germany’ rising above all
else. Writers such as Hegel, Goethe and Schiller recognised similar German characteristics.

THINKERS

Interest in folklore was growing at the time. The Brothers Grimm conducted research and
published a collection of folk tales. They presented these as specifically German in origin –
removing tales and changing details that suggested different origins, particularly French influence.

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In 1841, the poet Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the words to what was to become the German
national anthem. The lyrics talked of “Deutschland über alles” – Germany above everything. It
was seen as a plea for leaders to give priority to Germany as a whole, rather than their individual
states.

These commonalities encouraged the emergence of a distinct German identity and the potential
for unification.

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Political problems
The economic crisis helped to shape the prestige and self-confidence of many existing regimes.
Most lacked the financial and bureaucratic resources – and possibly also the will – to intervene
effectively to alleviate [erleichtern; lindern] the social distress and reverse the economic collapse.
The calibre of rulers was not high and many monarchs and their ministers attracted a great deal of
personal unpopularity, particularly from the growing number of educated middle class – lawyers,
doctors, journalists, teachers, and civil servants.16

In 1848 power lay where it always had – with the nobility who owned the land, filled senior
government jobs and officered the army. They guarded their privileges jealously against any
infiltration by the middle classes. Middle-class Germans were critical of systems which largely
excluded them from participation in the political progress, and in which they were restrained from
free expression of their grievances by the censor and the secret police. Many of the dissatisfied
middle classes wanted the establishment of some form of parliamentary system and the guarantee
of basic civil rights.

Middle-class Germans also wanted to see the establishment of a united Germany, which they
claimed would ensure national prosperity. By 1847 patriotism was running high.17

The Role of the Liberals

While there was a reaction against the influence of France, Napoleon's rule introduced some of
the liberalisation and political change that the French Revolution had brought about. Some in the
German states wanted this process to continue.18

A great deal of effort was made to suppress new political ideas throughout the German states, but
the decline of Austrian influence and events in Prussia saw Liberalism and nationalism grow.

16
http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/1871/section4/

17
Ibid.

18
Ibid.

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What is Liberalism?

Liberal thinkers promoted the idea of an elected parliament to pass laws and run the country, rather
than power held solely by an absolute monarch. They also championed freedom of speech and an
end to censorship.

Suppression under Metternich

Austrian State Chancellor, Klemens von Metternich viewed liberalism as an evil force that
threatened the power of the aristocracy. It would allow middle and working class attitudes to
influence political decisions.

Nationalistic student societies, called Burschenschaften had grown throughout the German states
at the time of the French occupation. Students combined nationalistic ideals with liberal thinking
and hence, wanted the removal of the old regime.

In 1817, an extreme and widespread student society was formed, which promoted violent action
in order to achieve their goals. In the same year, an effigy of Metternich was burned by students
in Wartburg. In 1819, a Tsarist agent was also murdered.19

In response to this growing movement, the German Confederation met at Carlsbad, where
Metternich was able to introduce the Carlsbad Decrees in 1819. This was a set of reactionary
restrictions which allowed states to ban societies, censor material and forcibly stop the spread of
nationalistic ideas. Academics who supported nationalistic and liberal ideas were dismissed from
their posts.

Under Austria’s dominance of the German Confederation in the mid-1830s, Liberalism was
suppressed.20

19
https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zqyrcdm/revision/3

20
Ibid.

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Flourishing Liberalism in Prussia

In 1840, Frederick William IV became ruler of Prussia. He was unstable and swung between ultra-
conservative beliefs and promotion of Liberal ideals.

Frederick William encouraged free thinking and academics dismissed from other German
universities were allowed to teach in Prussia. Censorship was relaxed and Liberals appointed to
government positions.

However, demands for an elected parliament were refused and by the mid-1840s, Prussia had
begun to suppress nationalistic ideas. A United Diet of the Prussian Estates was dissolved after it
demanded a written constitution and free elections.

The 1848 Revolutions

In early 1848, revolution spread across Europe. In France the monarchy was overthrown. But there
was not such extreme change in Germany.

Although much of the discontent amongst the lower classes resulted from economic hardship and
social problems, there was a push from the Liberals and Nationalists for political change. There
was a demand for the end to censorship and for the creation of a united Germany.

The revolutions achieved short-lived change. However, by 1850 this had been reversed.

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 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

Isolating Austria
Bismarck knew Austria was a major obstacle to unification. To succeed in his aims war seemed
inevitable. Before he fought the powerful Austrian empire, however, he needed to weaken its
position in Europe.

 Prussia refused to help Poland when it rebelled against Russian control. Bismarck then formed a
powerful alliance with Russia.
 Bismarck then formed another key alliance with France. In a meeting with Napoleon III, he
promised to support France in its plans to invade and control Belgium.
 Bismarck also struck a deal with Italy. Italy promised to help Prussia in any war against Austria,
providing Austria were the aggressor and Italy gained Venezia in return.21

21
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/nationalism/unification/revision/3/

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 Schleswig-Holstein 1864 - 65 and the Seven Weeks War
German states annexed by Prussia 1866

Bismarck got his excuse for a war against Austria during a territorial dispute over two small
German states, Schleswig and Holstein. These were under the control of Denmark but not
technically a part of it.

 In 1863, the King of Denmark declared Schleswig and Holstein to be a part of Denmark.
 In 1864, Prussia and Austria teamed up and declared war on Denmark. They won easily.
 Bismarck then engineered a treaty with Austria (the Treaty of Gastein) which he knew was unlikely
to work. Prussia was to control Schleswig and Austria would control Holstein. This treaty was
designed to provoke, since Austrians would have to go through a hostile Prussia to reach Holstein.
 The Austrians tried to use their influence in the German Bund to pressure Prussia to address the
Schleswig-Hostein issue.
 The Bund backed Austria in the dispute over Schleswig-Holstein.

