.............. ............. ......•. ......

Reinforced
concrete
design
to Eurocode 2

..
r-1

t Other titles of interest to civil engineers:

Civil Engineering Materials, fifth edition EDITED BY N. JACKSON & R. K. DHIR

Civil Engineering Quantities, sixth edition 1. H. SEELEY
Design of Structural Elements w. M . c. McKENZIE
Design of Structural Timber to EC5, second edition w. M. c. McKENZIE
& B. ZHANG
Design of Structural Masonry w. M. c. McKENZ IE
Design of Structural Steelwork w. M. c. McKE N ZIE
Engineering Hydrology, fourth edition E. M. WIL SO N
Highway Traffic Analysis and Design, third edition R.J . SALTER
& H. B. HOUNSEll
Soil Mechanics, second edition G. E. BARNES
Structural Mechanics, second edition R. HULSE & J. A. CAIN
Surveying for Engineers, fourth edition J. UR EN &: w. F. PRI CE
Timber, seventh edition H. E. DES CH AND J. M . DINWOOD IE
Understanding Hydraulics, second edition LES HAM ILL
Understanding Structures, third edition DEREK SEWA RD
 m
~jjj
t·:<
~~
f::~

i~li
··············································· ···· ····· ·· ······ ········A
....

Reinforced
concrete
design
to Eurocode 2
SIXT H ED ITI ON

•
BILL MOSLEY
FORMERLY NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UN IVERSITY, SINGAPORE
AND DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENG INEER ING
UN IVE RSITY OF LIVERPOOL

JOHN BUNGEY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGIN EE RIN G
UN IVERSITY OF LIV ERPOOL

RAY HULSE
FORMER LY FACULTY OF ENG IN EERING AND COMPUTIN G
COVENTRY UN IVERSITY

pal grave
macmillan
!.. • W. H. Mosley and J. H. Bungey 1976, 1982, 1987, 1990
f ' W. H. Mosley, J. H. Bungey and R. Hulse 1999, 2007

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of th is

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Patents Act 1988.

First published 2007 by

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 ........ .....••••.... •.......•.• .• ••.••.•••.••.::··~..

Contents

Preface page viii

Notation X

1 Properties of reinforced concrete 1

1.1 Composite action 2
1.2 Stress-strain relations 3
1.3 Shrinkage and thermal movement 6
1.4 Creep 10
1.5 Durability 11
1.6 Specification of materials 11

2 Limit state design 15

2.1 Limit states 16
2.2 Characteristic material strengths and characteristic loads 17
2.3 Partial factors of safety 18
2.4 Combination of actions 23
2.5 Global factor of safety 27

3 Analysis of the structure at the ultimate limit state 28

3.1 Actions 29
3.2 Load combinations and pattern s 30
3.3 Analysis of beams 31
3.4 Analysis of frames 38
3.5 Shear wall structures resisting horizontal loads 48
3.6 Redistribution of moments 53

4 Analysis of the section 58

4.1 Stress- strain relations 59
4.2 Distribution of strains and stresses across a section in bending 60
4.3 Bending and the equivalent rectangular stress block 62
4.4 Singly reinforced rectangular section in bending at the ultimate
limit stale 63
4.5 Rectangular section with compression reinforcement at the
ultimate limit state 67
4.6 Flanged seclion in bending at the ultimate limit state 72
4.7 Moment redistribution and the design equations 79
4.8 Bending plus axial load at the ultimate limit state 83
4.9 Rectangular- parabolic stress block 91
4.10 Triangular stress block 93
 ?-!
vi · Contents

5 Shear, bond and torsion 99

5.1 Shear 100
5.2 Anchorage bond 112
5.3 Laps in reinforcement 116
5.4 Analysis of section subject to torsional moments 118

6 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 124

6.1 Detailing requirements 125
6.2 Span-effective depth ratios 133
6.3 Calculation of deflection 136
6.4 Flexural cracking 147
6.5 Thermal and shrinkage cracking 153
6.6 Other serviceability requirements 156
6.7 Limitation of damage caused by accidental loads 158
6.8 Design and detailing for seismic effects 163

7 Design of reinforced concrete beams 169

7.1 Preliminary analysis and member sizing 171
7.2 Design for bending of a rectangular section with no moment
redistribution 174
7.3 Design for bending of a rectangular section with moment
redistribution 178
7.4 Flanged beams 182
7.5 One-span beams 186
7.6 Design for shear 187
7.7 Continuous beams 191
7.8 Cantilever beams and corbels 197
7.9 Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcing bars 202
7.10 Design for torsion 204
7.11 Servi ceability and durability requirements 208

8 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 209

8.1 Shear in slabs 210
8.2 Span- effective depth ratios 216
8.3 Reinforcement details 217
8.4 Solid slabs spanning in one direction 218
8.5 Solid slabs spanning in two directions 223
8.6 Flal slab floors 228
8.7 Ribbed and hollow block floors 236
8.8 Stair slabs 241
8.9 Yield line and strip methods 245

9 Column design 252

9.1 Loading and moments 253
9.2 Column classification and failure modes 254
9.3 Reinforcement details 258
9..4 Short columns resisting moments and axial forces 260
9.5 Non-rectangular sections 269
9.6 Biaxial bending of short columns 272
 ~==~
Contents vii

9. 7 Design of slender columns 275

9.8 Walls 279

10 Foundations and retaining walls 281

10.1 Pad footings 285
10.2 Combined footings 291
10.3 Strap footings 295
10.4 Strip footings 296
10.5 Raft foundations 299
10.6 Piled foundations 300
10.7 Design of pile caps 304
10.8 Retaining walls 308

11 Prestressed concrete 319

11.1 Principles of prestressing 321
11 .2 Methods of prestressing 322
11. 3 Analysis of concrete section under working loads 324
11 .4 Design for the serviceability limit state 329
11 .5 An alysis and design at the ultimate limit state 353

12 Composite construction 369

1 2.1 The design procedure 372
1 2.2 Design of lhe steel beam for conditions during cons truction 373
12.3 The composite section at the ultimate limit state 376
1 2.4 Design of shear connectors 381
12.5 Transverse reinforcement in the concrete flange 385
12.6 Deflection checks at the serviceability limit state 388

Appendix 393
Furt her reading 403
Index 405
.•.... .. ............ •.....•. .. .... ... ...

Preface

The purpose of this book is to provide a straightforward introduction to the principles

and methods of design for concrete structures. lL is directed primari ly at students and
young engineers who require an understandi ng of the basic theory and a conci~e guide
to design procedures. Although the detailed design methods arc generally according to
European Standards (Curococles), much or the theory and practkc is of a l"undamental
nature and should, therefore. be usel"ul Lo engineers in countries outside Europe.
The search for harmonisation of Tech nical Standards across the E uropean
Community (EC) hw; led LO the clevelopmeut or a seri es o r these SrrtrC/11./"(i/ Eurocodes
which arc the technical documents intended for adoption throughout all the member
states. The use of these common standards is intended to tower trncle barriers and enable
companies to compete on a more equitable basis throughout the EC. Eurocode 2 (EC2)
deals with the design of concrete structures, whit.:h has most recently been covered in
the UK by British Standard BS811 0. B$8 11 0 is scheduled for withdrawal in 2008.
Eurocode 2. which will consist of 4 parts. also adopts the limit state principles
established in British Standards. This hook refers primarily to part I , dealing with
general rules for buildings. curol"ode 2 must he used in conjunction with other
European Standard:. including Eurocodc 0 (Basis of Oc!;ign) that deals with analysis and
Eurocode I (Actions) that covers loadings on ~tructurcs. Other relevant Standards
are Eurocode 7 (Geotechnical Design) and Eurocodc 8 (Seismic Design).
.. Several UK bodies have also produced a range or supporting documents giving
commentary and hackground explanation for some or the requirements of the code.
Further supporting documentation includes, for each separate country, the Nati01wl
Annex which includes informat ion specinc to the incli vicluaJ member stotes and is
l'upported in the UK by Lhe British Standards publicmion PD 66B7:2006 which provides
huckground informnrion. Adcli tionn lly, the Briti sh Cement Association has produced
"111<1 Concise Eurocode .fbr the DesigH of Concrere Buildinf:(S w hich cont:ains materi <J I
that has been disti lled from EC2 but is pregented in a way that. makes it. more user-
fri end ly than the main Eurococle and contai ns only t'hal" information which is essential
ror tht: design of more everyday concrete stru ct ures. The Inst itution of Structural
Engi neers has also produced a new edition of their Design Manual. These lallcr two
documents also contain information not included in EC2 such as design charts and
design metJ10ds drawn from previous British Standards. In this text. rercrencc is made to
both EC2 and the Concise Code.
The presentation of EC2 is oriented towards computer solution of equations.
encompasses higher concrete strengths and is quite different from lhat of BS8110.
However the essential feature of EC2 is that the principles of design embodied in the
document are almost identical to the principles inherent in the use of BS8110. Hence,
although there arc some differences in details. engineers who are used to designing to
the existing British Standard should have no difficulty in grasping the essential features
of this new code. )lew grades of reinforcing steel have been recently been imroduced

viii
 Preface
, ix

and design is now based on concrete cylinder strength. wi th both of these changes
incorporated in this edition.
Changes in terminol ogy. arising partly from language differences. have resulted i n
the introduction of a few terms that are unfamiliar to engineers who have worked with
BS8110. The most obvious of these is the use of actions to describe the loading on
strucwrcs and the use of the terms permanent and l'ariable actions to describe dead and
imposed loads. Notwithstanding this, UK intluence in drafting the documcm has heen
very strong and terminology is broadly the same as in existing British Standm·ds.
Throughout this text. terminology has been kept generally in l ine with commonly
accepted UK practice and hence. fo r example. loads and ac1ions are used
interchangeably. Other ' new' terminology is identified at appropriate points in the text.
The subject mlltter in thi s book has been arranged so that chapters I to 5 deal mostly
with theory and analysis while the subsequent chapters cover the design and cletniling of
various types of member ancl structure. Tn order to include topics that arc usually iJl an
undergraduate course. there is a section on earth-retai ning stt·ucLurcs anti also chnpters
on prestressed concrete nncl composite construction. A new section on seismic design
has also been added.
lmporlant equations thnt have been derived within the text are highlighted by an
asterisk adjacent to t·he equation number and in the Appendix a summary of key
equations is given. Where it has been necessary to indutlc material tl1a1 is not directl y
provided by the Eurocodcs, this has been based on cun·cntly accepted UK good practice.
Jn preparing this new edition Iwh ich replaces Reil!{orced Crmcrl'le Design to EC2
( 1996) by the some authors]. the principal aim has been to retain the stru cture and
features of the well-established book Reii!(Orced Concrcle De.1ign hy Mosley. Bungey
and Hulse (Palgrave) which i~> based on British Standards. By comparing the books it
is po~sible to see the essential difference~ between Eurocode 2 and existing British
Standards and to contrast the different outcomes when stru ctures arc de~igned to
either code.
It should be emphasised that Codes of Prattice are always liable to be revised. and
readers should cnst1rc that they arc usi ng the latest edition of any relevant standard.
Finally, lhe authors would like to thank Mrs M ary Davison ror her hard work.
patience and assistance with the prepnrntion or the manuscripl.

Acknowledgements
Permission to reproduce EC2 Figures 5.2, 5.3, 6.7, 8.2. 8J, 8.7. 8.9. 9.4 nncl 9.9 and
Tables A 1. 1 (EN 1990), 7 .4. 8.2 and 8.3 from BS EN 1992- 1- 1: 2004 is grnnted by l3S I,
British Standards can he obtained from BS.I Customer Servi ces. 3~9 Chiswick lligh
Road. London W4 4AL (tel. +44 (0)20 8996 900 1, email: cservices@ hsi-globnl.com).
We would also like to acknowledge and thank ARUP for permission to reproduce the
photographs shown in chapters 2 to 8, and 12.
The photograph of The Tower. East Side Plaza, Portsmouth (cover unci chapter 1) is
reproduced by courtesy of Stephenson RC Frame Contracror. Oakwood House.
Gui ldford Road, Bucks Green, Horsham, West Sussex .

Dedicated to all ou r families for their encouragement

and patience whilst writing this text
 ...........................................
:.:
:···

Notation

Notation is generally in accordance with EC2 and the principal symbols are listed
below. Other symbols are defined in the text where necessary. The symbols c for strain
and f for stress have been adopted throughout, with the general system of subscripts
such that the first subscript refers to the material, c - concrete, s - steel. and the second
subscript refers to the type of stress, c - compression, t - tension.

t:: moclu lus of elasticity

F loacl (action)
G permanent load
I second moment of area
K prestress loss factor
M moment or bending moment
N :txial load
Q variable load
T torsional moment
v shear force

a deflection
b breadth or width
{/ effective depth of tension reinfo rcement
d' depth to compression reinforcement
e ecct:ntricity
II overnll depth of section in plane of bending
radius of gyration
k coeflicient
length or span
II ultimate load per unit area
1/ r curvature of a beam
s spacing of shear reinforcement or depth or ~ tress block
th ickness
II punch ing shear perimeter
.r neutral axis depth
lever arm

Ac concrete cross-sectional area

Ap cross-sectional area of prestressing tendons
As cross-sectional area of tension reinforcement
A~ cross-sectjonal area of compression reinforcement
A,.TCI) cross-sectional area of tension reinforcement required al the ultimate limit
state

X
 Notation
~ xi

As,p,.ov cross-sectional area of tension reinforcement provided at the ultimate limit

state
A,w cross-sectional area of shear reinforcemem in the form of links or bent-up bars
f ern secant modulus of elasticity of concrete
E, modulus of elasticity of reinforcing or prestressing steel
Gl characteristic permanent load
lc second moment of area of concrete
NhnJ moment on a column corresponding to the balanced condition
ME.r design value of moment
Nlu ultimate moment of resistance
Nb:d axial load on a colunm corresponding to the balanced condition
NEd design va lue of axial force
P0 initial prestress force
Q11 characteristic variable load
Tec1 design value of torsional moment
Vf',d design value of ~hear force
wk characteristic wind load
hw minimum width of section
.f~k characteristic cy linder strength of concrete
.f~,., mean cylindcr strength of concrete
j~'"' mean tensile strength of concrete
·">k characteristic yield strength of prestressing steel
/ yk characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
gl characterist ic permanent load per unit area
k1 average compressive stress in the concrete for a rectangular parabolic stress
block
k2 a factor that relates the depth to the cenrroid of the rectangular parabolic stress
block and the depth to the neutral axis
/ 11 lever-arm factor = z/ d
/0 effective height or column or wall
qk chaructcristic variable load per unit area
0' coel'licient or thermal expansion
Cl'e modular ratio
't/J action combinution facto r
'Yc partinl sal'c ly factor fo r concrete strength
'Yr parl'inl sn l'e l.y l'aclor for loads (actions), F
')'n parl'ial safety !'actor for permanent loads, G
/ 'Q partia l safety l'ador for variable loads, Q
'' partial safety !'actor for steel strength
o moment redistribution factor
e strain
0' stress
(j; bar diameter

Notation for composite construction, Chapter 12

Au Area of a structural steel section
A" Shear area of a structural steel section
h Width of the steel flange
xii Notation

bcrr Effective width of the concrete fl ange

d Clear depth of steel web or diameter of the shank of the shear stud
Ea Modulus of elasticity of steel
Ec.cff Effective modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ecrn Secant modulus of elasticity of concrete
fctm M ean value of the axial tensile strength of concrete
fY Nominal value of the yield strength of the structural steel
j~ Specified ultimate tensile strength
II Overall depth: thickness
ha Depth of structural steel secti on
hr T hickness of the concrete flan ge
hp Overal l depth of th e profiled steel sheetin g excluding embossments
h,c Overall nominal height of a shear stud connector
Second moment of area ol' the structural steel section
'"
l,,.:lll~r Second moment of area of the transfonnetl concrete area and the structural
steel area
Reduction factor for resistance of headed stud w ith profi led steel :;heeti ng
parallel with the beam
Reduction factor for resistance of headed stud w ith profi led steel sheeting
trnnsverse to the beam
L Length. span
Me Moment of resistance of the composite secti on
11 Modular ratio or number of shear connectors
Ill umber of shear connectors for full shear connection
PRd Design value of the shear resistance of a single connector
R.:~ Resistan ce of the concrete Aangc
Rc~ Resistance of the concrete above the neutral axis
R, Rc.'i~tancc of the steel section
R,l Resistance of the steel flange
'R" Resistance of the steel flan ge above the neutral axis
Rv Resistance or the clear web depth
Rw Rcsistnnce or the overall web depth = Rs = 2R,r
Rwx Resistnnce of the web above the neutral axis
tr Thickness of the steel fl ange
fw T hickness of the steel web
Wpl,y Plastic secti on modulus of a steel stn.1ctural secti on
X Distance to the centroid of a section
Lever arm
(~ Deflecti on at mid span
2
t Constant equal to )235/.{y where.fy is in N/mm
')' factor of safety
I'Ed Longitudinal shear stress in the concrete flange
'I Degree of shear connection
 1
.....................................
CHAPTER

Properties of
reinforced
concrete
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
···················· ····················· ············· ·· ·····················
Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into
many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender
curved dome or shell. Its utility and versatility are achieved by combining the best
features of concrete and steel. Consider some of the widely differing properties of
these two materials that are listed below.

Concrete Steel
strength in tension poor good
strength In good good, but slender bars will
compression buckle
strength In shear fair good
durability good corrodes if unprotected
fire resistance good poor - suffers rapid loss of
strength at high temperatures

It can be seen from this list that the materials are more or less
complementary. Thus, when they are combined, the steel is able
to provide the tensile strength and probably some of the shear
strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the
steel to give durability and fire resistance. This chapter can present
only a brief introduction to the basic properties of concrete and its
steel reinforcement. For a more comprehensive study, it is
recommended that reference should be made to the specialised
texts listed in Further Reading at the end of the book.
 '1
2 Reinforced concrete design

1.1 Composite action

The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of t11e compressive strength.
Because of this, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption
that tile concrete does not resist any tensile forces. Reinforcement is designed to carry
these tensile forces. which arc transferred by bond between the interface of the two
materials. If this bond is not adequate. the reinforcing bars will just slip within the
concrete and there will not be a composite action. Thus members should be detailed
so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during
construction. In addition, bars are normally ri bbed so that there is an extra
mechanical grip.
111 the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed
that there is a perfect bond, so that the strai n in the reinforcement is identical to the
strain in the adjacent concrete. This ensures that there is whm is known as 'compatibility
of strains' across the cross-section of the member.
The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are of the order of
o-
I 0 X I 6 per "C and 7- 12 X 10- 6 per "C respecti vely. These values are sufficiently
close that problems with bond seldom arise f'rom diff'ercntial expansion between the two
materials over normal temperature ranges.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of' a simply supported beam subjected to bending
and shows the position of steel reinl'orcement to resist the tensile force.~, while the
compression forces in the top of the beam arc carried by the concrete.

Fig ure 1. 1
A
Load
Composite action

Compression

L~
JD Strain
Distri bution
Section A-A

Reinforcement A

Wherever tension occurs it is likely that cracking of the concrete wi ll l:ake place. This
cracking, however, docs not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is
good rei nforcement bonding to ensure that the cracks arc restrained from opening so
that the embedded steel continues to be protected from corrosion.
When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete, then
steel reinforcement must again be provided, but in thc.~e cases il is only required to
supplement the load-carrying capacity of the concrete. For example. compression
reinforcement is generally required in a column, where it takes the form of vertical bars
spaced ncar the perimeter. To prevent rhese bars buckling, steel binders are used to
assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete.
 9
Properties of reinforced concrete ·3

1.2 Stress-strain relations

The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and
strains in the concrete and the steel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and design
of a member it is necessary to have a knowledge of the relationship between these
stresses and strains. Tlus knowledge is particularly impottant when dealing with
reinforced concrete which is a composite material; for in this case the analysis of the
su·esses on a cross-section of a member musr consider the equilibrium of the forces in
the concrete and steel, and also the compatibility of the strains across the cross-section.

1.2.1 Concrete
Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress- wain
curves. A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.2. As the load is
applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately l.inear Ht rirst and the
concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtual ly full recovery of
displacement if the loud is removed. Eventually, the curve is no longer linear und the
concrete behaves more and more a~ a plastic material. II' the load were removed during
the plasti.c rnnge the recovery would no longer be complete :mel n permanent
deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most structural concret·es tends to be
a constant value of approximately 0.0035, although this is likely to rcdut:c for concretes
with t:ubc strengths above nboul 60 N/mm 2 . BS EN I\>92 'Design of Concrete
Structures' - commonly known as Eurocodc 2 (or EC2) recommends values for use
0.0035
in such cases. The precise shape of the stress-strain curve is very dependent on the Strain
length of time the load is applied. a factor which wi ll be further discussed in section 1.4 Figure 1.2
on creep. Figure 1.2 is typical for n short-term loading. Stress-strain CUIVe for
Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is illustrated by concrete in compression
the graph in figure 1.3 which shows how the increase is rapid at first. becoming more
gradual later. The precise relationship will depend upon the type of cement used. That
shown is for the typical variation of nn adequately cured concrete made with commonly
used class 42.5 Portland Cement. Some codes of practice allow the concrete strength
40
Figure 1.3
Increase or concrete strength
~
v with age. Typical curve for a
'E
-
E
z
£01
<:
Q)

t;
30 I--

20
/v concrete made with a
class 42.5 Portland cemenl
wllh a 28 d<Jy compressive
strength of 30 N/mm 2

V-
Q)

·~
!!!
Q.
E
0 10
u

0
1 7 28 3 5
day days days months year years
Age of concrete (log sc.a le)
 f.l
~· Reinforced concrete design

used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it supports the
design load. European Codes, however, do not permit the use of strengths greater than
the 28-day value in calculations, bm the modulus of elasticity may be modified to
account for age as shown later.
ln the United Kingdom, compressive stress has traditionally been measured and
expressed in terms of 150 mm cube crushing strength at an age of 28 days. Most other
countries use 150 mm diameter cylinders which are 300 mm long. ror normal strength
concretes. the cylinder strength is. on average. about 0.8 x the cube strength. All design
calculations to EC2 are based on the characteristic cylinder strength K~ as defined in
secti on 2.2.1 . Cube strengths may however be used for compliance purposes, with the
ch..racteris tic strength identified as f~k. cube·
Concretes wil l normal ly be specified in terms of these 28-day characterisllc strengths,
!'or example strength class C35/45 concrete has a characteri sti c cylinder strength of
35 N/mm2 and a characteri stic cube stJength of 45 N/mm2 . It wi ll be noted tha t there is
some ·round ing off' in these values. which are usual ly quoted i n multiples of 5 N /mm 2
for cube strength. Concretes made w ith l ightweight nggn;gatcs are identified by the
prelix L C.

Modulus of elasticity of concrete

lt is seen from the stress-strain curve for concrete that although elast'ic behaviour may
be assumed for stresses below about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this
relationship is not truly linear. Consequenlly it is ncces~ary to define precisely what
value is to be taken as the modulus of elasticity.
stress
strain
A number of alternative definitions exist, lnu the most commonly adopted is E Ecm =
where Ecm is known as the secam or swrir modulus. This is measured for a particular
concrete by means or a static test in which a cylinder is loaded to ju ~ t above one-third of
tl1e correspontling mean control cube stress J~m. cube· or 0.4 mean cylinder strength. and
then cycled back to zero stress. Thi!> removes the effec t or initial 'bedding-in' and minor
stress redistributions in the concrete under load. The load is reapplied anclthc behaviour
wi ll then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up to th e specilied stress is taken
as the value for E<:m· The test is describecl in detnil in BS 188 1 and the resul t is generally
known as the secan1 modulus '~/' elclSiicity.
The dynamit modulus of elasticity, Ed. is sometimes ref erred to ~ i nce this is much
easier to measure in the laboratory nnd t·here is u f<~ irl y wel l-cleftned relationship
between /~em and E". The standard test is bnscd on determ in ing th e resonant frequency
or u prism spct:imcn and is also described in BS l l:l8 l. It is also possible to obtain a good
estimate of Ed !'rom ultrasonic measuring techniques, which may sometimes be used on
site to assess the concrete in an actual structure. The stanclarcl test for fu is on an
unstressed specimen. [[ can be seen from figure 1.4 that the value obtained represents
the slope of the tangent at zero stress and Ed is therefore higher than Ecm· The
relationship between the two moduli is often taken as

Secant modulus Ecm = (1.25£d 19) kN/mm 2

This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes.

The actual value of E for a concrete depends on many ractor!> related to the mix, but a
general relation ship is considered to exist between the modulu~ or da~ticity and the
compressive strength.
 Properties of reinforced concrete ~5
Figure 1.4
Moduli of elasticity of concrete
I
I
I
.; tangent or dynamic modulus

_ - - \ • secant or static modulus

I
Strain

Typical vulues of Ecr11 for various concrete classes using gravel aggregates which are
suitable for design arc ~hown in table 1.1. For limestone aggregates these vulues should
be reduced by a !'actor of 0.9, or for basalt increased by a facLOr of 1.2. Thu magnitude of
the modu lus of el asticity is required when investigating the de!lection and cracking or a
structure. When considering short-tenn effects. member stjffness will be based on the
static modulus Ecm defined above. If long-term effects are being considered, it can be
shown that t·he effect of creep can be represented by modifying the value or Ec 111 to an
effective value Ec,eff· and this is discussed in section 6.3.2.
The elastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from this table by
using t·he anticipated strength value at that age. lf a typical value of Poisson's ratio is
needed, this should be tuken as 0.2 for regions which arc not subject to tension cracking.

1.2.2 Steel
Figure 1.5 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) hot rolled high yield steel. and
(b) cold-worked high yield steel. Mi ld steel behaves as an clastic material , with the
stmin proportionul 1o the stress up to the yield, ut whic:h point there is a sudden increase
in strain with no change in stress. After the yield point, !his becomes a plastic material
and the strain increases rapid ly up to the ultimate value. Iligh yield steel. which is most

Table 1.1 Short-term modulus of elasticity of normal-weight gravel concrete

28 day characterlst:ic strength (N/mm 2) Static (secant) modulus

fck!fck. cube (cylinder/cube) £, 111 (kN/mmP)
Mean
20/25 30
25/30 31
30/37 33
35/45 34
40/50 35
45/55 36
50/60 37
60/75 39
70/85 41
80/95 42
90/105 44
 ~l
6 :·. Reinforced concrete design

figure 1.5
Stress- strain curves for high 0.2% proof
yield reinforcing steel stress

Strain 0.002
(a) Hot rolled steel (b) Cold worked steel

commonly used for reinforcement. may behave in a similar m;mner or may, on the other
hand, not have such a definite y ield point but may show a more gradual l:hange from
elastil: to pla:-:tic behaviour and reduced ductility depending on the manufacturing
prol:css. A ll mater.ials have a simi lar slope of the clastic region with elastic modul us
=
Es 200 kN/mm 2 approximately.
The speciricd strength used in design is based on either the y ield stress or a speci ried
proof' stress. A 0.2 per cent proof stress is defined in 1'\gurc 1.5 by the broken line drawn
ll parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
Removal of the load within the plastic range would result in I he stress- strain diagram
following a line approximately parallel to the loading pori ion - sec line BC in fi gure 1.6.
The steel will be left wi th a permanent strain AC. which is known as ' t-.lip'. If the steel is
again loaded. lhe su·ess-strai n diagram will follow the unlonding curve unti l it almost
A C reaches the original stress at B and then it will curve i n the direction of the first loading.
Figure 1.6 Thus, the proportional limit for the second loading is higher I han for the in itial loading.
Strain hardening This action is rel'tm-ed tO as ·strain hardening' or 'work hardening'.
The load deformntion of the steel is also dependent on the length of' time the load is
applied. Under a constant stress the strains will gradually increase - this phenomenon is
known as ·creep' or 'relaxation'. The mnount of creep that takes place over a period of
·time depends on the grade of steel and the magnitude of the stress. Creep of the steel is
of little significance in normal reinforced concrete work, hut i1 is an important factor in
prestres:-:ed concrete where the prestressing steel is very highl y stressed.

1.3 Shrinkage and thermal movement

As wncrete hardens there is a reduction in volu!lle. T his shrinlwge is liable to l:Huse
cracking of the concrete, but it also has the benefic ial c!Tccl of strengthening the bond
between the concrete and the steel reinforcement. Shrinkage begins to take place as
soon as the concrete is mixed, and is cause(.] initially by the absorption of the water by
lhe l:Oncrcte and the aggregate. Furrher shrinkage is caused by evaporation of the water
which ri ses to the concrete smfnce. During the setting process the hy<.lrati on of the
cement causes a great deal of heat ro be generated, and as the concrete cools, flllther
shrinkage takes place as a result of thermal con traction. Even after the concrete has
hardened, shrinkage continues as drying out persists over many months, and any
subsequent wetting and drying can also cause swelling and shrinkage. Thermal
shrinkage may be reduced by restricting the temperature rise during hydration, wh ich
may be achieved by the following procedures:

1. Use a mix design with a low cement conterll or suitable cement replacement
(e.g. Pulverised Fuel Ash or Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag).
 ~
Properties of reinforced concrete .::i 7

2. Avoid rapid hardening and f inely ground cement if possible.

3. Keep aggregates and mixing water cool.
4. Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray.
5. Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hydration to dissipate.
A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a
minimum the volume of moisture that can be lost.
rr the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place free ly and without
restrnint, there will be no stress change within the concrete. Restraint of the shrinkage.
on the other hand. wi ll cause tensile strains and stresses. The restraint may be caused
extern ally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an earth surface, and
internnlly by the nction of the steel reinforcement. For a long wall or fl oor slab, the
restraint from adjoining concrete may be reduced by constructing successive bays
instead of alternate bays. T his allows the free end of every bay to contract before the
next bay is cast.
.Day-to-clay thermal expansion of the concrete can be greater than the movements
caused by shrin kage. Thermal stresses and ~trai ns may be controlled by the correct
positioni ng of movement or expansion j oints in a strut:turc. ror example, l'l1e joints
should be placed at an abrupt change in cross-set:tion and they should, in generul , pass
completely through the structure in one plane.
When the tensi le stresses caused by shrinknge or thermal movement ext:cctl the
!-.trength of' the concrete. cracking will occur. To control the crack widths. steel
reinf'orcement must be provided close to the concrete surface: the codes of practice
specif'y minimum quantities of reinforcement in a member for this purpose.

Calculation of stresses induced by shrinkage

(a) Shrinkage restrained by the reinforcement
The shrinkage stresses caused by rei nfort:ement in an otherw ise unrestrained member
may he calculated quite simply. The member shown in figure 1.7 has u free shrinkage
stmin of ec, if made of plain cont:rctc, but thi s overall movement is reduced by the
int:lusionor reinf'ort:ement, giving a compressive strnin e~c in the steel and t:ausing an
ef'fectivc tensi le struin e~, the concrete.

Origina l member - Figure 1.7

as cast Shrinkage strains

Plain concrete-
unresLrai ned

~ !"
~--~I EK Reinforced concrete -
unrestrained

_.) '--

l Reinforced concrete -
fully retrained
~fl Reinforced concrete design
Thus

( 1.1 )

whcrc.f~ 1 is the tensile stress in com:retc area/\" ancl.f~c is the compressive !;tress in steel
area !Is
Equating forces in the concrete and steel for equilibrium gives
AJ~t - A,f,c (1.2)
therefore
A,
fct - - f -..:
Ac
Substituting for j~ 1 in equation I. I

e cs =.fsc. ( -A~- + -
AcEcm Es
I)
.. Es
TllUS I 1 O:c = -
£em

£c, =f-c (AcE~ + E$

cteA~ I)
=h,c (aeAs+ I)
L, 1\c

Thercl'ore steel stress

( l.3)

( EXAMPLE 1 . 1

Calculation of shrinkage stresses in concrete that is restrained by

reinforcement only
A member contains 1.0 per cent n:infun;cmcnt, and the Cree shrinkage strain C:c, of
the concrete is 200 x 1()- 6. Por steel, Es = 200 kN/mm 2 and for concn:lc
Ec111 = 15 kN/mm 2. Hence from equ:nion 1.3:
, . EcsC s
stress 111 relllforcement .f.~c = 11
I T et·eA-'
c
200 X J0 6 X 200 X 1(}1
= ---..,2""0""'0;------
1,- lS X 0.01

= 35.3 N/mrn 2 compression

11,
stress in concrete ..fcr ::::-
A· ./~c
c
= 0.01 X 35.3
L~--------------------------------------~) = 0.35 N/nun2 tension
 Properties of reinforced concrete

The stresses produced in members free from external resu·aint are generally small as
'
:::,:~

in example 1.1, and can he ca~ily withstood both by the 'steel and tl1e concrete.

(b) Shrinkage fully restrained

If the member is fully restrained. then the steel crumot be in compression since tl;A; = 0
and hence J,.c =
0 (figure I. 7). In this case the tensile strain induced in the concrete tc1
must he equal to the free shrinkage strain £cs. and the corresponding stress will probably
be high enough to cause cracking in immature concrete.

(EXAM PL E 1 .2

Calculation of fully restrained shrinkage stresses

rrthe member in example 1.1 were fu lly restrained. the stress in the concrete would be
given by

where

ec1= ec, = 200 X Io-<i

then

.f.:1 200 X 10 6X 15 X 10'

3.0N/mm 2

When cracking occurs. the uncracked lengths of concrete try to contract so thnt the
embedded steel between cracks is in compression while the steel across the cracks is in
tension. This feature is accompanied by localised bond breakdown, adjacent to each
crnck. The equilibrium of the concrete and reinforcement is shown in figure 1.8 and
calculations may be developed to relate crack widths and spacings to properties of the
cross-section; this is examined in more detail in chapter 6, which deals with
serviceabi lily requirements.

Figure 1.8
Shrinkage forces adjacent toil
crack

Thermal movement
As the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and concrete (ar. s and o:,., c) are
similar. differential movement between the steel and concrete will only be very small
and is unlikely to cause cracking.
The dif ferential thermal strain due to a temperature change T may be calculated as

T(a-r.c- Ct,-.,)
and should be added to the shrinkage strain Ecs if significant.
.~~_}~ Reinforced concrete design
The overall thermal conu·action of concrete is. however, frequen tly effective in
producing the first crack in a restrained member. since the required temperature changes
could easily occur overnight in a newly cast member. even with good control of the heat
generated during the hydration processes.

( EXAMPLE 1.3
Thermal shrinkage

Find the faJJ in temperature required to cause cracking in a restrained member if ultimate
tensile s trength of the concrete .f~t. cn - 2 N/mrn 2• 6'c111 = 16 kN/m m2 and
!'l:T, c = OT,, = !0 X 10- per °C.
6

Ultimate tensile strain of concrete

Cull

= I 6 X2 .103 = 125 X 10 6

Minimum lcmpcrature tlrop to cause cracking

It should be notctlthal full restraint, as assumed in this example, is unlikely to occur

in practice: thus the temperature change required 10 cause cracking is increased. A
maximum 'restraint factor' of 0.5 is nflen used. with lower va lue~ where external
restrnint is likely to be smal l. The temperature drop required would then be given by the
theoretical minimum divided by the ·reS!I'aint factor'. i.e. 12.5/0.5 = 25<C in this
• example

1.4 Creep

Creep is the continuous clet'ormntion of a member under sustained loutl. Tt is "

phenomenon associated with many materia ls, but it is particularly evident with concrete.
The precise behaviour of a pnrticular concrete depends on t·he aggregates and the mix
design as wel l as the ambient humidiry, member cross-section, nnd nge at (irst loading,
hut the general pattern is illustrated by considering :1 member subjected to axial
compression . For such a me1nber, a typical variation of deformation with rjme is shown
by the curve in fi gure 1.9.
The characteristics of creep are
1. The fi nal deformation of the member can he three to four times the shorHerm
Short·IM>l t•anlc elastic deformation.
2. The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the
inverse of the concrete strength.
Figure 1.9
Typical increase of
3. If the load is removed. only the instantaneous elastic deformation will recover- the
deformation with time for plastic deformation will nor.
concrete 4. There is a redistribution or load between the concrete and any steel present.
 w.~
Properties of reinforced concrete ··<_:!2

The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being

transferred to the reinforcing steel. Thus th e compressive stresses i n the steel are
increased so that the steel takes a larger propo1tion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased
deflections may cause tJ1e opening of cracks, damage to finishes. and the non-alignment
of mechanical equipment. Redistribution of stress between concrete and steel occurs
primarily in the uncracked compressive areas and has little effect on the tension
reinforcement other than reducing shrinkage stresses in some instances. T he provision
of reinfo rcement in the compressive zone of a nexural member. however. often helps to
restrain the de flecti on~ due to creep.

1.5 Durability

Concreto Htructuros, properl y designed and constructed, 11re long lasting und should
require little maintcnunt.;o. The durability of the concrete is inlluenced by

1. the exposure conditions;

2. tho cement type;
3. tho concrete quality:
4. the cover to the rei nforcement;
5. the wid th of any cracks.

Concrete can be exposed to a w ide range of conditions such as the soil. !.ea water.
de-ici ng salts, stored chemicals or the atmosphere. T he severity or the exposure govern s
the type of concrete mix required and the minimum cover to the reinforcing steel.
Whatever the exposure, the concrete mix should be made from impervious and
chemically inert a~grcgates. A dense, well-compacted concrete with a low water-
cement ratio is all important and for some soi l conditions it is advisable to usc a sulfate-
resiHti ng cement. A ir entrainment is usually specified where it is necessary to cater for
repeated f'reezing and thawing.
Ad equate cover is essential to prevent corrosive agents reachi ng the rei nforcement
through cracks and pervious concrete. The thickness of cover required depends on the
severity of' the exposure and the quality of the concrete (us shown in t.uhlc 6.2). T he
cover is also necessary to protect the rein forcemenL against a rapid ri se in temperature
and subsequent loss of strength during a fi re. Part 1.2 of EC2 provides guidance on t.his
and other nspects of tire design. Durability requirements w ith rclu ted design culeulalions
to check nnd control crack w idt hs and depths arc descr ibed in more dctuil in chapter 6.

1.6 Specification of materials

1.6.1 Concrete
T he selection of the type of concrete is frequently governed by the strength required,
which in turn depends on tl 1e intensity of loading and the forn1 and size of the structural
members. For example, in the lower columns of a multi-storey buildi ng a higher-
S!rength concrete may be chosen in preference to greatl y increasing the size of the
column section with a resultant loss in clear floor space.
12 ~ Reinforced concrete design
As indicated in section 1.2.1, the concrete strength is assessed by measuring the
crushing strength of cubes or cylinders of concrete made from the mix. These are
usually cured, and tested after 28 days according to standard procedures. Concrete of a
given strength is identified by its 'class' - a Class 25/30 concrete has a characteristic
cylinder crushing strength lfc~:) of 25 N/mm 2 and cube strength of 30 N/mm 2 . Table 1.2
shows a list of commonly used classes and also the lowest class normally appropriate
for various types of construction.
Exposure conditions and durability can also afTect the choice of the mix design and
the class of concrete. A structure suhject to con·osive conditions in a chemical plant, for
example, would require a denser and higher class of concrete than, say, the interior
members of a school or office block. Although Class 42.5 Portland cement would be
used in most structures, other cement types can also be used to advantage. Blast-furnace
or sulfate-resisting cement may be used to resist chemical ullack, low-heat cements in
massive sections to reduce the heat of hydration, or rapid-hardening cement when a high
enrly strength is required. ln some circumstances it· mny be usefu l to replace some or the
cement by materials such as Pulverised Fuel Ash or Grouud Granu lated Blast Furnace
Sing which have slowly developing cernentitious propert'ies. These wi ll reduce the heat
of hydration and may also lead to a smnlter pore structure and incn.:ased durability.
Generally, naturul aggregates found locnlly <.~re preferred: however, manufactured
lightweight material may be used when self-weight is importnnt. or " special dense
aggregate when radiation sh ielding is required.
The concrete mix may either be ci<L'$sified as 'designed' or 'designnted' . A "designed
concrete' is one where the strength class, cement type. and limits to composition.
including water-cement ratio and cement content. nrc specified. With a 'designated
concrete' the producer musr provide a material to satisfy the designated strength class
and consistence (workability) using a particular aggregate site. 'Designated concretes·
are identified as RC30 (for example) based on cube strength up to RC50 according to
the application involved. 'Designed concretes· are needed in silllations where
'designated concretes' cannot be used on the basis of durability requirements (e.g.

Table 1.2 Strength classes of concrete

Class fcl• (N/mm 2) Norma/lowest class for use os specified

(16/20 16 Plain concrete
C20/25 20 Reinforced concrete
C25/30 25
C28/35 28 Prestressed concrele/Reinforced concrete
subject to chlorides
(30/37 30 Reinforced concrete in foundations
C32/40 32
C35/45 35
(40/50 40
C45/55 45
C50/60 50
C55/67 55
(60/ 75 60
C70/85 70
CB0/ 95 80
C90/1 05 90
 ~

Properti es of reinforced concrete ~;~~

ch loride-induced con·osion). Detailed requirements for mix specification and com-

pliance arc given by BS EN206 ·concrete - Performance. Production, Placing and
Compliance Cliteria' and BS8500 'Concrete - Complementary British Srandard to
BS E\'206'

1.6.2 Reinforcing steel

Table 1.3 lists the characteri stic design strengths of some of the more common types of
2
reinforcement currently used in the UK. Grade 500 (500N/mm characteri stic strength)
has replaced Grade 250 and Grade 460 reinforci ng steel throughout Europe. The
nominal si7.e or a bar is the diameter of an equivalent circular area.
Grade 250 bars arc hot-rolled m.ild-steeJ bars w hich usually have a srnooth surrace so
tha t the bond w ith the concrete is by adhesion only. T his type or bar can be more readily
bent, so they have in l he past been used where smal l radius bends arc necessary, such as
l inks in narrow beams or colunUls, but plain bars arc not now recognised in the
l~uropcan U nion and th ey nJe no longer avai lable for general use i n the UK.
lligh-yicld bars are manufactured with a ribbed surfnce or in the form of n twisted
square. Square twisted bnrs have inferior bond characteristics and have been used in the
past, although they are now obsolete. Deformed bars have a mechanical bond w ith the
conl:rctc, thus enlumcing ultimate bond ~ tresses ns described in section 5.2. T he bending
or high-yield bars through a small radius is liable to cause tension cracking of the steel,
and to avoid this t11e radius of the bend should not be less than two times the nominal
bar size for small bars (~ 16 mm) or 3\12 times for larger bars (sec figure 5.11 ). The
ductility of reinforcing steel is also classified for design purposes. Ribbed high yield
bars may be classified as:

Class A - which is normally associated with small diameter ( < 12 mm) cold-worked
bars used in mesh and fabric. This is the lowest ductil ity category and will include
l imit~ on moment redistribution which can be applied (sec section 4.7) and higher
quantities for fire resistance.
Class B - which is most commonly used for reinforcing bars.
Class C- high ducti lity which may be used in eart hquake design or simi lar situations.

Floor slabs. walls, shells and roads may be reinforced with a welclecl fa bric of
rcin forccmcnL, supplied in rolls and having a square or rectangular mesh. T his can give
large economics in the detailing of the reinforcement and also in site labour costs of
handling and fi xing. Prefabricated reinforcement bnr assemblies are also becoming
increasingly popular for si mi lar reasons. Welded fabric mesh made of ribbed w ire
greulcr than 6 mm dinmeter may be of any of the cluct.il ity cl<lsses listed ubovc.

Table 1.3 Strength of reinforcement

Specified characteristic
Designation Normal sizes (mm) strength fyk (N/mm 1)
Hot-rolled high yield All sizes 500
(854449)
Cold-worked high yield Up to and including 12 500
(8$4449)

•Note that BS4449 will be replaced by BS EN1 0080 in due course.

q
~ Reinforced concrete design

The cross-sectional areas and perimeters of various sizes of bars. and the cross-
sectional area per unit width of slabs •are listed in the Appendix. Reinforcing bars in a
member should either be straight or bent to standard shapes. These shapes must be fully
dimensioned and listed in a schedule of the reinforcement which is used on site for the
bending and fixing of the bars. Standard bar shapes and a method of scheduling are
specified in BS8666. The bar types as previously described are commonly identified by
the following codes: H for high yield steel, irres pective of ductility class or HA, HB, HC
where a specific ducti lity class is required: this notation is generally used throug hout
this book.
 CHAPTER 2
······· ·· ·············•··············

Limit state
design
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

limit slate design of an engineerin g structure must ensure that (1) under the worst
loadings the structure is safe, and (2) during normal working conditions the
deformation of the members does not detract from the appearance, durability or
performance of the structure. Despite the difficulty in assessing the precise loading
and variations in the strength of the concrete and steel, these requirements have to be
met. Three basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe, workable structures
have been developed over many years; they are

1. The permissible stress method in which ultimate strengths of the materials are
divided by a factor of safety to provide design stresses which are usually within the
elastic range.
2. The load factor m ethod in which the working loads are multiplied by a factor
of sa fety.
3. The limit state method which multiplies the
workin g loads by partial factors of safety and
also divides the materials' l.lltimate strengths
by further partial factors of safety.

The permissible stress method has proved to

be a simple and usefu l method but it does have
som e serious inconsistencies and is generally no
longer In use. Because it is based on an elastic
stress d istribution, it is not really applicable to a
semi-plastic materia l such as concrete, nor is it
suitable when the deformations are not propor-
tional to the load, as in slender columns. It has
also been found to be unsafe w hen dealing with
the stability of structures subject to overturning
forces (see example 2.2). ~
15
 r~
16 Reinforced concrete design

In the load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used
in the calculations. As this method does not apply factors of safety to the material
stresses, it cannot directly take account of the variability of the materials, and also
it cannot be used to calculate the deflections or cracking at working loads. Again,
this is a design method that has now been effectively superseded by modern limit
state design methods.
The limit state method of design, now widely adopted across Europe and many
other parts of the world, overcom es many of the disadvantages of the previous
two methods. It does so by applying parlial factors of safety, both to the loads
and to the material strengths, and the magnitude of t he factors may be varied so
t hat they may be used either with the plastic conditions in the ultimate state or
with the more elastic stress range at working loads. This fl exibility is particularly
important if full benefits are to be obtained from development of improved
concrete and steel properties.

2.1 limit states

The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilitie1> that a structure will not
become unfit for its imendcd use- that is, that it will not reach a limit' state. Thus, ru1y
way in wh ich a structure may cease to be fit for use will constitute a l imit stale and the
design aim is to avoid any such condition being reached during the expected life of the
structure.
The two principal types of limit stale are the ultimate limit stntc and the serviceabi lity
limit state.

(a) Ultimate limit state

This requires that the structure must be able to withstnnd, with an adequnre factor of
safety against coll apse. the loads for which it is dc:-;igncd to ensure the safety of the
building occupants and/or the safety of' the structure itself. T he possibi li ty of buckling or
overturning must also be taken imo uc<.:ount, as mu:-;t the possibility of' ucci.dental
damage as c~ u sed , for example, by an intern al explosion.

(b) Serviceability limit states

General ly the most important serviceabil ity limit st~tcs arc:

1. Deflection - the appearance or effi ciency of any part of the structure must not be
adversely affected by detlection~ nor shou ld the com fort of the building users be
adversely affected.
2. Cracking - local damage due to cracking and sp:~ ll ing must not affect the
:~ppearancc. efficiency or durability of the struclUrc.
3. Durability- this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the structure
and its conditions of exposure.

Other limit stares that may be reached include:

4. Excessive vibration - which may cau:-;e discomfort or alarm as well as damage.

5. Fatigue- must be considered if' cyclic loading is likely.
 Limit state design n 17

6. Fire resistance - this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse. flame

penetration and heal transfer.
7. Special ci rcumstances - any special requirements of the structure which are nol
covered by any of the more common limit states, such as earthquake resistance,
must be taken into account.
The relative importance of each limit stale will vary according to the nature of the
structure. The usual procedure is to decide which is the ciUcial limit state for a particular
structure and base the design on this, although durability and fire resistance
requirements may well innucnce initial member sizi ng and concrete class selection.
Checks must also be made to ensure that all other relevant limit states arc satisfied by
the results produced. Except in special cases, such as water-retaining structures, the
ultimate limit staLe is generally critical for rei nfo rced concrete although subsequent
serviceability checks may affect some of the details of the design. Prestressed concrete
design, however, is generally based on serviceabi lity conditions with checks on the
ult.imat:c limit stale.
In assessing a particular limit state for a structure it is necessary to consider all the
possible variable parameters such as· the loads, material strengths and all construct"ional
tolerances.

2.2 Characteristic material strengths and characteristic

loads
2.2. 1 Characteristic material strengt hs
The strengths of material:. upon which a design is based are, normally, those strengths
below which results arc unlikely to fal l. These are called 'characteristic' strengths. ft i~-.
assumed that for a given mmerial. the disuibution of sLrcngth will be approximately
·normal ', so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of sample resu l t~>
would be of the form shown in figure 2.1. The characteristic strength is taken as that
value helow which it is unlikely that more than 5 per cent of lhe results wi ll fa ll.
Th is is given by
Jk. =};,, - 1.64.1'
wherc.f~ = characteristic strength,f;, = mean strength and s = standard deviation.
The relnrionship between eharHcteristic and mean values aecounts fo r variations in
results of test specimens and wi ll, therefore, reliect the method and cont.rol of
rnonufncture, qual ity of const ituents, and nature of the materia l.