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 In response, Prussia said that the Bund was invalid, declared war on Austria and invaded the
German states of Hanover, Hesse and Saxony.
 The Austrians were quickly defeated by the Prussian army during the Seven Weeks War, with the
help of Italy.

Bismarck's plan to isolate Austria was working. As a result of the Seven Weeks War:

 Prussia kept all the territories it had captured.

 A North German Confederation was set up under the control of Prussia.
 A federal Diet (parliament) was established for the states in this North German Confederation. The
Diet would be elected and each state could keep its own laws and customs.
 The southern German states formed their own independent confederation.
 Austria promised to stay out of German affairs.
 Austria paid compensation to Prussia but did not lose land to it. Prussia did not want to weaken
Austria too much since it might be a useful ally in the future against Prussia's enemies.

Isolating France

With Austria weakened, Bismarck now turned his attention to the other great stumbling block to
unification - the French. France had watched Prussia's growing power with alarm. As he had with
Austria, Bismarck tried to weaken France as much as possible before war started.22

 Officially, Russia was an ally of France but Bismarck used diplomacy to make sure Russia stayed
out of the up-coming war.
 Bismarck also made sure Italy stayed neutral and wouldn't fight for France.
 Bismarck gambled that the British would stay out of the war since it didn't want France to become
any more powerful than it already was.23

22
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/nationalism/unification/revision/2/

23
Ibid.

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 Franco Prussian war 1870 - 71

Bismarck found his excuse for war when Spain offered its vacant crown to a relative of the Prussian
King, William I.

 France was outraged since it didn't want Prussia to become more powerful. The French insisted
King William make his relative refuse the crown. King William refused to guarantee this.
 Bismarck used the King's refusal as a way to provoke the French. He published a heavily edited
and provocative telegram, known as The Ems Telegram, of the King's refusal, making it seem he
had insulted the French ambassador. The French Emperor, responding to fury from the French
press and public, declared war on Prussia.
In the Franco-Prussian war, France was heavily defeated and its ruler, Napoleon III, was
overthrown by a French rebellion.

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Unification achieved

German Empire 1871

In the build up to war, the southern confederate German states voluntarily joined the Prussian-
controlled Northern German Confederation. Germany was now unified.

The Treaty of Frankfurt

As a result of the Franco-Prussian war, France lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine on its border
with Germany. It also had to pay Germany £200 million in compensation.A new imperial
constitution was set up within the now unified German states, with William I as Emperor (Kaiser)
and Prussia firmly in control.24

24
http://www.germanheritage.com/essays/1848/the_revolutions_of_1848.html

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CONCLUSION
Whereas Camillo di Cavour directed Italian unification, a Junker (the Prussian name for an
aristocratic landowner from old Prussia in the east) named Otto von Bismarck pushed German
unification through "blood and iron" and skillful understanding of realpolitik. As the map of central
Europe stood in 1850, Prussia competed with Austria for dominance over a series of small
principalities fiercely keen on maintaining their independence and distinctive characteristics.
Prussia proper stretched from modern-day Lithuania to central Germany. Prussia also controlled
the German lands around the Rhine River in the west. In between, from Denmark to Switzerland,
lay small provinces that Bismarck needed to incorporate under the Prussian crown to create a
viable German Empire.

In 1862, Bismarck reorganized the Prussian army and improved training in preparation for war. In
1864, he constructed an alliance with Austria to fight Denmark over Denmark's southern provinces
of Schleiswig and Holstein. Prussia received Schleiswig while Austria administered Holstein. That
situation, however, could not stand for long, as Austrian Holstein was now surrounded by Prussian
lands. Bismarck provoked a conflict with Austria over an unrelated border dispute and in the
subsequent Seven Weeks' War--named for its brevity--Prussia crushed the collapsing Austrian
army. The peace settlement transferred Holstein to Prussia and forced Austria to officially remove
itself from all German affairs.

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With Austria out of Bismarck's way, his next obstacle was the skepticism of the southern
provinces. Overwhelmingly Catholic and anti-militaristic, the southern provinces doubted
Prussia's commitment to a united Germany of all provinces. Prussia's Protestantism and historic
militarism made the gulf between north and south quite serious. Therefore, Bismarck turned to
realpolitik to unite the Germanic provinces by constructing a war against a common enemy. In
1870, Bismarck forged a note from the French ambassador, implying that the ambassador had
insulted the Prussian king. After he leaked this letter to both populations, the people of France and
Prussia, roused by nationalist sentiment, rose up in favor of war. As Bismarck hoped, the southern
provinces rallied to Prussia's side without any hesitation. In July 1870, France declared war on
Prussia. Within a matter of weeks of fighting in Alsace-Lorraine, France lost this Franco-Prussian
War. Alsace-Lorraine was transferred to Germany in the peace settlement, allowing Prussia to
declare the German Empire, or Second Reich, on January 21, 1871.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. MODERN HISTORY WORLD BY NORMAN LOWE

2. A PEOPLE HISTORY OF THE WORLD BY CHRIS HARMAN

3. HISTORY OF THE WORLD BY ARJUN DEV

4. NCERT XII

INTERNET WEBSITES

5. http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/1871/section4/

6. https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zqyrcdm/revision/3

7. https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zqyrcdm/revision/3

8. http://motherearthtravel.com/history/germany/history-9.htm

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