Mean strength (f.n)

Figure 2.1
I Normal frequency distribution
of strengths

Number of
test specimens

Strength
 r Reinforced concrete design
]_!._

2.2.2 Characteristic actions

In Eurocode tenninology the set of applied forces (or loads) for which a structure is to
be designed are called 'actions· although the terms ·actions· and 'loads' tend to be used
interchangeably in some of the Eurocodes. 'Actions· can also have a wider meaning
including the effect of imposed deformations caused by. for example. settlement of
foundations. In this text we will standardise on the term 'actions· as much as possible.
Ideally it should be possible to assess actions statistically in the same way that material
characteristic strengths can be determined statistically, in wltich case
characteristic action = mean action ± 1.64 standard deviations
In most cases it is the maximum value or the actions on a structural member that is
critical and the upper, positive value given by this expression is used: but the 10\vcr,
minimum value may apply when considering stability or the behaviour or continuous
members.
These characteristic values represent the limits within which at least 90 per cenl of
values will lie in practice. It is to be expected that not more than 5 per cent of cases will
exceed the upper limit and not more than 5 per cent wi ll fa ll below the lower limit. They
arc uesign values that take into account the aecmacy with which the structural loading
can be predicted.
Usually. however. there is insufficient stat istical data to al low actions to be treated in
tl1is way. and in this case the standard loadings, such as those given in BS EN 199 1,
Eurocode I - Actions on Strut.:tures, should be uscu as representing characteristic
values.

2.3 Partial factors of safety

Other possible variations such as constructional tolerances are allowed for by partial
factors of safely applied to the strength of the materials and to the actions. ll should
theoretically be possible to derive values for these from a mathematical assessment of
the probability of reaching each limit state. Lnck of adequate data. however, makes this
unrealistic and, in practice, the values adopted arc based on experience anu simpl ified
calculations.

2.3.1 Partial factors of safety for materials ('/'m)

. charact:cristic ~ trcn gt.h (f')
Destan strenoth = . . . . '
"' "' parttal 'factor oJ· sal'ety b.,)
The following factors are considered when selecting n suitable value for ~lm :
1. The strength of the material in an actual member. Th is strength wi ll differ from that
measured in a carefu lly prcparcu test specimen and it is particularly true l'or
concrete where placing, compaction anu curing arc so important to the strength.
Steel, on the other hand, is a relatively consistent material requiring a small partial
factor of safety.
2. The severity of the limit state being considered. Thus, higher values are taken for
the ultimate limit state than for the serviceability limit state.
Recommended vallLes for l m are given in table 2. 1 The values in the first two
columns should be used when the structure is being designed for persistent design
situations (anticipated normal usage) or transient design siruatiom (temporary
 ~~
Limit state design 19

Table 2. 1 Partial factors of safety applied to materials (/'m)

to
Limit state Persistent and transient Accidental
ed
og Concrete Reinforcing and Concrete Reinforcing and
Prestressing Steel Prestressing Steel
of
ie. Ultimate
iaJ Flexure 1.50 1 .1 5 1.20 1 .00
Shear 1.50 1 .15 1.20 1 .00
Bond 1.50 1.15 1. 20 1.00
Serviceability 1.00 1.00
IS
!f.

-;ituations such as may occur during construction) . The values in the last two columns
~ho uld be used when the structure is being designed for exceptional accidental design
of
situations such as tl1e effects of tire or explosion.
ill
e)
lg 2.3.2 Partial factors of safety for actions (l't)
Errors anti inaccuracies may be due to a number of causes:
m
l. 1. design assumpt ions nnd inaccuracy of calculation:
IC 2. possible unuf'ual increases in the magnirude of the actions;
3. unforeseen stress redistributions:
4. constructional inaccuracies.

These cannot he ignore<.!, anti arc taken into account by applying a partial factor of
~afcty h f) on the ehaructcristic actions, so that

ttl design value of action = characteristic action x partial factor of safety (')r)
ld
The value or this factor ~ho u ld al ~o take into account the importuncc of the limit srate
>i
under considerat ion and reflects to some extent the accuntcy w ith which differclll rypes
'd of actions cnn be predicted, and the probabili ty o r particular com bin ation.~ of actions
occurrin g. It should be noted that design errors and constructional inaccuracies have
similar effects and are thus sensibly grouped together. T hese factors will account
udequutely for normal conditions alth ough gross errors in design or construction
obviously cannot he catered for.
Recommen<.lcd values or partial factors of safety are given in tables 2.2 and 2.3
accordin g to the di fferent categorisations of actions shown in the tnblcs. Actions arc
cn tegori setl us either permanent (Od. such as the self-weight of the structure, or
Pariab/e (Qk), such as the temporary imposed loading ari sing from the traffic of people,
tl
wind and snow lomli ng, anti the li ke. Va riable actions urc also cutegorised as leading
II"
(the predomi nant variable action on the structure such as an imposed crowd load - Q~ . 1)
and accompanying (secondary vmiable action(s) such as the effect of wind loading.
Qk, ;, where the subscript 'i' indicates the i'th action ).
The rerms favourable and unfavourable refer to the effect or the action(s) on the
design situation under consideration. For example, if a beam. continuous over several
spans, is to be designed for the largest sagging bending moment it will have to sustain
any action that has rhe effect of increasing the bending moment will be considered
unfavourable wh ilst any action that reduces the bending moment will be considcrcu to
be favourab le.
 1·.
r
20 Reinforced concrete design
-
Table 2.2 Partial safety factors at the ultimate limit state

Persistent or transient Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable

design situation (Gk) (0...t) actions (Qk.i)
Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable
(a) For checking the
static equilibrium of a
building structure 1.10 0.90 1.50 0 1.50 0
(b) For the design of
structural members
(excluding
geotechnical actions) 1.35 1.00 1.50 0 1.50 0
(c) As an alternative to
(a) and (b) above to
design for both
situations with one set
of calculalions 1.35 1.15 1.50 0 1.50 0

Table 2.3 Partial safety factors at t he serviceabili ty limit state

Design Situation Permanent actions Variable actions

All 1.0 1.0

Example 2. I shows how the panial safety factors at the ullirnate limit state from
tables 2.1 and 2.2 are used to design the cross-sectional area of a steel cable supporting
permanent and variable actions.

( EXAMPLE 2.1

Simple design of a cable at the ultimate limit state

Determine the cross-sectional area of steel rcquirecl for a cable which suppons a total
charnctcti sti c permanent a<.:tion o f 3.0 kN and a characteristic variabl e action of 2.0 kN
as shown in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2
Cable design

Variable load - 2.0 kN

(man ... eqtlipmenl)

Permanent load = 3.0 kN

(platform + cable)
 Limit state design 21

The characteristic yield stress of the steel is 500 N/mm 2 • Carry out the calculation using
limit state design with the following factors of safety:
IG = 1.35 for the pennanenl action.
1Q = 1.5 for the variable action. and
1m = 1.15 for the steel strength.

Design value = /G x pennanent action + 'YQ x variable action

1.35 X 3.0 + 1.5 X 2.0
= 7.05kN
. characteristic yield stress
Des1gn stress = ---------
'I'm
500
=w
= 434 N/mm2
. . desi<>n value
Reglllred cross-sect1onal area=-:---:-."';:....__ _
des1gn stress
7.05 X 103
434
- 16.2 mm~
For convenience, the p~utial factors of safety in the example arc the same as those
recommended in EC2. Probably. in a practical design. higher factors of safety would he

l
~· ___________________________________________)
prefcrred for a single supporting cable, in view of the consequences of a failure.

Example 2.2 shows the design of a foundation to resist uplift at the ultimate limit
\late using the partial facto rs or safety from table 2.2. lt demonstrates the benelits or
using the limit stare approach instead of the potential ly unsafe overal l factor of safety
design used in part (b).

(E XAMPLE 2.2

Design of a foundation to resist uplift

Figure 2.3 shows a beam supported on foundations at A and B. The loads supported by
the bC<1m arc its own uniformly distributed permanent weight of 20 kN/m and a 170 kN
variable load concentrated at end C.
Determine the weight of foundation required at A in order to resist uplift:

(a) hy applying a factor of safety of 2.0 to the reaction calculated for the working
loads.
(b) by using an ultimate limit state approach with partial factors of safety of 'Yr. = 1.10
or 0.9 for the permanent action and I'Q = 1.5 for the variable action.

Investigate the effect on these designs of a 7 per cent increase in the vatiablc action.
 ··~

22 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 2.3
Uplift calculation example
beam
permanenlload 20 kN/m

(a) 6m . 1.. 2m

0.9 x permanent load

(b) Loading arrangement for uplifl at A at the ultimate limit state

(a) Factor of safety on uplift = 2.0

Taking moments about B

Uplift R,, =
( 17() X 2 20 X 8 X 2) =:l :lJ kN
6.0 ....
Weight of foundation required = 3.33 x safety factor
3.33 X 2.0 =6.7 kN
With a 7 per cent incrc<ts e in the vari able t~ction

·up1'lit,. R _ ( l.07
lA -
X l 70 X 2- 20 X 8 X 2~
fi.O
= 7 .3 ''l\.1~"
1

T hus with a ~l i gh t increase in the vnri nble action there is u significant increase in the
upl ifl and the structure becomes unsafe.
..
(b) Limit state method - ultimate load pattern
t\'1> this example includes a cantilever and also involves the requirement for static
equi li brium a1 A, partia l factors of safety of 1.10 and 0.9 were chosen for the permanent
actions as given in the lina row of values in table 2.2
The arrangement of tJ1e loads for the maximum uplift at A is shown in figure 2.3b.
Design permanent action over BC = IG x 20 x 2 = I . I 0 x 20 x 2 = 44 kN
Design permanent action over AR - I<; x 20 x 6 = 0.9 x 20 x 6 = lORkN
Design v<triable action = ~lo x 170 = J .5 x 170 255 kN

Taking moments about B for the ultimate actions

.f R _ (255
UpI l t A-
X2 + 44 X l - 108 X 3) _ }o kN
- 0
6.0
T herefore weight of foundation required = 38 kN.
A 7 per ccm increase in th e variable action will not endanger the structure, since the
acl.u<tl uplift will only be 7.3 kN as cnlculated previously. In fact in this case it would
require an increase of 61 per ccm in the variable load before the uplift would exceed the
weight of a 38 kN foundation.
 Limit state design : 23

Parts (a) and (b) of example 2.2 illustrate how the l imit state method or design can
ensure a safer result when the stability or strength of a structure is sensitive lo a smal l
numerical difference between the effects of two opposing actions of a similar
magnitude.

2.4 Combination of actions

Permanent and variable actions wi ll occur in different combina tions, all of which must
be taken imo account in determi ning the most cri tical design situation for any structure.
For example, the seU"-wcight of the structure may be considered in combination with the
weight of furnishings and people, w ith or wi thout the effect of wind acting on the
building (which may also act in more than one direction)
In cal'es where actions are to be combined it is recommended that, in determining
suituble design values, each characteri stic action is not only multiplied by the parti al
factors of safety, as discussed above, but also by a further f act.or given th e symbol W.
T his !"actor is generally taken as 1.0 other than wh ere described below:

(i) Combination values of variable actions

Where more than one variable action is to be considered (i.e a combination) then
the variable actions should be multiplied by a value of IJ! (denoted as 'l'o) ns given
in table 2.4. This ensures that the probability of a combination or a<.:tions being
exceeded is approximately the same a<; that for a single netion. As can be seen in
the table thi s is also dependent on the type of structure being designed.
Combination values are used for designing for (i) the ultimate limit state and
(i i) irreversible servicenbility limit states such as irreversible crucking due to
temporary hut excessive overloading of the structure.
(ii) Frequent values of variable actions
Frequent combinations of actions arc used in the consideration of ( i) ultimate limit
states involving accidental actions and (i i) reversible l imit states ~uch as the
serviceabi lity limi t states or cracki ng and deflection where the m:tions causing
these effects ure of a short transitory nature. Tn these cases the varinhle actions are
multiplied by a vu lue of 1T1 (denoted as IJ!·1) as given in table 2.4. The values of 1T1 1
give an estim ati on of the proportion of the total var iable acti on that is li k<.:ly to be
associrned w ith thi s parti cular combination of actions.
(i ii) Quasi-permanent values of variable action
EC2 requires t.hat, in certain situations, th e c fTct:ts of ·quasi-permanent.' a<.:ti ons
should be considered. Quasi-permanent (meaning 'almost.' pennnncnl) acti ons are
those that may be su~ta i ned over a long period but arc not necessaril y as permanent
as, say. the self-weight of the structure. A n example of such a loading wou ld be the
effect of snow on the roofs of bui ldings at high altitudes w here the weight of the
snow may have to be sustained over weeks or months.

Quasi-permanent combinations of actions are used in the consideration of (i) ultimate

limil Slates involving accidemal actions and (ii) serviceability limit states attribmable to.
for example, the long-term effects of creep and where the actions causing these effects.
whilst variable, arc of a more long-tem1. sustained nature. In these cases the variable
actions are multiplied by a value of IJ! (denoted as ili 2 ) as given in table 2.4. The values
) of 'T'2 give an estimation of the proportion of the total variable action that is l ikely to be
associated with this particular combi nation of actions.
24 mReinforced concrete design
Table 2.4 Values of \II for different load combinations

Action Combination Frequent Quasi-permanent

'1!, IJiz
Imposed load in buildings, category (see EN 1991 -1-1)
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area, vehicle weigh t < 30kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category G: traffic area, 30 kN < vehicle weight< 160 kN 0. 7 0.5 0.3
Category H: roofs 0.7 0 0

Snow loads on buildings (see EN 1991 -1·3)

For sites located at altitude /i > 1000 m above sea level 0. 7 0.5 0.2
For sites located at altitude H ~ 1000 m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0
Wind loads on buildings (see EN 1991·1·4) 0.5 0.2 0

0.7 X 1.5Q, 1.5Q,

Figure 2.4
Wind and imposed load acting
on an office building - stability
Ht HH
check

t
0.5 X

--
1.5W,

t
0.9G,
t
, 1.1 Gk
I

/~

(a) (b)

Figure 2.4 illustrales how the factors in table 2.2 and 2.4 can be applied when
considering the stability of the office building shown for overturning abour point B.
Figure 2.4(n) treats lhe wind load (Wk) as the lending variable action ancl lhe live load
(Qk) on the roof a.o; the accompanyi ng variable action. Figure 2.4(b) considers the live
load as the leading variable action and the wind as the accompanying variable action.

2.4.1 Design values of actions at the ultimate limit state

In general terms. for p('r.l'istent and transiem design situations the design value can be
taken as:

Design value (Ed) - (factored permanent actions) combined with (factored si ngle
leading variable action) combined with (factored remaining
accompanying variable actions)

The 'factors' wi ll, in all cases, be the appropriate partial factor of safety hr) taken
together with the appropriate value of iii as given in table 2.4.
 Limit state design 25

The design value can be expressed formalistically as:

£d = 1:?:"/G.jGk,jl +!'Q,IQk.t + 12:::: lo.;Wo,;Qk,;l (2.1 )

J2: 1 •> I

\'ore that the ..1.. sign in this expression is not algebraic: it simply means ·combined
with'. The L: symbol indicates the combined eiiect of all the similar action effects.
e.g. 1Lj2:l/'G.jGk.j1 indicates the combined effects of all factored permanent actions,
-.ummcd from the first to the 'j'th action. where there are a total of j permanent actions
acting on the structure. Two other similar equations are given in EC2, the least
tavourable of which can alternatively be used to give the design value. Jlowever.
equation (2.1) will normally apply for most standard situations.
For accide111al design silltations the design value of actions can be expressed in a
-,imi Jar way with the permanent and variable actions being combined with the effect of
the accidental design situation such as fire or impact. As previously indicated. such
accidentnl design situations wi ll be based on the frequent or quasi-permcment values or
actions with the load combinations calculated usiDg the appropriate 111 value(s) from
table 2.4

2.4.2 Typical common design values of actions at the ultimate

li mit state
For the routine design or the members within reinforced concrete structures the sl'nndard
design loading cases will oflcn consist of combinations of tJ1e permanent action with a
-,ingle variable act ion and possibly with wind. If the single variable act ion is considered
to he the leading variable action then wind loading will be the accompanying variable
.lction. The reverse may, however. be true and both scenarios mu~t be considered. In
' uch cases the factors given in tnble 2.5 can be used to determine the design value of lhe
actions. The value of 1.35 for unfavourable permanent actions is conservati ve, and used
throughout this book for simplicity. Alternative equations indicated in 2.4.1 may, in
some cases, give greater economy.

Table 2.5 Combination of actions and load factors at the ultimate limit state
n
L Persistent or transient design Permanent actions Variable action Wind
d siluotion (Gk) (QI,,l)
e Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable
Permanent + Variable 1.35 1.QQ(I) 1.50 0
·- Permanent + Wind 1.35 1.00 1.50

Permanent + Variable + Wind 1.35 1.00 1.50 0 \1! 0 x 1.50

Either of these two cases may be

critical - both should be considered
{ 1.35 1.00 IJ, 0 t3l x 1.50 0
= 0.5(2) X 1 .50
-0.75
1.50

(1) For continuous beams with cantilevers, the partial safety factor for the favourable effect of the permanent action should be taken as
1.0 lor the span adjacent to the cantilever (see figure 7.21 ).
(2) Based on the 'combination' figure in table 2.4 for wind
(3) lflo to be selected from table 2.4 depending on category of building (most typical value = 0.7)
fl (4) The partial safety factor for earth pressures may be taken as 1.30 when unfavourable and 0.0 when favourable
26 Reinforced concrete design

2.4.3 Design values of actions at the serviceability limit state

The design values of actions at the serviceability limit state can be expressed in a simi lar
way to equation 2. L but taking account of the different combinations of actions to be
used in the three different situations discussed above. ln the case of serviceability the
partial factor of safety, ~1 r will be taken as equal ro 1.0 in all cases.

(i) Combination values of variable actions

Ed = I?:= Gk,jl +Qk. l +I?:= IJ!o.; Qk.il

j>l t> l
(2.2)

(ii) F r equent values of variable actions

Eo~ = IL Gk.jl +l
,> 1
11
t, l Ql<.l +I?:= \]1 2. 1 Qk,il
t> l
(2.3)

(i ii) Quasi-permanent values of variable ac.tions

(2.4)

Note that. as before. the ...1.. signs in these expressions arc not necessnrily algebraic: they
simply mean 'combined with' . The terms in the expressions have the follow ing
meanings:

the combined effect of all the characteristic permanent actions where

the subscript 'j' indicates that there could be between one and 'j'
permanent actions on the structure
the si ngle leading characteristic variable action mu ltiplied by the
'r'
factor 1T1. where 111 takes the value of 1, \11 1 or 2 as appropriate from
table 2.4. The subscript ·1· inclicmes that thi s relates to the single
leading variable action 0 11 th e structure.

the combined cf'fect or nll the 'accompany ing' characteristi c variable

actions each multipliecl by the J.a ' ct.or ~~ . where \]'1 takes the value of
111 0 or 1T1 2 as approprime l'rom table 2.4. The .subscript ' i' indicates that
th ere could be up to ' i' variable actjons on t.he structure in ncldil'ion to
the single leading varinble action

( EXA MPLE 2.3

Combination of actions at the serviceability limit state

A simply supported reinforced concrete beam forms part of a building within a shopping
complex. It is to be designed for a characteristic pcrmanem action of 20 kN/m (its own
self-weight and that of the supported structure) together with a characteristic, single
leading variable action of 10 kN/m and an accompanying variable action of2 kN/m (both
representing the imposed loading on the beam). Calculate each of the serviceability limit
state design values as gi ven by equations (2.2) to (2.4).
 Limit state design 27

From table 2.4 the building is classified as category D. Hence. Yio = 0.7, 11! 1 = 0.7
and w2 =
0.6.
Combination value

Ed= IL
j~ l
GL,,, + Qu + IL Q~;)
i> l
'Vo.; = 20 + 10 + (0.7 x 2) = 31.4 kN/m
Frequent value

Ed = I~ Gk.jl +\h I QL. I +

J? l
IL s> l
qi2,i Qk,tl = 20 + (0.7 X 10) + (0.6 X 2)

= 28.2 kN/m
Quasi-permanent value

Ed = ~~ Gk,jl + ~~ W2,rQh,il = 20 + (0.6 x 10) + (0.6 x 2) = 27.2 kN/m

2.5 t Global factor of safety

The use of partial faclors of safety on materials and aclions offers considerable
flexibility. which may he used to allow for special conditions such as very high
\tandards of construction and control or, ar tJ1e other extreme, where structural fai lure
would be particularly disastrous.
T he global factor of safety against a particular type of failure may be obtained by
multiplying the appropriate partial factors of safety. For instance, a beam failure cau$Cd
by yielding of tensile reinforcement would have a factor of

~(, 11 x "fr 1. 15 x 1.35 = L.55 for permanent loads only

or 1.15 x 1.5 = 1.72 for variable loads on ly
Thus practical cases will have a value between these two figures, depending on the
rclutivc load ing proportions, and this can be compared w ith the value 1.8 which was or
the order of magnitude used by the load !'actor method prior to the introduction of l imit
~ late design.
Similarl y, failure by crushing of the concrete in the compression zone hns u f'w.:lor of
1.5 x 1.5 = 2.25 due t.o variable actions only, which reflects !he fact that such failure is
generally without warning and may be very serious. Thus the basic values of partial
factors chosen arc such !hal under normal circumstances the global factor of sn fety is
similar to that used in earlier design methods.
 CHAPTER 3
Analysis of the
structure at the
ultimate limit state
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
··••·•··•·•·••·• ·••• ·• •·•····· ··· ··· •··•···••·•···•··•···•••·•··· ·•········· ·
A reinforced concrete structure is a combination of beams, columns, slabs and walls,
rigidly connected together to form a monolithic frame. Each individual member must
be capable of resisting the forces acting on it, so that the determination of these forces
is an essential part of the design process. The full analysis of a rigid concrete frame is
rarely simple; but simplified calculations of adequate precision can often be made if
the basic action of the structure is understood.
The analysis must begin with an evaluation of all the loads
carried by the structure, including its own weight. Many of
the loads are variable in magnitude and position, and all
possible critical arrangements of loads must be considered.
First the structure itself is rationalised into simplified forms
that represent the load-carrying action of the prototype. The
forces in each member can then be determined by one of the
fo llowing meth ods:

1. applying moment and shear coefficients

2. manual calculations
3. computer methods

Tabulated coefficients are suitable for use only with simple,

regular structures such as equal-span continuous beams
carrying uniform loads. Manual calculations are possible for
the vast majority of structures, but may be tedious for large or
complicated ones. The computer can be an invaluable help in
the analysis of even quite small frames, and for some
calculations it is almost indispensable. However, the amount
of output from a computer analysis is sometimes almost
overwhelming; and then the results are most readily inter-
preted when they are presented diagrammatically. ~

28
 Analysis of the structure 29

---....
Since the design of a reinforced concrete member is generally based on the
ultimate limit state, the analysis is usually performed for loadings corresponding
to that state. Prestressed concrete members, however, are normally designed for
serviceability loadings, as discussed in chapter 11.

3.1 · Actions

The actions (loads) on a structure are divided into two types: permanent actions, and
variable (or imposed) actions. Permanent actions are those which are normally constant
during the structure's life. Variable actions, on the other hand. arc transient and not
constant in magnitude, as for example those due to wind or to human occupants.
Recommendations f'or the loadings on structures arc given in t·he European Swndarcls.
some of which arc EN I 99 1-1- 1General actions, EN I 99 I -1-3 Snovv loads, EN 199 I - 1-4
Wind actions, EN I 99 I - I -7 Accidental actions from impact and explosions, and
EN 199 I -2 Tral'lic loads on bridges.
A table of values for some useful permanent loads and variable loads is given in the
appendix.

3. 1.1 Permanent actions

Permanent actions include the weight of the Stlllcture itself and all architectural
components such as exterior cladding, partitions and ceilings. &Juipmcnt and static
machinery, when permanent fixwres. arc also often considered as part of the permanent
action. Once the sizes of all the structural members, and the details or the architectural
requiremems and permanent lixtures have been established. the permanent actions cnn
be calculated quite accurately; but, first or all , preliminary design calcul ations are
generally rcquireu to estimate the probnble sizes and self-weights or the structural
concrete clements.
For most rcinf'orccd concretes, a typical value for the self-weight is 25 kN per cubic
merre. bul a higher density should be taken for heavi ly reinforced or dense concretes. In
the case of' a bu ilding, l.he weights of any permanent p<lrlitions should be calculated
from the nrchitccts' drawings. A min imum parlit.ion loading equivalent to 1.0 kN per
square metre is often specifi ed as a variable action. but this is on ly Cldequntc for
lightweight partitions.
Permanent actions arc generally calculated on a slightly conservative basis, so that a
member will not need redesigning because of a small change in its dimensions. Over-
esti mation, however, shou ld be done with care, since the permanent action can often
actually reduce some of 01e forces in parts of the structure as will be seen in the case of
the hogging moments in 01e continuous beam in figure 3.1.

3.1.2 Variable actions

These actions arc more difficult to determine accurately. For many of 1hem. it is on ly
possible 10 make conservative estimates based on standard codes of practice or past
experience. Examples of variable actions on buildings arc: the weights of its occupants,
 r
30 Reinforced concrete design

furniture, or machinery; the pressures_of wind, the weight of snow, and of retained earth
or water: and the forces caused by 'thermal expansion or shrinkage of the concrete.
A large building is unlikely to be carrying its full variable action simultaneously on
all its floors. For this reason EN 1991-1-1: 2002 (Actions on Structures) clause 6.2.2(2)
allows a reduction in the total variable floor actions when the columns, walls or
foundations are designed, for a building more than two storeys high. Similarly from the
same code. clause 6.3.1.2(10). the variable action may be reduced when designing a
beam span which supports a large floor area.
Although the wind load is a variable action. it is kept in a separate category when its
partial factors of safety are specified, and when the load combinations on the structure
are being considered.

3.2 Load combinations and patterns

3.2.1 Load combinations and patterns for the ultimate limit state
Various combinations of the characte ri~l.ic va lues of permanent Gk, variable actions Qk,
wind actions Wk, and thelr partial factors of safety must he considered for the loading of
the structure. The partial factors of safety specified in the code arc discussed in
chapter 2. and for the ultimate limit slate the followin g loading combinations from
tables 2.2, 2.4 and 2.5 arc commonly used.
1. Permanent and variable nctions
1 .35G~ + 1 .5Q~
2. Permanent and wind actions

The variable load can usually cover al l or any part or the structure and, therefore,
should be ::IITanged to cause the most :;cvcrc stresses. So. for a three-span continuous
beam, load combination I would huvc the loading arrangement shown in figure 3.1, in
order to cause the maximum sagging moment in the outer spans and the maximum
possible hogging moment in the centre span. A stucly of the deflected shape of the beam
would confirm this to be the case.
Load combination 2. permanent + wind load is used to check the stabi lity of a
structure. A load combination of permanent + variable + wi nd load uould have the
arrangements shown in figure 2.4 and described in section 2.4 of Chapter 2.

1.35Gk + 1.50Q, 1.35G, + 1.50Q,

Figure 3.1
1.3SG,

l l
Three-span beam

t
A
j c

(a) Loading arrangement for maximum sagging

moment at A and C

(b) Deflected shape

 A nalysis of the st ruct ure 31

[
=i
1.3SC, + l.SOQ, 1.35G, + 1.50Q,

j"sc, j j'"c'l 1'%

1.35C, + 1.50Q,

(i) loading arrangements for maximum moments in the spans

F
1.35Ck + l.SOQ,
Figure 3.2
Multi-span beam loading
patterns

1.3SC, + 1.500\ 1.35C,. + 1.500. 1.3SC, + l.SOQ,

a

s =i !'"~ I I l'"c·l
(ii) loading arrangements for maximum support moment at A
t
1.35G, + l .SOQ,
1.3SC, 1.35Ck ~7
~~
'
A
I :.?~
\
t t 1 t
(Iii) Load ing for design moments
t t t
at the supports according to EC2
Note that w hen there Is a cantilever span the minim um load on the span
adjacent to the can tilever should be 'I.OG, for loading pattern (i)

Figure 3.2 shows the patterns of vertical loading on a multi-span conl'inuous beam to
cause (i) maximum design sngging moments in alternate spans and maximum possible
hogging moments in adjacent spans. (ii) maximum clesign hogging moments at
~upport A, and (iii) the design hogging moment at support A as 11pccificd by the EC2
code for simplicity. Thus there is a similar loading pattern for the design hogging
moment at each internal Mtpport of a continuous beam. It should be nmcd thai the UK
:-.rational Annex permits a simpler alternative to load c.:ase (iii) where a <;ingle load
ca~c may be considered of all spans loadecl with the maximum loading of
( 1.35(ik ·I 1.50Qd.
'·
s
3.3 Analysis of beams
To design a Sltl teturc it is necessary ro know the bending moments. tor~ i onn l moments,
'hearing forces and axial forces i n each member. A n elastic analysis is generally used to
a determine the distribut ion of these forces within the strucmre; bu t hcc:.~ use - to some
e c,xtent - reinforced concrete is a plastic material, a l imited redistribution of the clasti c.:
moments i ~ sometimes allowed. A plastic yield-line theory may be used tn calcu late the
moments in concrete slabs. T he properti es of the materials, such as Young's modulus.
which arc used i n the structural analysis should be those 11ssociatcd with thei r
characteri stic: strengths. T he stiiTncsses of the members can be culcu latecl on the basis of
any one or
the fo llowing:

the elllire concrete cross-section (ignoring the reinforcement);

2. the concrete cross-section plus the transformed area of reinforcement based on the
modular ratio;
3. the compression area only of the concrete cross-section, plus the transformed area of
reinforcement based on the modular ratio.

The concrete cross-section described in ( 1) is the simpler to calculme and would

normally be chosen.
32 Reinforced concrete design

A structure should be analysed for each of the critical loading conditions which
•
produce the maximum stresses at any particular section. This procedure will be
illustrated in the examples for a continuous beam and a building frame. For these
structures it is conventional to draw the bending-moment diagram on the tension side of
the members.

Sign Conventions
1. For the moment-distrihution analysis anti-clockwise support moments arc positive
as. for example, in table 3. 1 J'or the fixed end moments (FEM).
2. For subsequently calculating the moments along the span of a member, moments
causing sagging nre positive, while moments causing hogging are negative, as
illustrated in figure 3.4.

3.3.1 Non -continuous beams

One-span. simply supported beams or slabs are statically determinate and the analysis
for bending moments and shearing fo rces is readily performed manually. For the
ultimate limit state we need only consider the maximum load of l.35Gk + 1.5Qk on
the spun.

( EXAMPLE 3. 1
Analysis of a non-continuous beam
The one-span simply SLlpported hcam shown in rigure 3.3a carries a distributed
permanent action including ~elf-weight of 25 kN/m, a permanent concentrated action of
40 kN at micl-spnn, and a distributed variable action of I 0 kN/m.

Fig ure 3.3

Analysis of one-span beam
(1.35 X 2S + 1.50 X 10)4 = 195 kN

,__ 4.0 m

(a) Ultimate l0<1d

124.5 kN
27
27
(b) Shearing Force Dlngmm
'124.5 kN

(c) Bending Moment Diagram

Figure 3.3 shows the values ol' ultimate loacl required in the calculations of the
sheru·ing forces and bending moments.
54 195
Maximum shear force = 2 +T = 124.5 kN
. . 54 x 4 195 x4 •
Max1mum bend111g moment = - - -1 - - - = I:l l.5 kN m
4 8
The analysis is compleLccl by drawing the shearing-force and bcnding-momenL
diagrams which would later be used in the design and detailing of the shear and bending
reinforcement. )
l~----------------------------------------
 Analysis of the structure 33

icb 3.3.2 Continuous beams

be
'5e The methods of analysis for continuous beams may also be applied to cominuous slabs
of which span in one direction. A continuous beam is considered to have no fixity with the
supports so that the beam is free to rotate. This assumplion is not strictly t111e for beams
framing into columns and for that type of continuous beam it is more accurate to analyse
them as part of a frame. as described in section 3.4.
ive A cominuous beam should be anal ysed for the loading arrangements which give the
maximum stresses at each section. as described in section 3.2. 1 and illustrated in
nts figures 3. 1 and 3.2. The analysis to calculate the bending moments can be curri ed out
as manually by moment distribution or equivalent methods. but tabulated shear and
moment coefficients may be adequate fo r continuous beams having approximately equal
spans anti uniformly distributed loads.
For a beam or slab set monolithically into its supports, the design mornenl at th e
support can be taken as the moment at the face of the support.
·::.is
the
on Continuous beams - the general case
Hav ing tletermin cd the moments at the supports hy, say, moment distribution, it is
necessary to calculate the moments in the spans and also the shear forces on the beam.
For a uniformly distributed load, the equations for the shears and th e maximum 1-pan
moments can be derived from the rollowing analysis.

Load = w/metre
Figure 3.4
Shears and moments in a
beam

S.F

B.tvl

Using th e sign convemion of 11gure 3.4 and taking momems nhout suppon B:

therefore

{3.1 )

and

(3.2)
j
34 Reinforced concrete design

Maximum span moment Mmax occurs at zero shear, and distance to zero shear

a3 = -
V.,n (3.3)
w
therefore
VAB2
MmaJ< = -2w- + MAB (3.4)

TI1e points of conlraflexure occur at M = 0. that is

wxl
VAB X -2+ MAo = 0

where x the distance from support A. Taking the roots of this equation gives

VAs± j(v~,~/ +2wMAo)

.Y = ------'- -- -- - -
W

so that

\lAo - j(VAo 2 +2HMi\H)

CIJ = (3.5)

and

(3.6)

A similar analysis can be applied to beams that do not!>upport a uniformly distributed

loud. In manual calculations it is usually not considered necessary to calculate the
distances a 1• a2 and a3 which locate the points or eontrallexure and maximum moment -
a sketch of the bending moment is often adequate - hut if a computer is performing the
culculations these distances muy us well be determined nlso.
/\t the fnce of the support. width .v

M~u MAn - ( VAo - ~~r) ~

( EXA M PLE 3.2

Analysis of a continuous beam

The continuous beam shown in fi gure 3.5 has fl constant cross-section and supports a
uniformly distributed permanent action including its self-weight of Gk = 25 kN/m and a
v;u·iable action Q~ - I0 k.N/m.
The critical loading pallerns for the ultimate limit state are shown in figure 3.5 where
the ·stars' indicate the region of maximum moments, sagging or possible hogging.
Table 3. 1 is the moment distribution carried out for the first loading arrangement: similar
calculations would be required for each of the remaining load cases. It should be
noted that the reduced stiffness of ~Z has been used for the end spans.
 F
...
Analysis of the structure : 35

G, = 25 kN/m Q, = 1 0 kN/m
Figure 3.5
Continuous beam loading
6.0m 6.0m patterns
3.3)

( 1.35 X 25 + 1.50 X 1 0) X 6 (1.35 X 25 X 4,_)- -- - - - ,

1) I = 292.5 kN I 135 kN I 292 .5 kN
3.-l) * * *
( 1.35 X 25 + 1.50 X 10) X4

(2)
( 1.35
I
X 25
=2o2 5 kN
X 6)
I 195 kN I 202.5 kN
* * *
292.5kN 195 kN
(3) 202.5 kN
*
(4) 202.5 kN 195 kN
I 292.5 kN

")
~,,:>
_
Table 3. 1 Moment distribution for the first loading case

A B c D
3 I I 3 I
3.6) Stiffness (k) 4 'I L 4'I
3 1 1
uted .,.. 4 ' 6 = 0.125 4 = 0.25 = 0.125
the Distr. factors 0.125 0.25
~m­
0.125 + 0.25 0.'125 + 0.25
phe - 1/ 3 2/ 3 2/ 3 1/ 3
Load (kN) 292 135 292
F.E.M. - 292 X 6 +135 ~ 292 X 6
0 +--- 0
8 12 8
0 - 219.4 + 45.0 45.0 + 219.4 0
Balance + 58.1 + 116.3 116. 3 58. 1

Carry over 58. 1

X + 58. 1
Balance + 19.4 + 38.7 38.7 19.4
Carry over - 19.4 1- 19.4

Balance + 6.5 + 12.9 12.9 6.5

da Carry over - 6.5 I 6.5

ere Balance + 2.2 + 4.3 - 4.3 - 2.2

~g.
Carry over - 2.2 1 2.2
Jar Balance 'T 0.7 + 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.7
be M (kNm) 0 - 132.5 + 132.5 - 132.5 + 132.5 0
36 Reinforced concrete design

The sheruing forces. the maximum span bending moments. rutd their positions along
the beam, can be calculated using the formulae previously delived. Thus for the first
loading a1rangemem and span AB, using the sign convention of figure 3.4:
load (MAR - MRA)
Shear VAR = --- ..:..._----'--'-
2 '-
-292.5 132.5 - ? 2kN
- ---6.(}- L4.
2
vi3A = load - VAl/
= 292.5 - 124.2 = 168.3 kN
VAo2
Maximum moment, span AB = -2- + M,,R
w
where w = 292.5/6.0 = 48.75 kN/m. Therefore:
2
Mm:1x =?-X124.2
48.7.5
0 ?
+0 = I5o._ kNm

.
D!Stance ['rom A, a,=-
VAI3
• 111

124.2
= 48.75 - 2.55 m

The bending-moment diagrams for each of the loading arrangements are shown in
fi gure 3.6, and tl1e correspondi ng shearing-force diagrams arc shown in figu re 3.7. The
individual bending-moment diagrams arc combined in figu re 3.8a to give the bending-
moment design envelope. Similarly. figure 3.8b is the l>hearing-forcc desig11 envelope.
Such envelope diagrams arc used in the detailed de!>ign of the beams. as described in
chapter 7.
ln this example, simple supports with no fixity have been assumed for the end
supports at A and 0. Even so. the sections at I\ and I) should be designed for a hogging
momem clue to a partial fixity equal to 25 per ce11l of the maximum moment in the span,
lhtll iN 158/4 = 39.5 kNm.
133 '133
Figure 3.6
Bending-moment dlagmms (1) Ld
~
(kN 111)

158
"""-7 158
108 108
(2) ~
~ ~
103 103
151

(3) ~
""=/ 151
~
151
1~ A
(4) ~

~ ~
151
 Analysis of the structure
rnF.::l 37

124 168
~ ~
Figure 3.7
( 1) 67.5 r::---... Shearing-force diagrams (kN)
~ I -=::::::J67 5 .............. I
"'-J168 . '-..,J 124

83 97.5 119
(2) C>--. ~ ~
c:::::::::::::J 119 """""J 9 7.5 --=:::::::::::) 8 3

121 118~
<3> ~ 1 1~ I~
~ I """"J 85 -==z::::J 8 s
"'-J 171

85 171 ~
(4) ['-:.., SSt->, I ~
"""J 11 8
""'J 11 0 ""'J 121
151 151
Figure 3.8

(a) ~
.-::-----&'---====---->,~-----,., kN.m
Bending-moment and
shearing-force envelopes
\ ·-. ----/,i 11 " \: ;::.- - -- : -:l
~ ~
158 158

124 171
110 ~
(b) ~ ~ --- ~ kN

~~
110 124
171

Continuous beams with approximately equal spans and uniform loading

The ultimate bending moments and shearing forces in continuous beams three or or
more approximately equal spans without canLilevers can be obtained using relevant
coefficients provided that the spans c.liff'er by no more than 15 per cent of the longest
span, that the loading is uniform, and that the characteristic variable action does not
exceed the characteristic permanent action. The values of these coefficients are shown
in diagrammatic form in figure 3.9 f'or beams (equi valent si mplified values for slabs are
given in chapter R).
End Span Interior Spa11
Figure 3.9
0.11FL 0.10FL 0.10FL
Bending-moment and
(a) _.-/1 "'-- ./1 shearing-force coefficients
Bending Moments ~ <:::::::::::7 for beams
0.09H 0.07FL

(b) 0.45 F 0.55f

Shearing Forces r---._ r----__
-:::::::::] ---=::::::j
0.60F 0.55f
F = Total ultimate load on span = (1.35G 1 + 1.50~) kN
L = Effective span
 1
38 Reinforced concrete design

The possibility of hogging moments in any of the spans should not be ignored, even if
it is not i ndicated by these coeffici~nts. For example. a beam of three equal spans may
have a hogging moment in the centre span if Qk exceeds 0.45Gk.

3.4 Analysis of frames

In situ reinforced concrete structures behave as rigid frames, and should be analysed as
such. They can be analysed as a complete space frame or be divided into a series of
plane frames. Bridge deck-type structures can be analysed as an equi valent gri llage.
whi lst some form of finite-clement analysis can be utilised in solving complicated shear
W<Ll l bui !dings. All these methods lend themsel ves to solution by computer. but many
frames can be simplified for a satisfactory solution by hand calculati ons.
The general procedure for a building is ro :malyse the sl abs as continuoos members
supported by the beams or structural walls. The slabs can be ei ther one-way spanning or
two- way spanning. The columns and main beums are considered as a series of rigid
plane f rames whi ch can be divided into two types: ( I ) braced frames supporting vertical
londs onl y, (2) f rames supporting vertical and lateral loads.
Type one fra mes are in buildings where none of the lateral loads such as wind are
lransmitted to the colunUJs and beams but arc resisted by much more stiffer elements
such as shear walls, lift shafts or stairwells. Type two frames an; designed to resist the
lateral loads, which cause bending, sheari ng and axinl loads in the beams and columns.
For both types of frames the axial forces in the columns can generally be calculated as if
the beams and slabs were simply supported.

3.4.1 Braced frames supporting vertical loads only

A bui lding frame can be analysed as a complete frame, or il can be simplified into a
series of substitute frames for the vertical loading analysis. The frame shown in
figure 3. 10, for example. cw1 be divided i nto any of the sub frames shown in figure 3.11 .
T he substi tu te frumc I in figu re 3. 11 consists of one complete lioor beam with its
connectin g columns (which arc assumed ri gidly li xcd m th eir remote ends). A n analysis
of thi s frame wi ll gi ve th e bending moments and shearin g forces in the beams and
colu mns for Lhe lloor level consiclcrccl.
Substitute frame 2 is a single span combined with its connectin g columns and two
adjacent spans, all li xed at their remote ends. T his frame may be Ul'ed to determine the
bending moments and shearing forces in the centrul beam. Provided that the central span
is greater than the two adjacent spans, the bendi ng moments in the columns can also be
found wi th this frame.
Substitute f rame 3 can be used to fi nd the moments in the columns only . It consists of
a si ngle j unction, with the remote ends of the members fixed. This type of subframe
would be used when bean'ts have been analysed as continuous over simple supports.
I n frames 2 and 3, the assumption of fixed ends to the outer beams over-estimates
their stiffnesses. These values are, therefore, halved to allow for the flexibility resulting
from continuity.
The various critical loading patterns to produce maxjmum stresses have to be
considered. In general these loading patterns for the ultimate limit state are as shown in
figure 3.2, except when there is also a cantilever span wh ich may have a beneficial
minimum loading condition (I.OGk) -sec figure 7.2 1.
 Analysis of the structure ~ 39
0 if
aay

Half stiffness Half stiffness

l a<;

~
of
(2)
ge.
ear
my
Half sliffn ess Ha lf sli[fncss
lefS
r or
gid (3)

cal
'/

.are 1,7,?7;, 1,7,»; 1,7, »? '7i ~ 1-1 1, 11 2=Sto rey Heig hts
'lltS
Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11
the Building rrame Substitu te rram es
Ill!>.
~ if
When considering the critical loading arrangements for a column. it is sometimes
necessary to include the case of maximum moment and minimum possible ax ial load, in
order to investigate the possibility of tension fa ilure caused by the bending.

., a ( EXA MPL E 3.3

in
I I. Analysis of a substitute frame
its The substitute rrnme shown in figure 3.12 is part of the complete frame in fi gure 3.10.
;oiS
The characteristic actions carried by the beams are permanent actions (including self-
lmd weight) G~ = 25 kN/m, and variable action, Qk = 10 kN/m, uniformly distributed along
the beam . The analysis of the sub frame will be carried out by moment distributiou: thus
•\'0 the member stiffnesses and their relevant distribution factors are fi rs! required.
!he
pan
be Figure 3.12
K L M
Substitute fram e
E
"'
,.,.;

A B c D
E
Beam C!
ues 60 X 300 ....
:mg
t- 6.0m 6.0m ~ I
be I
'3so
"lll ~ 300
=ial Typical column
section
 ~~~
40 · Reinforced concrete design

Stiffnesses, k
Beam

I =
OJ x o.63 = 54
. X
lo- 3 m4
12
Spans AS and CD
5.4x iO J -1
kAB = kco = 6
.0 = 0.<) X )0 -

Span BC
5.4 x w-3
koc = 4.0
= 1.35 x 10 3

Columns

I = 0.3 ~~· 353 = 1.07 X 10- J m4

Upper
1.07 X 10-J
ku = 3.5
0.31 X 10-J

Lower
3
k1 = ].()7 X I () = 0.27 X 10- J
' 4.0
ku + kL = (0.3 1 I- 0.27) I0 ·J = 0.58 X IQ- 3

Distribution foctors
Joints A and D
I:k 0.9+0.58 = 1.4!;
D.F.Ao = D.F.oc = O.t)S = 0.61
1.4
0.58
D.F.cols = I.4S = 0.39

Joints B and C
2:k = 0.9 +
I .35 -l 0.58 = 2.83
0.9
D.F.RA = D.P.co = . = 0.32
2 83
1.35
D.F'.lJc = D.F.ca = 2.RJ 0.48
' 0.58 ( 0
D. i'.cols = . = ).2
2 83

The critical loading pa!lcrns for the ultimate limit state are identical to those for lhe
continuous beam in example 3.2, and they arc illustrated in figure 3.5. The moment
distribution for the first loading arrangement is shown in table 3.2. In the table, the
distribution for each upper and lower column have been combined, since this simplifies
the layout for the ca.lculations.
 D' ~· ia ~-

Table 3.2 Moment distribution tor the first loading case

A 8 c D

Cols. AB BA Cols. BC CB Cols. CD DC Cols.

(L;M) {LM) (LM) (l:M)
D.F.s 0.39 0.61 0.32 0.20 0.48 0.48 0.20 0.32 0.61 0.39
Load kN 292 135 292
+ + - + -
F.E.M. 146 146 45.0 45.0 146 146
- - + + .,. - - - I I
Bal. 56.9 89.1 32.3 20.2 48.5 48.5 20.2 32.3 89.1 56.9

c.o.
+
16.2
X -
44.6 24.2
X +
24.2
+
44.6
X -
16.2
- - + + + - - - + +
Bal. 6.3 9.9 22.0 13.8 33.0 33.0 13.8 22.0 9.9 6.3

+ - + + -
c.o. 11.0 5.0 16.5 16.5 5.0 11 .0
- - + + - - - - + +
Bal. 4.3 6.7 6.9 4.3 10.3 10.3 4.3 6.9 6.7 43

+ - + + -
c.o. 3.4 3.4 5.2 5.2 3.4 3.4
- - + - - - - - I +
Bal. 1.3 2.1 2.8 1.7 4.1 4.1 1.7 2.8 2.1 1.3
- + i" .;- - - + - -
M (kN m) 68.8 68.8
---
135.0 40.0 95.0 95.0
I 40.0 135.0 68.8 68.8
)>
::l
til
'-<
"'
;:;;·

-
0

:roT
,...,.
"'
2
n
,...,.
c
..,
ro
~::;;;;;t

I~
 lq
42 . Reinforced concrete design

The shearing forces and the maximum span moments can be calculated from the
f01mulae of section 3.3.2. For the' first loading arrangement and span AB:
(MAs - MsA )
Shear VAs = -load
2
-
L
= 292.5 _ ( -68.8 + 135.0) = 135 kN
2 6.0
l' nA = load - VAB
= 157 kN
= 292.5- 135
. moment, span AB = -v"s-1-1 M,,H
MaJ<.unum
2w
= 1352 68.8
2 >< 48.75
= J 18kNm
\1,\B 135
Distance from A, a3 =-;;;- = _ 2.8 m
48 75
Figure 3.13 shows the bending moments in the beams for each loading pattern;
figure 3.14 shows the shearing forces. These diagrams have been combined in
figure 3.15 to give design envelopes for bending moments and shearing forces.
A comparison of the design envelopes of figure 3.15 and figure 3.8 wiU emphasise the
advantages of considering the concrete beam as part of a frame, not as a continuous
beam as in example 3.2. Not only is the analysis of a subframe more precise, but many
moments and shears in the beam arc smaller in magnitude.
The moment in each column is given by
~ krol
Mcnl - LMcol X "k
L- col

135 135
Figure 3.13 69
~~

-v
Beam bending-moment J\{955 99551 69

~ /1~1\
diagrams (kNm)

( I) \7 A

118 118

147

(3)

79
114
147
102 80 ~ 67

(4) ~ 6
A---;-& A
~ \.1
79 "'---./
 ~
:;·:;
Analysis of the structure ·~ 43

be Figure 3.14
Beam shearing-force
diagrams (kN)
(1)

135

91 97.5~ 111

(2) [">. I"'- ~

133

(3)

92

n:
(4)
lfl

133

147 147
Figure 3.15
Bending-moment and
shearing-force envelopes
kNm

118 118

Thus. for the first loading arrangement and raking :2 Mcol table 3.2 gives
0.31
Column moment MAJ - 68.8 x _
0 58
= 37 kN m
0.27
MAt:. = 68.8 X _
0 58
= 32 kN m
0.31
MoK = 40 x -0.58 = 21 kN m

0.27 9
MoF = 40 x - - = I kN
0.58
m

This loading arrangement gives the maximum column moments, as plotted in

figure 3.16.
 ~~
44 WReinforced concrete design
Figure 3.16
Column bending
moments (kN m)

( EXAMPLE 3.4

Analysis of a substitute frame for a column

n1e substitute frame for this example, shown in fi gure 3.17, is taken from the building
frame in figure 3. 10. The loading to cause maximum column moments is shown in the
fi gure for Gk = 251cN/m and Qk = IOkN/rn.

Figure 3.17 ~/, ___-..-

Substitute frame E
~ l. lSG, <150Q. ~.35Gk~ ~
~ =292.5 kN =135 kN ~ f
~A B C ~
'" ~"" E
<:!I
'"I

~
,~ '
- 6.0 Ill ..... 4.0 ll1 ... 1

The stiffnesses of these members are identical to those calculated in example 3.3,
except that for lhis type of l'rame the beam stillnesses arc halved. Thus

kAu = 2I X 0.9 X 10 J = 0.45 X )()'"3

kBc = 'I X 1.35 X ) ()- ) = ().675 X J()- 3
2
upper column ku = 0.3 1 x 10 3

= 0.27 x 10 3
lower column kL
I> = (0.45 -1- o.675 -1- 0.3 1 + 0.27) x w-3 = 1.705 x 10- 3
6
fixed-end moment MsA = 292.5 x ? = .L46 kN m
)_

fixed-end moment MHc = 135 x 1~ = 45 kN m

18
16 kN m Column moments are

upper column Mu = ( 146. - 45 ) x -0.31- = l 8. kN m

1.705
0.27
Figure 3.18
lower column 1\ll~_ = ( 146 - 45) x - - 16 kN m
1.750
=
Column moments
The column moments are illustrated in figure 3.1 !\. They should be compm·ed with the
corresponding moments for the internal column in figure 3.1 6. )
l ---------------------------------------~
 Analysis of the structure f1 45
ln examples 3.3 and 3.4 the second moment of area of the beam was calculated as
bfl 3/ 12 a rectangular section for simplicity, but where ah in situ slab forms a flange to
the beam, the second moment of area may be calculated for the T-scction or L-section.

3.4.2 Lateral loads on frames

Lateral loads on a structure may be caused by wind pressures, by retained catth or by
_) ;;eismic forces. A horizontal force should also be applied at each level of a structure
resulting from u notional incl ination oft11e vertical members representing imperfections.
The value of this depends on building height and number of columns (EC2 clause 5.2).
hut w ill typically be less than 1% of the vertical load at that level for a braced structure.
This should be added to any wind loads at the ultimate limit state
A n unbraced frame subjected to wind forcel:i must be analysed for all the vertical
mg loading combinations described in section 3.2. 1. T he vertical-load ing analysis cun be
the carried out by the methods described previously . T he anal ysi s fo r the lateral loads
,hould be kept separate. The forces may be calculated by an elastic computer analysis or
by a si mplified approx imate method. For preliminary design calculntions. and also only
for med iu m-size regular structures, a simplified analysis may well be adequate.
A suitable approximate anal ysis is the cantilever method. It assumes that:
1. points of con tra f lexure are located at· the mid-points of all colu mns 11ncl beams; and
2. the direct axial loads in the columns are in proportion to their distances from the
centre of gravity of the frame. It is al so usual to assume that ull the column~ in a
storey arc of equal cross-sectional area.
It should he emphasised that these approximate methods may give quite inaccurate
results for irregular or high-rise structures. Application of thi s method is probably best
Illustrated by an example. as follows.

3.
( EXA MPLE 3.5
Simplified analysis for lateral loads - cantilever method
Figure 3. 19 shows a building frame subjected to a charucteri stic wind ncti on of 3.0 kN
per metre height of the f rame. This action is assumed to be tnmsfcrrecl to the frame as a
concentrated loud at each floor level as indicated in the fi gure.
By inspection, there is tension in the two columns w the left and compression in the
columns to the ri ght; and by assumption 2 the axial forces jn columns arc proporti onal to
their distances rrom the centre line of the frame.

--
5.25 kN
Figure 3.19

~
Frame with lateral load
10 .5!!:!._ 4th
E
.....
z
.>< 10.5~ 3rd
0
.,.;
II
2nd
'
--r
"',.;
"0 11 .2~ --I...
"'
!a j

~
., 12 .OkN 1st ...C!
;;;
-"
'
--r
C!
....
he
6.0 kN ~
~~
6.0
7l.r '?;~
4.0 6.0
'l/:(// '
_) I
 ~
46 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 3.20 <i

Subframes at the roof I
and 4th floor
f,= 0.54 F,= 0.675 F1= O.HkN

5.25 t ttJ
- . J--,--.....,....
.------.:-----r---+.- J ---,
s' - J!
H;= 0.93 H,= 1.70 It;= 0 .93

N,=4.0P N 1= 1.0P N = l.OP

3
= 0 .54 = 0.135 =0.135
(a) Roor

0.54 0.135 0.135 0.54

0.93 1.70 1.70 0.93

r:s
t l'
5.1 5.1 7.78

2.70 0.68 0.68 2.70

(b) 4 th Floor

Thus
Axial force in exterior column : axial force in interior column = 4.0P : L OP
The analysis of the frame continues by considering a section through the top-storey
columns: the removal of the frame below this section gives the remainder shown in
figure 3.20a. The forces in this subl'rame arc calculated as follows.

(a) Axial forces in the columns

Taking moments about point s, 2: M, - 0. therefore

5.25 X 1.75 +p X 6.0 - P X 10.0 - 4P X 16.0 ()
and therefore
P - 0. 135 kN
thus
N1 = - N4 = 4.0P = 0.54 kN
N2 = - N3 =: I .OP =: 0. J 35 kN

(b) Vertical shearing forces F in the beams

For each part of the sub f rame, L F = 0, therefore

F 1 = N 1 = 0.54kN
F2 = Nr + N2 = 0.675 kN

(c) Horizontal shearing forces H in the columns

Taking moments about the poi nts of comraflcxurc of each heam, L: M = 0, therefore
Hr X 1.75 - Nr x 3.0 =0
H 1 = 0.93kN
 ;:;*
~::~
Analysis of the structure P 47

:md

(HI + H2) 1.75 - N1 X 8.0- N2 X 2.0 =0

H1 = 1.70kN
The calculations of the equivalent forces for the fourth floor (figure 3.20b) follow a
'1milar procedure. as follows.

d) Axial forces in the columns

I: M, = 0, therefore
For the frame above section tr',
5.25(3 X 1.75) + 10.5 X 1.75 + P X 6.0 - P X 10.0- 4P X 16.0 = 0
P = 0.675 kN

therefore
N1 = 4.0P = 2.70
kN
N2 = l.OP = 0.68 kN

(e) Beam shears

F, = 2.70 - 0.54
= 2.16kN
F2 2.70 I 0.68 - 0.54 - 0.135
= 2.705 kN
(f) Column shears
H1 X 1.75 t 0.93 X 1.75 (2.70 - 0.54)3.0 =0
l-11 = 2.78 k.N
1
H2 = 2( 10.5 + 5.25)- 2.7!\

= 5.1kN
Values calculated for sections taken below the remaini ng floors are
third noor N1 = 7.03 kN N2 = 1.76kN
F1 = 4.33 kN F2 = 5.41kN
ll1 - 4.64kN H2 = 8.49kN
second floor N1 = 14. 14 kN Nz = 3.53 kN
/··1 7. 11 kN F2 = 8.88kN
Ht = 6.6 1kN H2 = 12. 14kN
first floor N 1 = 24.37 kN N2 = 6.09k.N
F, = l0.23kN Fz = l2.79kN
HI = 8.74kN H2 = 16.01 kN
The bending moments in the beams and columns m their connections can be
calculated from these results by the following formulae
beams Mu - F x! beam span
columns Me = H x i storey height
48 Reinforced concrete design

1.6 1.4 1.6

Figure 3.21 1 .6 3.0
Moments (kN m) and
reactions (kN)
1.6 4.9 8.9

4.9 8.1 14.9

8.1 13.2 24.3

13.2 17.5 32.0

17.5

24.4 6. 1 6.1 24.4

External Internal
Column Beams Column

so that the roofs external connection

Mu = 0.54 X 2I X 60 = 1.6kN m
Me = 0.93 X ;;1 X 3.:1- = 1.6 kN 111
As a check at each joint. L: MR = 2:: Me.
ThL: bL:nding moments due to characteristic wind londs in all the columns ancl beams
of this structure are shown in fi gure 3.2 1.

3.5 Shear wall structures resisting horizontal loads

t\ reinforced concrete structure with shear walls is shown in fi gure 3.22. Shear walls are
very effective in resisting horizontal loads such as P,. in the figu re which act in the
direction of the plane of the walls. As the walls arc relatively thin they of!'er litl'le
resistance to loads which arc perpendicular to their plane.
The Aoor slabs which arc supported by the walls also act as rigid diaphragms which
transfer and distribute the horizontal forces into the shear wa lls. The shear walls act us
vertical cantilevers transferring the horizontal loads to the structural rounclations.

3.5.1 Symmetrical arrangement of walls

With a symmetrical an·angemcnt of walls as shown in figure 3.23 the horizontal load is
distributed in proportion to the the relati ve stiffness k1 of each wall. The relative
 ~
Analysis of the structure i~:~ 49

Figure 3.22
Shear wall structure

-tiffncsscs arc given by the second moment of area of each wall about its major axis
-uch that
k, ~ h X b3
here h is the thickness of the wall and b is the length of the wall.
The force P; distributed into each wal l is then given by

P, f x i,kk·

( EXA MPLE 3.6

)
Symmetrical arrangement of shear walls
A structure with a symmetrical arrangement of shear walls is shown in figure 3.23.
Calculate the proportion of the JOOkN horizontal load carried by each of the walls.

Figure 3.23
lre Symmetrical arrangement
:he of shear walls
lle

ch E
0
N
as
E
"'

1- 10m _._ '

15m
50 ~ Reinforced concrete design
Relative stiffnesses:
Walls A kA = 0.3 X 2()3 = 2400
Walls B kR = 0.2 X R3 = 346
I: k = 2(2400 + 346) = 5492
Force in each wall :
kA 2400
P.... = I;k X F = 5492 X 100 = 43.7kN
ks 346
P8 = - x F
l:k =- - x 100 = 6 .•3 kN
5492
Check 2(43.7, 6.3) = 100 kN = F

3.5.2 Unsymmetrical arrangement of walls

With an unsymmetrical arrangement of shear walls as shown in figure 3.24 there will
also be a torsional force on the structure about the centre of rotation in addition to the
direct forces caused by the translatory movement. The calculation procedure for this
case is:
1. Determine the location of the centre of rotation by taking moments of the wal l
stiffnesses k about convenient axes. Such that

where k~ and k,. arc the stiiTncsses or the walls orientated in the x andy directions
respectively.
2. Calculate rJ1e torsional moment M, on the group of shear walls as
M, =F x e
where e is the eccentricity of the horizontal force F ahout the centre of rotation.
3. Calcu late the force P, in each wall as the sum of the direct component Pc1 and tl1e
torsional rotation component· Pr
P; = Pc~ + Pr
kx k;r1
= F X I;k., ± M1 X I;(k;r; 2 )

where r; is the perpendicular distance between the axis of each wall and the centre
of rotation.

( EXAM PLE 3.7

Unsymmetrical layout of shear walls

Determine the distribution of the I00 kN horizontal force F into the shear walls A, B, C.
D and E as shown in figure 3.24. The relative stiffness of each shear wall is shown in the
figure in tenus of multiples of k.
 Analysis of the structure [f~
yt. l1= 12.0m ....1 20m
Figure 3.24
Unsymmetrical arrangement
I of shear walls

' ~ I' I
E E:5k
'0 Centre of
o\
A: ZOk 1 rotation

rf
•' - --- - ~-
I
C: 6k
0: 5k

J.'= 6.4m
32m am

~-
I
20m 20m

F = lOOkN

Centre of rotation
L:;k, = 20 + 5 + 5 = 30
Taking moments for k.~ about YY at wall A
_ L:;(kxx) 2() X 0 +5 X 32 + 5 X 40
X =~= 30
= 12.0 metres
L_k,.= 6 H 10
Taking moments for k, about XX at wall C
l:(k,.y) 6 X 0 - 4 X 16
.)'---·-=
l:k,. 10
= 6.4 metres
The torsional moment /v/1 is
!VI, = F X (20 - x) 100 X {20 - 12)
= 800 kNm
The remainder of these calculations are conveniently set out in wbular form:

Wall kx ky kr J<r2 pd P,. PI

A 20 0 12 240 2880 66.6 - 20.4 46.2
B 0 4 9.6 38.4 369 0 - 3.3 - 3.3
c 0 6 6.4 38.4 246 0 3.3 3.3
D 5 0 20 100 2000 16.7 8.5 25.2
E 5 0 28 140 3920 16.7 11.9 28.6
E 30 10 9415 100 0 100

As an example for wall A:

PA - P, + Pr = F X r-
kA
k
M, X
kArA
L (k;r; 2)
20 20 X 12
= 100 x 30 - soo x
94 15
= 66.6 - 20.4 = 46.2 kN
 !1';;

52 ~~ Reinforced concrete design

Figure 3.25
Shear wall with openings
D
D
D

(a) Shear Wall (b) Idealised Plane Figure

3.5.3 Shear walls with openings

Shear walls with openings can be idealised into equivalent plane frames as shown in
figure 3.25. I n the plane frame the second moment or area lc of the columns is
equivalent to that of the wall on either side of the Clpenings. T he second moment of area
lb of the beams is equi valent to that part of the wall between the openings.
The lengths of beam that extend beyond the openings as shown shaded in flgu re 3.25
are given a very large stiffnesses so that their second moment of area would be say
100/b.
The equi valent plane frame would be analysed by computer with a plane f rame
program.

3.5.4 Shear walls combined with structural frames

For simpl icity in the design or low or medium-height structures shear walls or a l ift
shaft are usually considered to resist all of the horizontal load. With higher rise
:-~ tructu res for reasons of stiffness and economy it often becomes necessaty to inc lude
the combined action of' the shear walls and the structural frames in the design.
A method of a n a l y~ing a structure with shear walls and structural frames as one
equivalent linked-plane frame is illustrated by the example in figure 3.26.
I n the actual structure shown in plan there arc fo ur frames of type A and two frames
of type B which include shear walls. ln the linked frame shown in elevation the four
type A frames arc lumped together into one frame whose member stiiTnesses arc
multiplied by four. Similarly the two type B frames are lumped together into one frame
whose member sti ffnesses arc doubled. T hese two equivalent frames arc then l inked
together by beams pinned <H each end.
The two shear walls are represented by one column having the sectional properti es of
the sum of the two shear walls. For purposes of analysis tJ1is column is connected to the
rest of its frame by beams with a very high bending sti ffness, say I 000 rimes that of the
other beams so as to represent the width and rigidi ty of the shear wall.
The link beams transfer the loads axially between the two types of frames A and B sc1
representing the rigid diaphragm action of the concrete floor slabs. These link beams,
pi nned at their ends, would be given a cross-sectional area of say LOOO times that of the
other beams in the frame.
A s all the beams in the struclnral frames arc pressing against the ri gid shear wal l in
the computer model the effects of axial shortening in thc~e beams wi ll be exaggerated.
 1~
!:·~
Analysis of the struc ture .'.:: 53

A A B B A A
Figure 3.26
Idealised link frame lor a
structure with shear walls and
structural frames

.. shear
walls

a) Plan of Structure

p ins
t
l ateral
Load

s1 - I- s 2 - \..._b_-J j.., ~-I- s ~ ...1• sl ....1

very stiff
in / beams
is
rca .. shear
walls
.25
say

me

lift
'?.~ 'J. ~ 7?/?7- ::?,~::?,~ "?.~ 7?/~
Ide 4 N o, frames A~ 2 N o, frames B I
ll!e
- -- -
1
- L ~nks of large cross-sectional:rea
pinned at their ends

(b) Elcva tfon or lin k-Frame Model

leS
ur
!l'e
me whereas l:his would normally be of a secondary magni!llclc. To overcome th is the cross-
.ed '>CCtional areas of nil the beams in the model may be increased say to 1000 m2 and this
will virtually remove !he effects of axial shortenjng in the beams.
of In the computer output the member forces for type A frames would need to be
.he divided by a factor or four and those for type 13 fra mes by a factor of two.
be

:.0 3.6 Redistribution of moments

i!S.
be Some method of elastic analysis is generally used to calculate the forces in u concrete
srmcturc, despite the fact that the strucmre docs not behave elastically near it!> ultimate
ID load. The assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably true for low stress level!>; but as
~. a section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic deformation will occur.
54 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 3.27
Typical moment- curvature
diagram
c
"'
E
0
::E

Curvature

This is recognised in EC2, by allowing redistribution of the clastic moments subject to

ccnain limitations.
Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that or steel and concrete.
The stress- strain curves for the two materials (figures 1.5 and 1.2) show the elastoplastic
behaviour of steel and the plastic behaviour of' concrete. The latter will fail at a
relatively small compressive strain. The exnct behaviour of a reinforced concrete
section depends on the relative quantities nnd t·he iJ1diviclunl properties of the two
materials. However, such a section mny be considered vi rtually elastic unti l the steel
yields; and then plastic until the concrete fni ls in compres~ ion. Thus the plastic
behaviour is limited by the concrete failure; or more specitically, the C()ncrcte fai lure
limits the rotation that may tnke place at a section in bending. A typical moment-
curvature diagram for a reinforced concrete member is shown in figure 3.27
Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate
momelll of resistance, M 0 , it then behaves as a plaMic hinge resisting a constant moment
of that value. further loading must he taken by other parts of the structure. with the
changes in moment elsewhere being just the same as if a real hinge eJtisred. Provided
rotation of a hinge docs not cause crushing of the concrete. further hinges will be
fonned until a mechanism is pro<.luced. This requirement is considered in more detai l in
chapter 4.

( EXAMPLE 3.8

Moment redistribution -single span fixed-end beam

The beam shown in figure 3.28 is subjected to an increasing uniformly distributed load:
wL2
Elaslic support moment =12
wL2
Elastic span moment

In the case where the ultimate bending strengths are equal at the span and at the
supports, and where adequate rotation is possible, then the additional load w9 , which the
member can sustain by plastic behaviour, can be found.
At collapse
wL2
IWu= -
12
wL2
= -+ additional mid-span moment IIIH
24
where mR = (waL2 )/ 8 as for a simply supported beam with hinges at A and C.
 1
Analysis of the structure 55
w/unit length
Figure 3.28
load Moment redistribution,
one-span beam

Elastic BMO
MA=Mc = Mu

Additional moments diagram

(Hinges at A and C)

Collapse mechan ism

:: [0
Elastic BMD (Collapse loads}
Final Collapse BMD
?le.
~,:,tic

1\1
=-
3
'' the load to cause IJ1c first pl astic hinge; thu s the beam may cnrry a load of
.- ''ith redistribution.
fn,m the design point of view. the elastic bending-moment diagmm can be obtained
• r.:quircd ultimate loading in the ordinary way. Some of theNe moments may then
·e1ruccd; hut thi s will necessitate increasing others to maintain the static equilibrium
'tructurc. Usually it is the maximum support moments which arc reduced. so
-w..ing in reinforcing steel and also reducing congestion at the columns. The
emcnts for applying moment redistribution arc:

l:qullihrium between internal and external forces must be mnintaincd, hence it is

necessary to n.:calculate the span bending moments and the shear forces for the load
~••'e involved.

2. The cor11inuous beams or slabs are predom inately suhj t~c t to fkxure.
3. The rmio of adjacent sptms be in Lhe range of 0.5 to 2.
lid: ~. The column design moments must not be reduced.

T here arc other restriction s on the :.~mount of moment. redistribution in order to ensure
uucti lity of the beams or slabs. T his entails limjtations on the grade of rei nforcing steel
..ncl or th e areas of tensile reinforcement and hence rhe depth or the n eutr:~l axis as
described in Chapter Four -'Annlysis of the Section'.

ne
he

( EX AMPLE 3.9

Moment redistribution

In exnmplc 3.3. ligurc 3. 13, it is required to reduce the maximum upport moment of
MRI\ =147 kN m as much as possible. but without increasing Lhe span moment nbove
the present max imum value of ll8 kN m.
56 Reinforced concrete design

147
Figure 3.29
Moments and shears after
redistribution

114
(a) Original Moments (kN m)
140
67 WA1o8 80 102

~
4
LG 2 ~
\ / -;= ~
"'---../ 79
118
(b) Redistributed Moments (kN m)

1 34

92

(c) Shears (kN)

Figure 3.29a duplicates the origi nal bending-moment diagram (pan 3 of figure 3.13)
of example 3.3 while figure 3.29b shows the redistributed moments, with the span
moment set at l18kN m. The moment at support B can be calculated. using a
rcan·angement of equations 3.4 and 3.1.
Thus

V,,B J[(A'ln~.x - MAu)2wj

and

Mp,,, ~ (v.. .o- ;L)L I MAo

1

For span AB, = 48.75 kN m, therefore

w

V,., 11 / [(J 18+67) X 2 X 48.75 j = l 34kN

48.75 X 6.())
MBA=
( 134 - 6.0 - 67 = 140 kN m
2
and
lloA = 292.5 - 134
= 158.5 kN
Reduction in MoA = 147 - 140
= 7kNm
7 X 100
= - 147
-- = 4.8 per cent
 ~
Analysis of the structure .,.! 57

In order to ensure that the moments in the columns at joint B arc not changed by the
:'!C 'tribution, moment M 8 c must also be reduced by 7·kN m. Therefore
'=~• = 115 - 7 = 108 kN m hogging
Fnr the revised moments in BC:

l BC = (l 08 - 80) + 195 =: I05 kN

4 2
1 co = 195 - 105 = 90 kN
F r ~pan BC:
105 2 .
x . - 108
2 48 75
= 5 kN m saggmg
Figure 3.29c shows the revised shearing-force diagram to accord with the
-~..!Nrihutedmoments. This example illustrates how, with redistribution
the moments al a section of beam can be reduced without exceeding the maximum
c.;,ign moments at other sections;
" values of the column moments are not arrcclcd; and
3 the equilibrium between external loads and internal forces is maimaincd.

3.13)
pan
ng a
 CHAPTER 4
Analysis of
the section

CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
•·•··· •·· ···• ·· •·······•••·······••• •• •••·•••·•·•··•···· •••• •·••• ··•·• ···• •·•
A satisfactory and econom1c design of a concrete structure rarely depends on a
complex theoretical analysis It is achieved more by deciding on a practical overall
layout of the structure, careful attention to detail and sound constructional practice.
Nevertheless the total des1gn of a structure does depend on the analys1s and design of
the individual member sections.
Wherever possible the analysis should be kept simple, yet it should be based
on the observed and tested behaviour of
reinforced concrete members. The manipula-
tion and juggling with equations should
never be allowed to obscure the fundamental
principles that unite the analysis. The three
most important principles are

1. The stresses and strains are related by the

material properties, Including the stress-
strain curves for concrete and steel.
2. The distribution of strains must be compa-
tible with the d1storted shape of the cross-
section.
3. The resultant forces developed by the
sect1on must balance the applied loads for
static equilibrium.
These principles are true Irrespective of how the stresses and stra1ns are distributed, or
how the member is loaded, or whatever the shape of the cross-section
This chapter describes and analyses the action of a member section under load.
It derives the basic equations used in design and also those equations required for
--.
58
 Analysis of the section 59

___,.
the preparation of design charts. Emphasis has been placed mostly on the analysis
a sociated with the ultimate limit state but the behaviour of the section withm the
elastic range and the serviceability limit state has also been cons1dered
Section 4.7 deals with the redistribution of the moments from an elastic
analysis of the structure, and the effect it has on the equat1ons denved and the
tiesign procedure. It should be noted that EC2 does not g1ve any explicit
equations for the analysis or design of sections. The equations given in this
chapter are developed from the principles of EC2 in a form comparable with the
(Quations formerly given in BS 8110 .

.1 Stress-strain relations

n-term ~trcs~-strain curvc1-. for concrete and steel are presented in I:C2. These
e~ arc in un idealised form wh1ch can be used in the anCIIysh. of memhcr :-.ecuons.

.. 1. 1 Concrete
bl:ha"iour of '>tructural concrete (figure 4.1) i~ reprel>ented by a paruholic '>Ire~'
m rclauon~hip. up to n strain -,·~ · from which point the 1-.tr:un increa-;e, '' hile the
"' rcmam~ con'>tant. The ultimate design :.tress is gl\·cn hy
0.85f.l
1.5
- 0.567l~l

rc the factor ol 0.1!5 allow~ for the dillcrence bet\\ecn the bcnd111g \trength and the
1 fer cru1-.h ing stn.:ngth of the concrete. and;'< = 1.5 ;, the w.uul partial \lllety factor
'le strength of concrete. The ultimate strain of feu~ = 0.0035 ~~typical for cla~'c' of
CS0/60. Concrete cla:.sc:. < C50/60 will, un less otherwise stated. be

~
Figure 4.1
E Parabolic-recta ngular
Porabolic
-
.z 0.851,.
stress -strain diagram for
C011crete m compression

,,
0.0020 0.0035
Strain
60 Reinforced concrete design

cono;idcred throughout this book a~ these are the classes mo~t commonly used in
reinforced concrete construction. Also for concrete clas~cs higher than CS0/60 the
delining propertie such a-, the ultimate \train . ,111 vary for each of the hjgher classes.
Oel>ign equations for the higher cla\),CS of concrete can in general be obtained using
similar procedures to those shO\\n in the tC\t with the relative properties and coefficients
obtained from the Eurocodes.

4.1.2 Reinforcing steel

The representative !.hort-term design !>tre~s strain curve for reinforcement is given in
tigure 4.2. The behaviour of the steel i~ identical in ten,ion and comprc!>sion, being
linear in the clastic range up to the de1-ign yteld ~tress of f>kh, where jyk b the
characteristic yield ~>tress nnd ), is the partial tnctQr of safely.

Figure 4.2
Short-term design wess-stmin 1,.
CUIVe for relnforcEC>ment T.
Tens1on and
compression
eE
z
200kN/mm1

Stra1n

\\ 1thm the cla:-.tic range. the rclauon~hip hct\\~Cn the Mrel>' and strain is
Stres\ elaqlc mouuiU\ ,.. stralll
(4.1 )
= £,
'iO that the uel>ign yield Mraut i1>

E) = (l~k);r.·
~' ~~,

ulthe ultim:tte limit for.f),~ - 500N/mm 2

~y = 500/( 1.15 X 200 X 101)
= 0.00217
It !.houlu be noted that EC:! permits lhc u~c of an ulternutive design strc!>s-strain
curve to that shown in figure 4.2 with an inclined top branch and the maximum strain
limited to a value which is dependent on the clth:-. of reinforcement. However the more
commonly used curve shown in figure 4.2 \\ill be U!.Cd 111 th1s chapter and throughout
the text.

4.2 Distribution of strains and stresses across a section

in bending
The theol) of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the
regions of tcnllilc <;train~ and that. after cracking, all the tension is carried by the
 Analysis of the section 61

if- P- JF-
in - E« ' - - s- 0.8x Figure 4.3

,_•~ ._,_;_d~
the • Section with strain diagram
as.~ and stress blocks
n':utral
,.._ axts
c
A,
• • (a) (b) (c)
triangular rectangular cquovalent
paraboloc rectangular
mtoon Strains Stress blocks

ment. It i-; also ns~umed thar plane ~ections of n ~tructural member remuin
atter ~trnining, so thnt ncros~ the section thl.!re must be a linear distribution of

rc l3 .~ hows the cross-section of a member subjected w bending, and the

t struin diagram. together with three different types ol stress distribution in the

triangular ~tress tlistribution applies when the stre<.sc~> 01rc very nearly
' ntonalto the strain~. which generally (lt;curs ntthc loading h:\cl!<. cncour11crcd
e \Hirl,ing condltiOn\ and is, therefore. used ut the scrvicenhJiitv limit ~tate.
ed.tngular parabolic \trcs« hlocli. represents the dJstrihution at failure when the
1 essi\c 'trams are\\ ithin the plastic range. and it "associated '~ith the deS~gn
I rt ultunatc limit state.

C<flll\'alcm rectangul;lr 'tress block is a '>impht1ed altcrnall\e to the rectangular-

tx_,hc dl'trihuuon

- I mere ts cornpatihtht) of strain<. bet\\cen the reinforcement and the adjacent

e. the ~tecl \truins ~ ·t 111 ten~ion und ...... tn compresston cun he determined from
n dragram. The relntlonshtp). het ween the depth of neutrul u\1!-. ( ') and the
m concrete \trurn (~ <u2l ond the ~teel strnin~ arc given by

(4.2}

u' (\ d')
.\
(4.J)

- d 1' the effective depth of the beam and d' is the depth olthe cumpre~:-.mn
ment.
n.., determined the \train,, we can evaluate the streS!>es in the reinforcement from
,_,train curve of figure 4.2, together wrth the equations de\ cloped 111
12
'\I\ of u secuon with known steel strains, the depth of the neutral a \i\ can be
:ion r d b) rearranging equation 4.2 ac;
tl
(4A )
62 Reinforced concrete design

At the ultimate limit !.tate the maximum comprel!sive strain in the concrete is taken as
feu:! = 0.0035 for concrete clas-. ~ C50/60
For higher classes of concrete reference should be made to EC2 Table 3.1 - Strength
and deformation characteristics for concrete.
For \tecl ''ilh.f;t = SOON/mm1 the y1eld strain from section 4.1.2 is f> = 0.002 17.
Inserting these values for .:cu~ and :> mto equation 4.4:
d
\' = 0.00217 = 0 ·611d
1
+ 0.0035
Hence. to en~ure yielding of the tcn!.ion ..,tccl at the ultimate limit state:
X~ 0.6J7c/
At the ultimate limit state it JS important that member sections in Aexure should be
ducti le and that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and
not hy a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete. Also, yielding of the
reinforcement enables the formation of p l n~tic hinges \O that rt!distrihution of maximum
moments can occur. resulting in a safer and more economical ~trut:ture. To en .. ure
rotation of the plastic hinges with ~ufficient yielding of the ten!'ion ... tecl and also to
allow for other factors such a~ the strain h:.mlcning of the steel. EC'2 limit~ the depth of
neutral axis to
0.4Sd
for concrdc da~., CS0/60.
Thi' 1:. the hmiting ma\imum \aluc for 1 gl\cn b} I.C2 w1th no redistrihut1on applied
to the momcntl> calculated b) an cla\liC anal):-1' ot the c;tructure. a.c; described in
Chapter 3. When moment redi,tnbuuon '' apphcd these maxunum values of .t arc
reduced a:. described m Section 4 7
The UK Annex 10 EC2 can gl\·e different limiting \alucs for 1. The EC2 value of
\ OA5d is within the Aunex·~ rcqu1red limit' and 11 ensures thut a grudual tcn~ion
fuilure of the steel occur:, at the ultimate limit \late. and not wdtlcn briulc fuilure of the
concrete in compression.

4.3 Bending and the equivalent rectangular stress block

For most reinforced concrete ~tructure~ it is u~ua l to commence the design for the
conditiom at the ult i mr~te limit state, fo llowed hy check~> to ensure that the structure i~
adequate for the serv1ceability limit state with(lut excessive dcncction or cracking of the
concrete. For this reason the analy\i~ in thi~> chapter will lirst consider the ~implitied
rectangular stress block wh1ch can he U\Cd for thc design at the ultimate limit state.
The rectangular stress block us shm\n in ligurc 4.4 may be used in preference to the
more rigorous rectangular-parabolic strc" block. This \imphfied stress distribution will
fac1htate the analysi' and provide more manageable de.,ign equations. in particular
\\hen dealing \\ith non-rectangular cro!>s-scctions or when undertaking hand
calculation~.
It can be \ecn from figure 4.~ that the stress block doe" not extend to the neutral axis
of the section but has a depth~ = 0.8.\. Th1s will result Ill the centroid of the stress block
being sf2 OAOx from the top edge of the ~ection, which i~ very ncar!) the same
location a' for the more precise rectangular- parabolic stre~., hhx:k. Abo the areas of the
 Analysis of the section 63

iaten as 0.0035 0.85f,Jy, = 0.567("

"
b Figure 4.4
I ---J l..o -
_L Singly reinforced section w1th
rectangular stre55 block
'
f
s/2

~u- _l
S=0.8r-.-
~ ---_:"
j

ax1 L: l,d
217.
A.
,_
• • F,

Section Stress Block

'res of slre~s block arc approximately equal (see 11ection 4.9). Thu~ the momen1 of
uld be ,t.tnce of the section will be simi lar using calculations based on either of the two
,, hlods.
I and
. .,f the -he tle11ign cquntions derived in sections 4.4 to 4.6 arc for tcro redistribULion of
mum ncnt!>. When moment redistribution is uppl ied, reference ~hou l d be mudc to
1011 4. 7 which uc,cribe~ how to modify the design equmions.
eo~ure

'o to
rpth of
4.4 Singly reinforced rectangular section in bending at
the ultimate limit state
4 4.1 Design equations for bending
lfDhcd Bendang of the \ection will mduce a resultant tcn,ilc force F, 1 m thc reinforcmg \lecl,
lkd in 31ld a resultant compre"t''e force Ill the concrete /\, which act' thmugh the centrotd of
I arc the- effective arca nf concrete in compres~ion. a!> 1-hnwn in figure -1...1.
f-ur eqtullbnum. the ultimate destgn moment. M. mu't he balanced by the moment of
a.: te of ,t,tance of the 'ection so thai
lerl'\1011
H 1-.<-:. F,,: (-1.5)
t the
hcrc ;: the luver arm bet ween the resultant forces F,( anti /· , 1
f _. Mres~ x areu of uction
)lock o.567J~~ x JJ.1
.md
r the
ore is : d s/2 (4.6)
1lthe
'>O 1hat sub~tiluting in equation 4.5
"'tfieu
.Je. M
11he Jnd replacing 1 Jrom equation 4.6 gives
\\ill
... ular M - 1.13-l.fclh(d ;::);:: (4.7}
hand Rearranging und wbslttuting K = M fbd~f.l:

axic;
(:/d)'- (:./d) K 1.1 34 0
lock Soh ing Lhi~ quadratic equation:
-arne
, the t~[o.s + j(o.2s- K/ 1.134)) (-1.8)*
64 Reinforced concrete design

K M bd1 f.. 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.167
0 954 0.945 0.934 0.924 0.913 0.902 0.891 0.880 0.868 0.856 0.843 0.830 0.820

Figure 4.5 1.00

Lever-~rm curve maxomum value of z/d
accordong to the Concose Code
and previous UK practoce
0.95

..,';:;
Compressoon
~" 0.90 reonforcement
required (al Mb•t)

0.85

0.82
0 0.05
i1 010 0 lS 0 167
1
K M/bd /l,

The percentage values on the K axos mMk the limits for stngly reonforc.ed sections
woth moment redtstrobutoon applted (see Sectoon 4.7 dnd Table 4.2)

tn equation 4.5
F,, = V~ "' 1 \ "ith ~ , I 15
0.87J; ..A,
lienee

(4.9) 4

Equations 4.8 <~nd 4.9 can he u~cd to de~ign rhe area of tension reinforcement in ~
singly reinforced concrete section to resi~t an ultimate moment. ;II.
Equation 4.R fm the lever arm :can also he used 10 ~ct up a table and drnw o lever·
arm curve as shown in ligure 4.5. This curve may h~.: U\CULO determine the lever :trm • •
instead nf solving equation 4.8.
=
The lower limi t of 'l. 0.82d in llgurc 4.5 oct:ur~ when the depth of the neutral ax11
equals 0.45d. This is the max imum value allowcc.J hy EC2 foro singly reinforced seclim
wirh concrete class less than or equal to ('50/60 in order to provide a ductile section thu
will have a gradual ten~ion type failure as already described in section 4.2.

4.4.2 The balanced section

The concrete ~ection "irh the depth of neutral axi~ at the spectficd m<l\imum dept11 o
0.45d 1s often referred to a<, the balanced ~ecuon because at the ultimate limit state tht
concrete and tension '>ted reach their ulumare -.rr;un~ at the same time. This occurs a
the ma-<imum moment or resi~tance for a 'illlg.l) rem forced section. that is a -;ection \\ 111
no compres,ion -.tcel. So for thi secuon w1th
Xrut = 0.45d
 Analysis of the section 6

0e depth of the stres:. block is

0.1 67
OoR\h,J) = 008 X 0.45d = 0036d
• 00820
The force in the concrete stress block is
F ,, = 00567/.1. x b~ - 00204/c;;bd
For cqUJhbnum Lhe force m the concrete Fccbal mu~t he balanced by the force F,rt>al in
'reel. So that
...,, Ool:l7.1)~A,".ll - F"b.'' = Oo2<Hf.:kNJ
1'hc cfore
\ o.tl = 0.234f~k [)(/ /})~
that

23.4/:~ per cent

/vk
u:h is the steel percentage for a balanced section which ~hou l u not be excccucd for a
..:ulc ~ingly reinforced secuono
=
fhuo.,, for example. with f~k 25 N/ mm2 anti f..~ 500 N/mm ~

J()(JA,"" 1 - '>J • .<

bd - -· o"t 500
25
"3 04 x
~
~
500
1.17 1)er cent

nt ullunnte moment of resil'-tancc of the balanced ~cc1 ion b M ...,1 Fn~,, 1 :hJI where
: 1 ti \( 2 - 0o8:!c/
h'tituting for r ..h..l anti ::
\/1\;11 Ool6 7J~~..bd 1
(4010)
nd
1/J
0.167 K NI
(4.9)* ~hd

. M,t
ment in u
\\hen the de~1gn moment M11 1~ such thm 0 b , Kbo•l 00167 then the sc~.:ltOn cannot
fcl.. (1•
'mgly reinforced and compression reinforcing steel i:-. requino:tf in the compn.:s,ion
a lever- nl' of the ~ection. Thi~ is the limiting value of K Oo l 67 mar~ctl on the horiz.ontal
.:r arm. :: a.' ' of the lever arm curve l'hown in figure 4.5 .

• rral axis
eJ ...ection
,.
EXA MPLE 4.1
~uon that

Design of a singly reinforced rectangular section

':'"he ultimate dc~ign moment 10 be resi sred by the sec1ion in figure 4.6 i~ I R5 kN mo
Determine the area of ten:>ion remforcement (t\,) required given the charactcnMic
Jeplh of 11aterial ~uocngths are fu = 500 :-..tmm1 and f., = 25 N/mm'
<;tate the M A,
;ecur' at
on with
" hd'J~ ~
185 10"
• •
00147 < 00 167 Figure 4.6
:!6() 4401 X 25 Design example - singly
tncrefore comprc~~ion :.teel is not required. reinforced section
66 Reinforced concrete design

Lever arm:

~ = d{ 0.5 T / ( 0.25- ).~14)}

=-wo{o.5~ /(o.:?5 O.l·H)}
1.134
= 373mm
cor allcmalively. the value ol ~ = f.,d he obtained from the lever-arm diagram,
figure 4.5.)
M
A,== 0.87}~~ ::
185 X 106
= 0.87 X 500 X 373
I 140 mrn 2

Analysis equations for a singly reinforced section

'I he following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a given
:-.cction \\ ith a kno'' n area of \lee! retnforcement.
For equilibrium of the compres-.tve force 111 the concrete and the tensile force in the
\tcl'l tn figure 4.4:

or
0.567J~~b = 0.87J~vl
~

Therefore depth or ~lfC).S block. ·~

0.87/yk/\,
(4. 11 )
0. 567~~b

and
x = s/0.80
Therefore the moment or resi\lalll:e of the section i~

M P,1 X::
- 0.8~~vl,(d - .1/ 2)
. ( O.!l7{1 ~t\,)
=- o.87}yiA d - u3.iJ~~..b (4.12)

The~e equations assume the tension reinforcement ha'> >ielded. which will be the case if
.\ < 0.617d. If thi., i-. not theca~c. the problem would require solving by trying
-.uccessh·e value' of..\ unttl

with the Meel Mrains and hence '>tresses being determtncd from equations 4.2 and 4.1. to
be u\cd in equation 4.12 instead of 0.87f~k·
 Analysis of the section

EXA MPLE 4.2

Analysis of a singly reinforced rectangular section in bending

Determine the uJlimatc moment of resistance of the cm'>s-~ecuon ~ho\\n in fiuure 4.7
~I\ en that the chamctcri!>tic strengths are i)l = 500 Nlmm1 for the rcinforcen;ent and
:!5 N/mm2 for the concrete.

0.567f,
Figure 4.7
agram,
- ,- Analysis example - singly
reinforced sect1on

0
:;:; - --- neutral
axi~

A, .. t470 mm1
•••
_____)
For equilibrium of the compressive and tcn~ite forces on the ~cct ion

Frc - /·,1
t a gi\'en
0.567/..lb.l' O.X7/;kA 1
tree m the
0.567 < :!5 3()() X I= 0.87 X 5(X) X 1470
therefore
150mm
.1110

.1 .1/ 0.8 15CJ; O.X

lHH mrn
t4.ll)
fhi~ value of .1 is l c~s than the value of 0.6l7d derived froml>Cction 4.2. and therefore
the steel has yielded and /,1 = O.X7/y~ a~ a~"umed.
Moment ol' re1>istance of the section is

0.~7/yki\,(d ,1'/2)
6
O.H7 x 500 x 1470{520- 150/2) x lO 284 kN m

-l.J2)

case if 4.5 Rectangular section in bending with compression

trying reinforcement at the ultimate limit state
(a) Derivation of basic equations
It -.houhJ be noted that the equauons in thb !-.Cc.:tion ha\'e been deri\ed for the case ot
.ru -l.l, to
zero moment rcdiMrihution. When this is not the ca"e, reference should he made to
'ection 4.7 '' hich deal' with the effect of moment rcdbtrihut1on
68 Reinforced concrete design

0 0035 0.567(,,
Figure 4.8 b
Section w1Lh compress1on
remforcemenl
~ .....
.--- ---,_j_d 1
• A,' • 1 X~ 0 45d
neutral
d
ax1s lbll

. A, .

Section Strains Stress Block

from the ~ection deal ing with the analysis uf u 1>ingly reinforced section nnd for
concrete class not grcall:r than CS0/60 when
M > 0.167fckbd~
the design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of' re~il>turu.:c of' the concrete(Mbal) and
therefore compression reinforcement i~ required. For 1his condition the depth of neutral
axis, 1 .... 0.45c/. the maximum value allowed hy the code in order to en&ure a tension
failure with a ductile ~cc1ion. Therdorc
::t-111 = d- !it-aJ/'2 = d O.Rlh:ll/2
= d - O.t{ 0.45cl,2
= 0.8:!d
For equilibrium of the section in ligurc 4.K

~o that Wtth the reinforcement at yteld

O.R?f)~l\~ = 0.567j~~bs O. K~f~~~~:

or with
S 0.8 X 0.45d 0.36d
(4. 13)
0.!:\7}~1.A, 0.204fdbd 1- 0.8~/ykA~
and taking moments about the centroid of the tension l.lecl.

M - F.c x ;:""' I F\<;(d - d')

= 0.204/.kbd X 0.82c/ + 0.87/;kA:(d - d')
= 0.167fckhcP + 0.87}y~,A' (d- d') (4.14)
rrom cqunuon 4.14
M- O.l67hbd1
I
(4. 15)*
A, = O.R7J;dd- d' )

Muluplying both ;,ide;, or equation 4.13 by : =0.!!2d and rearranging gi vel>

O.l67fdhd1 I
A = .... 1\ (-U6)*
' 0.'07};1. X .:ba1 '
\\ ith ;:,., = 0.82d.
 Analysis of the section 69

.. areas of compression steel. A~. and tension l>tecl, A,, can he calculated from
5 and 4.16.
1 1g Arut 0.167 and K = M I bd7cl into these equations would convert

(4.17 )*

(4.18)*

a }sts it hru, been assumed that the compressiOn steel ha' yielded so that the
'J ... = 0.87}yl.· From the proportions of the strain distribution diagram:
0.0035
and tor (4. 19)

r ) and
neutr.d
a ren ...ion

0.0035
=
\\ith };1. 500 N/mm~. the steel strain "' = ~) = 0.00217. Therefore for
l l the compresston o,teel

() 002 17 <, 0.38 (4.20)•

0.0035
~ =0...15tl
() 171 (4.21 )

rnttu or d' / d for the yielding of other grades of steel can be determined by u. . ing
tclu ~train in equmion 4.19. but for values of ]yl. les& thun 500N/mrn'. the
-+.13) <. tton or equation 4.2 1 will provide an adequate safe check.
II I' cl .. 0. 17 1. then it is necessary to calculate the strain f ,~ from equation 4. 19 and
determine J~~ l'rom
/:', X • 'c

200000 "'
-l.14)
\,tlue of stress for the compressive 'tccl mu~t then he u~cd in the denominator of
ton 4.15 in place of 0.87/yL in order to calcu late the area A: of compression steel.
Tbe area of tension steel is calculated from a modified equation 4.16 such that
- 15 ~
A = 0.167/..kbc/~
0.87/yL;J,at
-A
'
1 /,..;

0.87Al
ne above equauon' apply for the calo.e \\here the concrete clu"' "' Ic-.-. than or equal
- 16 ( 50/60. l·or concrete cla!>ses greater than CS0/60 ~imilar equation ... \\llh different
'tam~. can be derived based on the EC2 requtrement for the-.c classes. The constant11
r concretes up to clalo.s CS0/60 arc tabulated in table 4.1.
70 Reinforced concrete design

Table 4.1 Limiting constant values

Concrete class~ CS0/60

Limiting xt...1 d 0.45
Maximum Zbaf 0.82d
Ktx~l - limiting K 0.167
Limiting d' d 0.171
Maximum percentage steel area 1 OOAoa1, bd 23.41, 0 , fv<

(b) Design charts

The equations for the design charts arc obtained by taking moments about the neutral
axis. Thus
M = 0.567fck0.8x(.x- O.Sx/2) +J~cA~(,I d') + f,.A,(d- .1)
This equation and 4.13 may be written in the form
A, . Y A~
f.,, bd - 0.45·+fd d t .f-.: hd
M
' = 0.454/,~ -,,
\-~
(I - 0.40) d') A,( (~)
f.,, bd I
bl l- t- d
For ~pccificd ratios of A: / lu/ . .1jd and d' / d. the two non-dimcn:-.ional cquations can be
'>olvcd to give \aluc~ for A j btl and M ' /}{/' \o that a ~ct of dc.,1gn charts such as the one
'hm' n in figure 4.9 ma> be plotted. Before 1hc equation' can be ~olved. 1he steel stresse~
r. and./~ f11U'1,l be calculmed for each value of 1/ d. Thi~ i!> achieved by first determining
the rclc\ ant strain:- from 1he strain dwgram (or by applyu1g cquauons 4.2 and 4.3) and
1hen by e\aluating the stresse:-, from the Mres., ·Slram curve of figure 4.2. Values of t:/d
below 0.45 will apply when mome111s are rcdi~tnbllled. ltl>hould be noted that EC2 does
not give design charts for bending. Hence although 1t 1~ po'~1ble to derive cham; a<.
indicated. it may be Simpler to u~e the equations derived earlier 111 thi~ chapter or simple
computer program~.

Figure 4.9 4.0

Typical de~lgn chart ror doubly 12 2.0
relnrorced bec~ms 15

10 1.0

0.5

0 0.5 10 1.S 2.0 25 3.0 3.5

lOOAJbd
 Analysis of the section 71

( EXA MPLE 4 . 3 I
Design of a rectangular section with compression reinforcement
'lO moment redistribution)

"i'le ~ec lion !thown in figure 4.10 is to resist an ultimate design momcm of 2g5kNm. The
c racterislic material strengths are fyk = 500 N/mm 2 and };:~ = 25 N/mm 2. Determine
e areas of reinforcement required.
M
bd~fck

285 ( l<t - 0 1'>6 A,

aeutral
260 X 440~ X 25 - ·--
> 0.167 • •
Figure 4.10
~refore compre~sion steel is required Design example with
compression reinforcemen l,
d'!r/=50/440 0. 11 <... 0.17 1
no moment redistribution
as 111 ~.:quation 4.21 and the compres:.ion !.~eel will have y1elded.

C mpre 'l>ion :.tecl:

(K - K~>•l }j;,bd'
0.87.1)dd d')
L n be (0.226 0.167)25 ) 260 X 4402
=.;.._~~:---
one 0.87 X 500(440 5())
e~~e~~
=438mm2
0111£
~ .1nd
xld Kt...tf~kbtf 2 I
2Joe~ 0.87./)l~t~.~l +-A,
' a~ 0.167 X 25 X 260 -W()2
nplc = 0.87 500(0.82 4.40) . . . 438
)<

= 1339 + 438 - 1777 mm~

r~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------.,
EX AMPLE 4 .4 I
Analysis of a doubly reinforced rectang ular section
Determine the ultimate momem ol resistance of the cross-section shown in figure 4.1I
that the characteristiC \trengths are f,k = 500 N/mm 2 for the reinforcement and
,_!IV en
J, = 25 N/mm 2 for the concrete.
For equilibrium of the tcn~ i le and compressive forces on the .o,ection:
F,1 = F cc + F,_
\~suming initially that the steel ~tresses fs1 and fs, arc the design yield values, then
0.87/ykAs = 0.567fcL/H O.X7})LA~
72 Reinforced concrete design

0.5671,,
Figure 4.11 b~ 280
Analysis example, doubly I• .. I r ..
reinforced section
t •A."= 628• d =50
' s = 0.8~
F,.

£
.,..
.., '
.4.~2410

• •
Section
- F.,

Stress Block

therefore
0.87/vk(/\,- A~)
.~
0.567f~kb
().H7 x 500(2410 628}
0.567 X 25 X 2SO
= 195 mm
s/0.8 = 244 mm
1 -

1/d - 244/510 0.48 < 0.617 (~ee ~ection 4.::!)

!>O the tension steel will haw }icldcd. Also
d' j.1 = 50/ 225 0.22 <.. 0.38 (~cc equation 4.20)
so the compres<;ion steel \\Ill abo have ) tcltled. as as~umcd.
Taking moments about the tcn-.iun steel
M = F,,(cl - ~ 2) r "'( d d' )
0.567f,kb:.(tl - 1/ 2) ~ O. H1j>~A~ (d d')
11
·0.567 x 25 x 280 x 195(510 195/ 2)+0.!!7 > 'i00 :><. 620(510 50) X lO
= 319 - 124 443 !...N m
If the depth of neutral axis was such that the comprc~>sive or tensile ~teel had not
yielded. it would have been nccc1.sary to try successive vnluc:, of .r unlil
F" = Fe,· + F..,
balances with the &teel ~trains and ).Lrcs~es being c.:ulculaled from C4m11ions 4.2, 4J and
4.1. The btcel ~;tresses at halancc would !hen be used to calculate lhe moment of
resistance.

4.6 Flanged section in bending at the ultimate limit

state
T-sections and L-~ections which have their flanges in comprc~~•on can botl1 be designed
or analy:-ed in a similar manner. and the equations \\ hich arc derived can be applied to
either type or cross-section. As the Range~ gene rail} pro\ ide a large compressiYe area. it
j.., usually unnecessary to cons1der the ca~c where compressiOn steel i:-, required; if it
.should be required. the design would be ba~cd on the principles derived in ..,ection 4.6.3
 Analysis of the section 73

lbc '1ngly reinforced section it is necessary to consider two conditions:

--e'~ block lies within the compression tlonge, and

.:'' block extends beiO\\ the flange.

Flanged section - the depth of the stress block lies within the
:ge s hr (figure 4.12)
acpth of stress block. the heam can be considered as an equivalent rectangular
1 llreadth bt equal to the flange width. Thi~ is because the non-rectangular
belm the neutral axb i' in tcns10n and b. therefore, con'>idered to be cracked
:U\c. rhus K = M /btd~f..~ can be calculated and the lever arm determ1ncd from
a m curve of figure 4.5 or equation 4.H. The relation between the lever arm. ;:.
\.of the neutral axis is given by
d I 2

- d- ::)

O..S671,,
Figure 4. 12

"1 • 1r-1 T-~cctlon,stress block with1n

the rldnge, s h1
, - --n-eu-tr_a_la-xi-5-~ X -~ - "F.,
·8rx
s/2

-r· r ---
S

F.,
,
10
Section Stress Block

e" than the flange thtd..nes-; Chr). the we~s block doc~ lie wtthtn the nange as
....._.._..___...... 1nd the area of retnforccment is given hy
M
ll S~fvk:.

de,ign of aT-section beam is described further in section 7.2.3 with a worked

e.

It
E. MP LE 4.5

~lysis of a flanged section

n nc the ultimate moment of resistance of the T-section ~hown in figure 4.l3.
dl.tractcri<.tie material ~trength~ arc [ 11. - 5()() N/mm1 and /d -= :!5 N/mm1.
'\.5 ume initially that the Mrc~~ block depth lies wi thin the Oang~: and the
~:e mcnl is strained to the yield. ~>O thal /.11 0.87 }yk·
74 Reinforced concrete design

0.567f,,
Figure 4.13 b, = 800
Analysis example or a
~ ' r--
T-section, s < llf
---~~ral~i~- - h1 =150 t-=fF- s/ 2

- - • • • A,= 1470 mm< _j

F,.
.
Section Stress Block

For equilibrium of the \ecuon

Fe, = F,,
therefore

and ~olving for the depth ol stress h l o~.;k

0.87 X 5()(} X 1470

.\ -
0.567 X 25 X 8()()
= 56mm < 111 - 150mm
.\ = 1/ 0.8
70mm

Hence the stress blocl. does lie within the Aangc ami with thi' depth of neutral axi~ the
t->lcel wil l have yielued a~ ns:-.umec.J.
Lever arm:

~ d s/ 2
- 420 - 56/ 2
'392 nun
Ta~ing moment~ about the centmid of the reinforcement the moment of resiMance il>

M F" x :.:
;::: 0.567}~kbrs:.:
1
0.567 X 25 X 8()() X 56 X 392 X 10 '

249 kN m

If in the analysio; it had been found that s > h1 • then the procedure would have been
:.unilar to that in example 4.7.

4.6.2 Flanged section -the depth of the stress block extends below
the flange, s > h,
For the design of a nanged section, the procedure dcscribt.:d in section 4.6.1 wil l check if
the depth of the stress block extends below the nangc. An alternative procedure is to
calculate the moment of resi tance. M1, of the section with s = lt1, the depth of the
 Analysis of the section 75

~e (see equation 4.22 of example 4.6 following). Hence if the de~ign moment. Md. is
~h that
\/d > Mr

'1 the <;tress block must extend beiO\\o- the flange. and
ltr
ht\ ca\c the design can be carried out b) either:
a w.. ing an exact method to determine the depth of the neutral axis. as in example 4.6
or
tle~igning for the conservative condition of x = 0.45d. which ;, the maximum
value of r for a ~o. ing l y reinforced section and concrete class ~ C':'i0/60.

r
EX AMPLE 4 .6

Design of a flanged section with the depth of the stress block below the flange
~I-tt: T-section heam )hown in figure 4.14 is required to rcsi~t an ultimate design
~1 ment of IXO kN m. The churacteri~tic material strengths arc .f>l :'iOO N/mm 2 and
2
25 N/mm • Calcu late the area of reinforcement required.

0.5671,, Figure 4.14

·r-
1 'the I j Design example of a T·sewon
h,. 100
s I l h.
' X

axo} · -~ '"" j lo
ll

A
• • F,.
l~b,. 20'L.

Section Stress Block

In figure 4. 14
Fe~ is the l'orcc developed in the flange
I c"' is the force developed in the area of web in comprcsl.ion
\lomcnt of re~istance. Mr. of the flange is
been
Ml F.~ X ;:1
_) ur
Jfr 0.567}ckbl ltr(d 111 / 2) (4.22)"'
0.567 25 X 4()() X 100(350- 100/ 2) X JO -h
below
= 170 I..N m < 180 k~ m. the design moment
Therefore, the :..tress blod. mu~t extend belo'' the flange .
. eck if
-e IS to
It is now nece~saf) to determine the depth. s,. . of the web in compres,ion. where
f the
76 Reinforced concrete design

For equilibrium:
Applied moment
IHO /·~r x ::1 -'- F," x ~!

= 170 ..L 0.567f.:~ b"s" v ;:2

6
- 170-0.567 X 25 X 200l., (250- 1" / 2) X I()
170 + 2835sw(250 ~w /2) X 10- h
Thi 'i equation can be rearranged into
~ .. 2 - soo~.. t 1.os < 10
1
=o
Solving this quadratic equauon
v.. - 15 mm
~o that Lhc depth of neutral axis
X (/tr + sw)/0.8 (100 j 15)/0.8
= I.Wmm 0.4ld
A\ \ 0.45d compn!~~•on remforcement i~ not required.
For the equilibrium of the section
F,1 - F,1 I Few
or
0.87/>kA, - 0.567j;.b,h + 0.567 /.:~ b,.. s,.
0.87 < 5(X) X tl , 0 567 X 25(400 X 100 -r 200 15) = 610 X 101

Then:fore
610 X 10 1
0.87 X 5()()
1402mm~

( EXAMPLE 4.7
Analysis of a flanged section
Detcnnmc the ultimate moment of re~istance of the T-bcam section 'ho\\ n in figure 4.15
g1vcn h~ - 500 N/mm 2 and fck = 25 N/mm 2.
rhc compressive force in the nange is
F.r 0.567 f.:kb, It,
o 567 x 2s x 450 ISO x Io-3 957 kN
Then tcn~ile force in the remlorcmg <;teel, a-.suming it has yielded. i'
F·,1 0.87/ykA,
0.87 x 500 X 2592 x 10- 3 = I 128 kN
 Analysis of the section 77

0.567fc,
/). =450 Figure 4.15
Analysis example of a
•ht =150 T-section, s > /If

Section Stress Block

cfore 1-', 1 > F" so that s > lit and the force in the web is
f " 0.567/dbw{.V - fir)
0.567 X 25 X 3QO(s - 150) X lQ 3

4.25(.1 - 150)
equi librium
F. F,1 F"

4 ~5 ( 1 150)..: I 128 - 957

... '-e
= 190 nun
1 10.R 231:1 mm = 0.43d
\\nh thr\ depth of ncutml a\is the reinforcement has yielded, :I\ assumeu. and
F, .. 4.25(190 150) 170kN

_) It f 1> F,,, the the strc~~> block wou ld not extend beyond the llange and th~: ~cction
~ld he analysed Ul. in cxumplc 4.2 for a rectanguiLlr ~>ection of dimension!~ b1 x d.)
l rng momcms about th~.: centroid of the reinforcement
\I F~ r (d flt /2) I f· cw(d ~/2 hr /2)
[957(550 150/2) I 170(550- 190/2- 150/2)] x 1() - 1
5.19kN m

!-+.15

( EXA MPLE 4.8

Design of a flanged section with depth of neutral axis x - 0 4Sd

,Jfc but con:-.crvmive desrgn tor a flanged section with f > Jr1 can be achieved hy
ung the depth of neutral axis to .r = 0.45cl, the maximum depth allowed in the code.
[l~, rgn equations can IX! derrved for this condition a:. follows.

Depth of Mres~ blocl... s 0.8x = 0.8 x OA5d = 0.36d

78 Reinforced concrete design

O.S67fc~
Figure 4.16
Flanged section with depth of
=
neutral axis x 0 45d
r-
x =OASd
s" 0.8x
d
aXIS
_j_
'
A,
• • f,,

Section Stress Block

Divide the flanged ~ection within the depth uf the ~tn:s~ block into areas l nnd 2 ns
shuwn in figure 4.16. so that
Area I = bw X s = 0.36b,,,d
Area 2 (br hw) X ht
and the comprc:-.sion forces developed hy these area~ urc
Fd 0.567.f.:~ x 0.36b,.d 0.'1f..,b,.d
Fc2 - 0.567.1~~ ~~1 (b, - /J" )

Taking moment~ about Fr' at the centroid of the flange

M F,,(d h1 /2) Fd (.\j2 h, /2)
= 0.87/ikA,(d- h / '1 )- 0.2/..lb,.d(O. \()(/
1 11,)1 2
Therefore
!:' + 0.1 /.:lbv. d(0.36d - ht)
(4.23)*
cunr~~ (d - 0.511, )
Thi~ equation should not he u~ed when 11 1 0.36d.
Applying thi::. equation to example 4.6:
180 X I 06 + 0.1 X :!5 X 200 X 350(0.36 X 15() I00)
A, - (J.ln X 500(350 - 100/2)
2
l~ l 4mm 1 (compared w ith 1407 111111 in cxamrlc 4.6)
Before using equation 4.23 for calculating A,, it i\ necessary to confirm thnt
compre!>sion reinforcement i~ not required. Thi~ is achil!vcd by using equation 4.24 to
chcc.:k that the moment of rcsi~tancc ot the concrete. M 11ul. i~ greater than the design
moment, M. )
l---------------------------------------~
4.6.3 Flanged section wit h compression reinforcement
\V1th x OA5d m figure 4.16 and taking moment\ about A_. the max1mum res1stance
moment of the concrete is
Mba! = Fc1 X ~I + Fe'! X :'2
= 0.167fc..b,.d 2 - 0.567fc~ (bc- bw )(cl - hr/ 2) (4.24)
(Note that the value of 0.167 was derived in equation 4.10 for the rectangular section.)
 Analysis of the section 79

(4.25 )..

c .tpplied design moment. M > MbaJ. compression reinforcement i' required. [n

,e the area of comprc)o~ion steel can be calculated from
M - Mt\Jt
0.87J;dd d') (4.26)

coo~ tdcring the equilibrium of forces on the section

r the nrco of tens10n steel is

<qf~kbwd + 0.567 J~~/11 (bt - b" ) +A 1
0.87 ;;.~ ~
(4.27)

< 0.18, otherwi11e the de~ign compre~-o~ive steel ~tre~s i~ less than 0.87 ;~~, .
1
n. t1 /.\

.7 Moment redistribution and the design equations

pht\tic hcha,·iour of reinforced concrete at the ultimate limn state affects the
huuon of moment' 111 a \tructurc. To allow for this. the moment!> denved from an
111••tnal)l>i' may be redi-.trihuted based on the a~sumplion that plastic hinge-. have
ed at the section<, \\ tth the largest moment' (see secuon 3.6). 1 he fonnatton ol
1 ~ htnge' require\ relnth ely large rotations with )'ielding of the ten \ion
•rcement To ensure large \tram-; in the tension Meel. the code of practice n.:\tncts
epth ol the neutral axi~> according to the magnitude of the moment redi,tribution
cd out.
Tne equation~-. for thi~. gtven by EC2 for concrete ci<L~~ less than or equal to CS0/60 is
I k ,\'b,ll
i' 2: "I I 2 d

(4.28)
•here
moment at section after redistribution
- ---- < 1. 0
) moment m section hefore redistribution
.nd ~ ~ ore con .. tant~ from the EC2 code and the UK Annex and ,.h•l is the max1mum
ah I! of the depth of the neutral axi~ which will take the limiting value of the equality of
equation (4.28) but should be less than OA5d for concrete cia<;" < CS0/60.
Tht: depth of the 1>trcs' block is
= 0.8.\'t>.l
an the le\cl arm ts

(4.29)
80 Reinforced concrete design

The moment of resistance of the concrete in compression is

Mt>al - Fcc X Zt>>l =- 0.567 fc~bSt->al X ;:bat

and
Koot = Mbal/bd~fck = 0.567.1hat X :.~>at/d~
This equation for K""1 and the previous equations from 4.28 to 4.29 can be arranged to
give
Kt>al - 0.454(/' - k!) j k2 - 0.182"(6- ~l)/k2j~ (4.30)
or alternatively

Kt>ul 0.454c~;t') c:')

From EC2 clause 5.5 the constnnts k, anu k2 arc given as: k 1 0.44 and k2 - 1.25, but
from the UK A1u1ex to EC2 k 1 = 0.4 and k2 1.0.
The relevant values of Xtll'" Zbal and Kbnl ror varying pcrccntagcs of momem
redistribution and concrete c;luss < C50/60 are shown in table 4.2.
When the ultimate design moment i~ ~uch that

M > KhaJbd 2f.:l

or K > Kbal
then compre:.sion !)teel i!> required '>Uch that
I (K Kto.tift~hd 1
A - .;_,..,..--.;_..;;..;.._--.,... (4.31 t•
• 0.87/ydd- d')
and

(4.32)

Mto.. t
where A (4.33)
bd 2./,l
These equations arc iucnlical in form to tho~c derived previou~ly for the design of a
~ection with compre~sion reinforcement untl no moment rcdi:-.tributton. If the value ot
d' /d for the section exceeds that :-.hown in table 4.2, the compression steel will not have
yieluetl and the compressive stress will be l cs~ thun 0.87 /y~· In such cases. the
compressive stress _he will be E~!~c where the strain 1, i:-. ohtuincd from the proportion)
or the strain dingram. This vnlue of ./~c shou ld replace 0.87/Yk in equation 4.31, and
equation 4.32 becomes
Kbat/~k bd ~ A1 ./~c
A, :;: + ' X ---
0.87 .1) ~ <-t>al 0.87 /vl
It should be noted that for a singly reinforced ~ection (K < Kbatl. the lever arm i~
calculated from equution 4.8.
For a l.ection requiring compre~sion 'teel, the lever arm can be calculated lrom
equation 4.29 or by U'>ing the equution

-: = d[o.s- )(0.25- Koot/1.13-t)] (4.3-t

"hich il> similar to equation 4.8 but with Krut replacing K.

 Analysis of the section 81

Table 4.2 Moment redistribution design factors

{o x001/d Zt>al/d Kbal d'/d

According to EC2, k, - 0.44 and k2 = 1 25

0 1.0 0.448 0.821 0.167 0.171
l=-ed to
10 0.9 0.368 0.853 0.142 0.140
15 0.85 0.328 0.869 0.129 0.125
~JO )
20. 0.8 0.288 0.885 0.116 0.109
25 0.75 0.248 0.900 0.101 0.094
30b 0.70 0.206 0.917 0.087 0.079
According to EC2, UK Annex, k1 - 0.4 and k; - 1.0
0 1.0 0.45 0.82 0.167 0.171
t5. but 10 0.9 0.45 0.82 0.167 0.171
15 0.85 0.45 0.82 0.167 0.171
mem 20" 0.8 0.40 0.84 0.152 0.152
25 0.75 0.35 0.86 0.137 0.133
30b 0.70 0.30 0.88 0.120 0.114

• Maximum perm1tted redistribution for class A normal ductility ste~l

b Max1murn perrnltte?d redistribution lor class Band C h1gher ductility ~teel, see section 1.6.2

/EX AMPLE 4 . 9

Design of a section with moment redistribution applied and to 08

The -;cellon 'hown 1n figure 4.17 i::. subject to an ultimate design moment of 230 k.. m b e 260

niter a 20'/r reduction due to momem redistribution. The characten,tit matcnal Mrcngths
112)* Jre ~~~ 'iOO t\/mm 2 and /.;~ = 25 N/mm 2• Determmc the area' of reinforcement so
required Ul>ing the con,tants ~~ ond ~1 from (a) the EC2 and (b) the UK unncx to EC2.
d'•
l • • A,' 0
..."'
I 3.3)* II
(a) Using EC2
"'
"t n
e of
IJVC
the
(1) From first principles
Limiting neutral axis depth,xhJI
I rum EC2 clau!>e 5.5 ~1
(b - k,)d/k~
0.44 and k~ - 1.25, Figure 4.17
•
A,

·-
Dc~lgn example with moment
~ ons therefore .thul (0.8 - 0.44)490/1.25 = 14 1mm redistnbution, ~ = 0.8
and StI'C!.S blocI,. depth ~hal = ox~hJI 11 3 mm
Lever arm :h•l = d - .lbal/2
490 l l3/2 = 434mm
'-'1omcnt of rc~btance of the concrete
MhJI F,., :t>al 0.567 f~~hl'bal X Zbal

0.567 X 25 X 260 X 113 X -l34 X 10 II

from 181kNm
<. 230 kN m, the applied moment
therdorc compre~<..ion 'oteel is required.
d'jxt,.al = S0/ 141- 0.35 < 0.38 ( ee equation 4.20 in :.ection 4.5)
therefore the compression steel has yielded.
82 Reinforced concrete design

Compression steel:
I M - MOO!
A, = 0.87[f.:{d - d')
(230 -181 ) X l(f
= 0.87 X 500(490 - 50)
- 256mm~

Tension steel:
M t>al 1
A, - -:-A,
0.87 /,LZbJJ
J8J X 106
= 0.87 X 500 X 434 -256
=959 + 256 12 15 mm2

(ii) Alternative solution applying equations developed in Section 4.7

From equations 4.30 to 4J4:

Khal = 0.454(0- k1 )/k1 0.1821(~ At J/k1':

- 0.454(0.X 0.44 )/ 1 25 O.llUI(O.H - 0.44 )/ 1.25/
0.131 -0.015 = 0 116
which agree<. with the value given in tahlc 4.2.
M
K
bd2J,L
228 X 10"
260 X 49()1 X 25
= 0.146 ~ Kbal- 0.116
Therefore compression Meel ~~ requtrcd.
Comprc~l>ion steel:

1\ 1 (K - Kbntlfc~bd 1
~ O.R7.1'ydd- d')
{0. 146 0. 116)25 X 260 X 490 2
= 0.87 X 500(490 50)

Tension steel:

Zhul =d[0.5 ~ J(Ols- Kt>n17TIT4)

d[o.s.,.. J(o.2s- o.II6/ Ll34)) - o.89d

t\ , = K~oatfckbd~ ~A
1

0.87/,L:.t..J '
0 116 X 25 X 260 X 49()~
- I 244
0.87 X 500 X 0.89
490 X
= 954 + 244 = 1198 mm'
 Analysis of the section 83

..., Using the UK Annex of EC2 and applying the equations developed in section 4.7

From the UK Annex of EC2 clause 5.5 kt = 0.4 and k1 = 1.0

Ff m equations 4.30 to -U4:

K~.t = 0.45-l(/i- kt)jk1 - 0 182!(b kt )/k,f

= 0.454(0.8 0.4)/ 1.0 - 0.182 [(0.8 - 0.4 )/ I.Of
0.182 - 0.029 = 0.153
hich agrees with the value given 10 table 4.2.
M
K
bd~f~~
230 X 10~
260 X 4902 X 25
0. 147 < KhJI = 0.153
1bc: r~fon~ <.:om pression steel is not required.
'10n '>teel:
,jng equation 4.8 in section 4.4

~~ d(o.s + /(0.25 - Kt""'li.T34)]

490l0.5 I J(0.25 - 0.146/ 1.134 )] 490 x 0.847 415mm
M
O.tnf)L:.
230 x I(~ = 1274mm 2
0.!l7 X 500 X 415

- 8 Bending plus axial load at the ultimate limit state

.1pplled axial force may be ten\tle or compressive. In the analy,i'i that follows. a
nn:sstve for<.:e 1:-. considered. For a ten~ile load the ~arne ba~1c principles ot
lthrium. compatibility or strain!., and stre),s- strai n rcltttionships would apply, hut it
td he necessary to change the 'ign of the upplied load (N) when we consider the
1 hrium of force-. on the cro-.-. ·~ection. (The area of concrete m compression ha~ nut
reduced to allow for the concrete di~placed hy the comprc:-.sion steel. This could he
en tnto uccount by reducing the stress.f,c in the comrression steel by an :unount cquul
56~~~~.)
cure 4.18 represent-. the cross-~ection of a member with typical struin and strcs'
butions for varying position& of the neutral axi~. The cross-~ccuon ~~ subject to a
..,ent M and an nxial compressive force N. and in the figure the direction of rhc
-nent i~ such a., to cause compre%ion on the upper part of the section and tcn~ion on
•wer part. For ca~e!> ,.,here there is tension in the section (figure 4.18a) the limumg
• ete !;train is taken as 0.0035 - the value used in the de,ign and analysts of !>ccuons
~ nding. However for cases where rherc is no tension in the section (figure 4.1 Rh)
I miting strain i~ taken as a value of 0.002 at the level of 317 of the depth of the
84 Reinforced concrete design

0.567fc~
Figure 4.18
Bendmg plus axial load w1th r
b
.....
0.0035

·if--
varying pos1tion of the
neutral axis • A,' • d •
s/2

h d
neutral
aXIS
A.
• • t, F,

(a) S= O.Bx< h
0.5671<,
r b

1 ' H
• A,' · -~ - Ltc

h d

• •
A,

Section Stral11s Stress Block

(b) s =h: 0.8x > h

Let
I·".:~he the comprcS\IVC force developed in the concrete and acting through the
cemroid of the <.tre-;<. block
F.... he Lhe compre~~ive force in the reinforcement area and acting throughA:
centroid
r , be the tensile or compres~i\e force in the rcmforccment area A~ and act •
through it!> centroid.

(I) Basic equations and design charts

The applied force (N) mu!it be balanced by the forces developed within the cro
section, therefore
N = Fe~ + F + F~
M:

In thi!t equation, /·'_ wi ll be ncgutivc whenever the pn~ition of the neutral axis i~ Stk
that the reinforcement/\, i~ in tcn!tion, at-. in ogure 4.18a. Sub1-tituting into thi~ equau
the term), for lhe stresses and areas
{4.35
where /.... i~ the comprec;sivc ~tress m reinforcement A;
and .!- is the tensile
compressive stress in reinforcement A .
The de~ign moment M must he halunccd hy the moment of resi~tance of the fore"
developed within the cro<,s-,cction. Hence, t:1king moments about the mid-depth oft"
~>ection
 Analysis of the section 85

(·U6)*

he depth of neutral axis is such that 0.8x ~ It, as in part (b) of ligure 4.18, then
lc concrete 'cctton 11> 'uhject ton uniform compressive stres<> of 0.567./~... fn thi<>
~ concrete pmvide<; no contribution to the moment or rcsi•aancc and the lirst
the right ~ide of the equation 4.36 di:-.appenr1-..
') mmerricnl ammgement of reinforcement (A: =A, A,.j'2 and d' - It - d).
' -U5 and 4.36 can be re\\ riuen m the folio\\ ing form
!\ 0.567.1 f..c A, /~ A,
--1·--+· - (4J7)

1
"Ji.
-l It

It
}~~ bh

0.567.1 ( 0.5- ~)
2/t
1".:1 bit

!-. ~
fckbh II
C' 0.5) f.. t\,
.fck bh
c0.5)
It
(4J8)

cquauon' the Meel \tram'>, ami hence the 'tre'se' f, and f,. \ ary "11h the depth
m:utral ax1' (\). Thu~ N / bl!f.:• and M j bh 1f,~ can he calculated for 'pccified ratios
bh and r/ h so that culumn de))ign charts for a ~ymmcllicul arrangement of
nrc ·ment l>Uch a~; the one !>hown 111 hgure 4.19 can he plotted.
cltrcct solutiOn of equauonl> -1.37 and 4.38 for the dcs112-n ol column re1nforceml.!nt
bl.! very tedious and, therefore, a set of design charts lor the usual case of
trical section~ i~ available in publicatiOn!> :.Lu.:h a~ The IJeli[.lnt•r.\ Guide (rd. 20).
pie' 'hO\•ing the dc~ign of column 'teel arc gl\:en 111 chapter 9.

\fodes of failure
~·ltlve magnnude of the moment tM) and the ax1al load CN) governs whether the
will fail in tension or in compression. With Iorge effective eccentricity
./ N) a tcn~i lc failure i~ liJ...ely. but\\ ith n '>mall cccentncity a comprc~~ive railure
likely. Thi.! magmtude of the ecccntncll) affcch the po~11ion ol the neutral axi:-.
hence the stmin~ and !>lrcs,cs in the re1nforceml.!nt.

Figur!! 4.19
TypiCal column design chart

0 01 0.2 0.3 OA
86 Reinforced concrete design

Let
£..., be the compressive strain in reinforcement A:
£, be the tensile or compressi\'e o;train in reinforcement As
£l be Lhe tensile yield strain of steel as -;hown in the stres\-stmin curve <J
figure 4.2.
From the linear strain distribution of figure 4.18(a)

E:-.: = 0.0035 c- d')

X

and (4.39
d
e:, = 0.0035 ( -x- X)
For values of x greater than h, when the neutral axis extends below the section, as shown
in figure 4.18b, the steel !.trains are given by the allernmive expressions:
7(x d')
:..c = 0.002 (?x _ j fl)
and
7(x - d)
£, - 0.002 {7x 3h)
The ~lee! ~tres~es and strain'i arc then related according to the stres!'.- Strnin curve 0 1
figure 4.2.
Consider the foliO\\ ing mode.., of f:ulure of the \CCtton a~ shown on the interaction
dtagram of figure 4.20.
(a) Tension failure, £s > "'y
Tim l)pc of failure is a-.~ociated with large eccentrictlles ((')and 'imall depth~ of ncutr...
ax1~ (.\). l·ailure begms with yteldmg of the teno;Jic retnforcement, followed by cru'ihin,..
of the concrctl! as the tensile stratns raptdly 111crea'ie.
(b) Balanced failure, "s - .:y, point b on figure 4.20
When fat lure occurs with yielding or the tcn-.ion !.led und cru'ihing of the concrete at the
sume inslant it is described us a ·oalanccd· ft1ilurc. WiLh ~ , cy nnd from equation 4.39
d
.I = ~"hQI = t
1
+ 0.0~35
For example, sub~tiluting the vn lues ol £), = 0.00217 for grade 500 ~tcel
.\hJI = 0.617d
Equations 4.35 and 4.36 hccome
Nto..t Fcc- F"" - F,
0.567f..kb X 0.8Xbat ~ }:,A :· 0.87 f> ~A , (-+..tO)
and

M~.J F«G- o.~r~·) -F-.c d') l·,(d ~)

\\here
.f-. ~ 0.87./;k
 Analysis of the section 87

--.- Figure 4.20

Bending plus axial load chart
with modes of failure

e of

b_.cf ..
0 ~
;;; ::l
c "'=
~ , .!:!

nt h on the intenmion diagram of figure 4.20. N Nhut. M M"·'' and

-0 87 ~~~· When the design load N > Nhul the section wi ll fail in wmpression,
there will he ao initial tensile fai lure, wit h yie lding uf

Otroression failure
c."e 1 '''"' and N > N~-o.1 • The t:hange in slope at point r in ligurc 4.20 occurs
rune of

uon fror'l equation 4.39

0.0035d' (0.0035 .:) )
2.63d' for grade 500 l'tccl

r "ill ot:t:ur tn the tension failure Lone of the imcrm:tton dtagrJm if .11 < '"·'''
n 1 d
_ O.H7 }~ ... and tcn,ile
n 1 d
eat the
4.39 ()

'hen 1 • d
f, • O.R7.f~k nnd t:mnpressive
.. n r become:-. very large and the ~ec tion approac hc~ a Mate of uniform axial
.pression
0.00217 y lor grade 500 steel
1 thl\stage, both layer!> of <,tee) will have yielded :md there will he 7ero moment of
4.40) t-tam:c with a \ymmetrical section, 1.0 that
~ 0.567}~lbh 0.87J;K(A:- A,)
c\t the stage where the neutral a>. is cmncidcs with the bottom of the sectton the :.train
~ram changes from th:ushO\\ n in figure 4.18a to the alternmh c 'itratn diagram -;hown
hgure 4.18b. To calculate N and M at this stage, corrcspondtng to potnt s in
,.urc 4.20. equation!> 4.35 and 4.36 should be used, taking the neutral ax.t!'l depth equal
the overall section depth. h.
88 Reinforced concrete design

Such M-N interaction diagram~ can be constructed for any o;hape of cross-section
vv hich has an axis of symmetry h) applying the ba!>ic equilibrium and strain
compatibility equations vv ith the :-.tn.:~!>-~train rclauon\, a\ demonstrated in the
foUowmg examples. These diagram., can be very u~cful for design purposes.

( EXA MPLE 4 .1 0
'\

M-N interactio n diagram fo r a no n-symme trical section

Construct the interaction diagram for the ~cction :.hown m figure 4.21 wirh
1:~ = 25 Nlmm 2 and J, . . = 500N/mm2 The bending causes maximum compression on
the face udjm:cnt to the steel area tl~.
For a <.,ymmetrical cro~s-scction, taking momenb about the centre-line of the concrete
section will give M = 0 with N = N11 and both area~ of stt.:cl ut the yield mess. Thi-; '
nn longer true for unsymmetrical steel area., a~ /• " I F~ at yidd therefore, Lheoreticnll~
moments should be calculated about an axi~ rcfcrn.:d to as tht.: 'plastic centroid'. The
ultimate axial lond No acting through the pla~>lic ce111rt1id cau~e<. a unifnrm ~train ucru~,
the section with compres~ion yielding of all the reinf(lrccment. and thu\ there i~> zcr
mwm:nt of resistance. With uniform :.train the neutral-axis depth. x. is at infinity.
b 3SO lu
Figure 4.21 ~ - --- I~ ...
Non ~ymmetr1eal ~l'Ction M ·N A A
lnteraclton examplt'
•A,': 1610• •d'= 60
0 ~
"'•
II
-'=
.,"'
II
neutral
ax1s
A, • 982

' •
'-- •
Section Stratn Otagr~m

The locution of the plasttc centroid i~ determined by w~ing moment~ of all the stre
rewltants about an arhitrary axil. :.uch "' AA in figure 4.21 so that
'LJFccfl /2 I F,cd' I F,d}
.\p =~( f. f' F)
L. 'cc + ·~r + '
= 0.567J~~A •• X 450/2 + O.S7.{y~A: >< 60 O.X7 J)~A, X 390
0.567 /.:kAcr + 0.87/y~A: 1 0.87(~k/\,
0.567 X ::!5 X 350 X 45t)a /2 I ().87 X 500{ l6JQ X 60 + 982 X 390)
0.567 25 X 350 X 450 + ().1{7" 500( 161() l 982) - -
=::! l::!mm frumAA
The fundamental equation!> for calcul..ning points on the interaction diagram '"th
varying depth~ of neutral a>.b nre:
(I) Compatibility of stram~ (used in table 4 3. columns 2 and 3):

E" = 0 0035 (" ~· d')

(4.41
£, 0.0035 (d ~ ')
 Analysis of the section 89

---ection Table 4.3 M-N interaction values for example 4.10

.. strain
• n the (7) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1)
'~
X tK .Es fs N M
(mm) (N/m~) (N/mm2) (kN) (kNm)
d' 60 0 >0.00217 0 0 87 fy 189 121
263d 158 0.00217 >0.00217 0.87 fyt. 0.87 fyl 899 275
XbJI 0617d-241 >0.00217 0.00217 0.87 fyk 0 .87 fy.. 1229 292
d 390 >0.00217 0 0 87 fy~ 0 2248 192
h- 450 >0 00217 0.00047 0 87 fyk 93.3 2580 146
X· 0.00217 0.00217 0.87 fyk 0 87 fyk 3361 0

Qcrete
Th1s is or when the neutral axis depth extends below the bottom <>f the section (x > II):
• cally.
_ ., 7{.t d') . ,. = 7(x d)
. The c,, - 0.00. (?.I·_ 311) ,tnd ~' 0.002 (7.l _ )
311
1 .JCrDS~
, 1ero t ii 1 Stres~ \train relation~ for the ~tee! (table 4.3. columns 4 and 5):
~ ~ "Y = 0.00217 J - 0.87/yk
(4.42 )
f = l:: xc
(Iii) Equil1hrium (t:lble 4.3. column~ 6 and 7):

N = Fe, ~ r . . + /',
0.!<1 " N - 0.567 J.~h O.lh f..._ A: t J A
0.8.1 , N 0.567l~ bh -f.,.,\: ~ f,,\,
'I ul.mg moment~ .tbout the pla,tic centroid
O.!ll h M = / "( ' p- (Uh/ 2) t F.,.( lr - d') - 1 (c/ lr )
().1:!.\ , M l._ (.ir- h/ 2) + F,,:(.rp tl') f',(tl .lp)
F, i., negative when{, i\ a tensile ~Ire:.:..

Thc~c equation~ have been applied 10 provide the vo l ue~> in Utblc ·U lor a range of key
\<llue:-. of I. rhcn theM N interaction diagmm ha~ been ploucd in figure 4.22 from the
HllliCl> in tahlc 4.3 us a 1-erie~ of straight line!>. or courr.e. N and '"' could have been
or
calculated for imcrmediulc val ue!> x to provide u more accurate curve.

N(kN)
(0, 336 1) Figure 4.22
M-N interaction diagram for
3000
a non-symmelrical sec11on

2000
\\ ith

1000

-lAL )
M (kNm)
90 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 4 . 11

M-N interaction diagram for a non-re ctangular section

Con~truct the interaction diagram for the equilateral triangular column section in
figure -l.23 ''ith fck = ~5 N/mm 2 and /)k 500 Nlmm 2. The bending is about an axis
parallel to lhe side AA ami cau~e' max1mum compres!-tion on the corner adjacent 10 the
tee I an:a i\:.
Figure 4.23
,- -. .•
GO
Non-rect~ngular 0
M N ,..,II
1nter~ction exam pip
"'.......
' .,II
,.. 2~3s
3
II

"" 31125 bars

A,
A • • A

400
~ --

I or thi~ triangular 'ection. the plastic centroid i~ at the ~ame location a~ the geometric
centrOid, 'ince the momcnt off"' equals the moment of r, ubout thi~ axi1. when aU the
bur<. have yielded in compre.,~ion.
The fundamental equation' lor ~tmin compatihility and the steel's 1.trcss stram
relauon~ are as presented 111 e\amplc 4.10 and arc u~cd aga111 m th.b example. The
equilihrium equauon!'t for the tnangular secuon hecomc
,\' I" + F ,. r,
or
0.8.1 <.. " N = 0.567}~k-\l /2 -l j-.._A:
I /.A
0.81 > h N 0.567./~kll > 400/2 -+ j',.A: f f,A,
0.!\.l <, M 1··~, 2 ( 11 - O.XI')/1 f /- ,,(211/1 t!')- F,(cl 211/3)
0.8.1;::" M = F-. (211 /3- tl' ) /·',(c/ 211/])
F, is negative when f, b u tensile stress. and l'rom the geometry of figure 4.23 the
?
width or the section at depth ~ 0.8..1 i~ I - ~ .vJ3.

Table 4.4 M-N Interaction values for example 4. 1 1

X f!( fs N M
(mm) £~ (N/mm 1) (N/mm 1) (kN) (kNm)

d'- 100 0 >0.00217 0 0.87 fyl 375 37

xw1 - 0 61 ld 0.00158 0.00217 317 0.87 fy~< - 96 72
- 183
2.63d'- 263 0.00217 0.00044 0 87 fyk 88 490 66
d= 296 >0.00217 0 0 87 fyk 0 672 61
h- 346 >0.00217 0.00051 0 87 fyo. 101 940 50
')... >0.00217 >0.0021 7 0 87 fy~ 0.87 fyk 1622 0
 Analysis of the section 91

N(kN)
Figure 4.24
M-N interaction diagram for a
1500
non-rectangular section

1000

500
'"·'"'l
0 20 40 60
(72,
M(kNm)

nc luhlc 4.4 has been calculated using the fundamental equation~ with the va lue~ of \
'hown. The intcntction diagram b ~hown constructed 111 figure 4.:!4.
With a non-rectangular section. it could he advisable to con~truct a more accurate
llD ntcractinn dwgram U\ing other mtcrmcdJate value~ of r. Th1' would ceJtainly he the
1 ~a'e "ith. say, a flanged \Cction \vherc there Js ~udden change in breadth.

~~·-------------------------------------------)
4.9 Rectangular- parabolic stress block

rc!ctangulur parabol1c stres~ block may be u'ed to prOVIde a more ngorou' unalys1s of
c re111forccd concrete section. The stress block i\ suniln.r in ~hape to the ~trc!'.s ·!.train
• trve for concrete in figure 4.1, having a maximum Mres' of 0.567 }~kat the ultJJnate
r.tin of 0.0035.
In ligure 4.25
I) the concrete wain at the end of the parabolic section
11• the di~tancc !'rom th e neutral nxis to Mrain ec2
depth of the neutral axis
k1 the mean concrete stres~
J.1.r depth to the centroid ol the ~tress hlock.

a) To determine the mean concrete stress, k1

om the strain diagram
II
- ---
0.0035
-: 0

acfore
92 Reinforced concrete design

0.0035 0 .567(,_
Figure 4.25 b
Section in bending With a
rectangular parabolic stress
block

neutral
d - <lXIS

Centroid of
stress block
A-
• •
Section Strains Stress Block

Sub~tituling for -"~ - 0.002 <figure 4. 1l

II' = 0.571.\ (4.43)
For the ~ tre&~
hlot·k
area or 'tress hlock
r
aren pqrs - area rst
X

Tim~. using the area propcrlic~ of a parahol.1 "' \hown in figure 4.26. we have
, 0.567j~~x - 0.567f..,.11·/3
"' = t

Sub,tituting for '' from equation 4.43 !.!I"C'

J.. , = 0459}, (4.44)*

(b) To determine the depth of the centroid k2 x

/.. ~ ~~ tktcnnincd lor a rectangular 'cellon by tal-..111g area moment!> of the stress blou
about th~: m:utral axis see figun.:' 4.25 nnd 4.::!6. Thu-;
nren pqrs x r/2 area r:-.t x 11-j ~
(.1 - /.. 1x)
area of strl.!s~ block
(0.567.f". ..1).1/2 - (0.567./~ ... 11'/l)ll-/4
=---- -

Figure 4.26
ProperliN of a parabola
Area~:

w s..
Pos1Uon of centroids: a1

'-
 Analysis of the section 5

Suh,liluting for u from equation 4.-+3

(
t.
\ - "2·'
·)
= 0.567k 1fcL·r rQ.)_- --.,-
0.571 ~]
x l L

I _ 0.168[., = I _ 0.268/cL = 0.4! 6 (4.45)"'

kt 0.459/..L
Once we 1-nO\\ the properties of the stress block. the magmtude and position of the
e'ultnlll compres-.h e force in the concrete can he determtned. and hence the moment of
e-.istance of the -.ection calculated u.~ing procedures stmtlar to tho:-l' for the rcctangulnr
,tress block.
Comparison oJ' the rectangular-puraholic and the rectangulllr WC\1> hloc~s provrde~

(tl Stress re!\u ltant. Fer

(4.43)
rcctangular-paraholic: k1bx::::::: 0.459/;.kh.l
rectangular: 0.567 f.·k x 0.8bx::::: 0.454/~kbx
(til Lever arm.:.
recwngu lar parabolic: d k~.\ ::::: tf - 0.416.1
rectangular: d - ~ x 0.8.1 = d- 0.4lh

\o hoth \lrc'' hlocks ha\e almost the same moment Cll rc\i\tancc. I,., ' •. \howrng Itt\
lil'quate to u'e the ''mpler rectangular ... rres~ bloc!- for de\lgn culculatintl\.

4.44)*
4.10 Triangular stress block

' 'bloc!- The triangular !'ltre'1> hlocl- applies to ela,tic condition' during the ),ervtceahiiH) limit
,t,Hc. In practice it i' nllt generally used in design calcultHion), cxcept for lrqllld-
etaming :-.tructure1>. or ror the calculations of cruel- width' :tnd dcflectiorh a' dc1-.crihed
n chupter 6. With the triangular strc1-.s h loc~. the cro~s·M!Ct ton can he con,idcrcd as

(t ) cradcd in the tcn,ion 1.onc, or

(i t) uncrackcd with the concrete re~isting a .~mn ll tlll\Ount or tension.

4.10.1 Cracked section

\ crad.cu \Cction i~ \hown in figure 4.27 with a stre)>s resultant /·,1 at'ting through the
~..:cntro id
of the )>\eel and /·_. acting through the centrotd of the triangular \II\!\~ block.
A =2wf
3
r:or cquilihrium of the ),ection

A:
wf
3
/:~ F,.
or 0 5/J.\f... = AJ~1 (4.46)
5w
0
8 and the moment of 1'1.!\1\tance
w
Dz
4 M Fe, >< ~= F,. >< ~

or M - 0.5bxj~c(d- .\f3) = AJ,M - 1( J ) (4.-+7)*

94 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 4.27
Triangular stress block - -, --- - b

cracked sectton

d -
_ _!~tral
axos 1
'
h

_,_ A.
• • '
Section Strams Stress

(I) Analysis of a specified section

The t.lcpth of the ncutrnl axis, x. can he determ ined by converJ ing the section into nn
·equivalcnl' area or
concrclc as shown in fi gure ~.2X. where O'c £,/ Ec. the modulur
rnlio.

b
Figure 4.28
f.qUJv~len t trc~mlorml'd
sect1on with the concr~tl'
cr.1cked
d
h Transformed • C,A, • rr..A
steel arta f.

(,tl..ing the area momcnh about the upper edge:

}JAI )
,I
2.:::\
Then.: fore

or

Sofvtng thi~ quaurallc equation gives

(4A8)*

f-.quation 4.48 may be \ohed U\tng a chart 'uch n~ the one ~hown in figure ~.29.
Equattons ~.46 to ~.48 can be u~cd to analy).c a ~pectficd reinforced concrete section.
 Analysis of the section 9

a.A.'Ibd
Figure 4.29
Neutral-axis depths tor
cracked rectangular sections
elastic behaviour

0 30

~ 0 20
-+
0.10

mto an
mndular
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
x/d

(ii) Design of steel area, As, with stresses fn and fcc specified
1 e depth of the neutral axi~ can abo be expres~cu in tcnm. ollh~.: ~tr~uns and sucsses ol
tl ~ concrete anu \!eel.
I rom the ltnear Mrain distribution of figure 4.27:
\ ~--· /.;./£,
I = ~ - .t;.f '~" -1 f," £,
J1,~. refore

" 1 ; -J..,
--
oJ,.,.
Ec uations 4.47 and 4.49 may be used to design the area of tcn:-.ton \ tccl required, at a
cified ~'>Ires::.. in order to resist a given moment.

,
EX AMPLE 4. 12

Analysis of a cracked section using a triangular stress block

or the 1\ection ~how n in figure 4J O, delenninc the concrete and srcel slrc\scs caused hy
momcnl of 120 kN m, asl\uming a cracked section. TaJ.. c J:: .j t., nt 15.
15 X 147()
'OO > 460
0.16

l '111g Ihe chart of figure 4.29 or equation

I.. -
b- 300
Figure 4.30
Analysis example with
triangular stress block
4.48)* .! 4X gi\'C\ ' - 197 mm.
hom equation 4.47 0
.,..
N

.! 29. •
e ...ection. \( ~b,\ fc, ( d j) .c:

3H2S '
1470 mmz •••
L----l - '
96 Reinforced concrete design

therefore

1:!0 X 10" = 21 X 3000 X 197 X fcc ( 46() 197)

3
therefore
fcc 10..1 N/mm 2
From equation 4.46

J~1A, = ~II.\ .t~~

therefore
10.3 I
300 >< 197 '( -:;- x = 207 N/mm·,
- 1470

4.10.2 Triangular stress block - uncracked section

The concrete may be con~idered to resi~t a :-.mall amount of tension. In thts ca'>c a ten'>Jic
stre% resultant Fc1 acts through the centroid of the triangular stress hloek 111 the tension
Lone as ~hO\\ n in figure 4.31
Fnr equil ihrium of the section
F" F,1 -+ F,t (4.50)
''here I ,, = 0.5bx J,~
F" = 0.5b(ll - rl.(t
and r =A, f.,
I

Taking moment!. about F._, the moment of resistance nf the section is given by
,
M ~ (It (4.51 }

The depth ol the neutral axi~. '· can he determined by taking area moments about the
upper edge /\A of the equivalent concrete section ~h(m n tn figure 4.32, :-uch that
L(A1)
LA
n,. = 1:., .1s tcrme'I l he moduIar ratiO
.
E,

b l" 1,.
Figure 4.31 ..J L.
Triangular stress block
uncwcked section
,-
t 2x/3
dl ·r- ' 2(h- x)/3
h' A,

• •
Sectton Strains Stress
 Analysis of the section 97

b
Figure 4.32
Equivalent transformed
section witil the concrete
uncracked

d
- Transformed= fA =M
steel area E.

Therefore
bh X 11/ 2 + OcA, X d
v
u · - bll ~ o. A,
h +2ncn/
(4.52) "'
2 I 2ncr
r A,/bit
!-rom the linear proportion~ of the strain diagram in figure 4J I:
n
.\'
fl, = 1-1 - r
X C'ct

d \' (4.53 )•
C',,

Thtrcfore
" a~
·XC',,
\
'tres<, £ strain:
j,, £,. Cl

.\
J~ =,
- - x j"
I - ,\ (4 54)
d- \
l •
),1
"-
= - - x nJ.1
,\
1-: <:nee tf the maximum lcn~ilc :-.tra•n or stre~s
1s spccihed. it is po:-.sihle to calculate the
c •rre:-.ponthng concrete comprcs~ivc und steel tensile srre~l>CS from cquntinns U4.
!'he equations denved can be u:.ed to analyse ~~ g1ven CI'Oi>s-scction in order to
.:tt•rminc the moment ol rc~i~t:HlCC or the uncrad.cd 1-ection.

( EX AMPLE 4 .13

Analysis of an uncracked section

lw the section shown in figure 4.30, calculate Lhc serviceability momcm of rc~istancc
\\ ith nn cracking or the concrete, given ,k, - 3 Nlmm ~ . He - 30 I.Nimm' and
l:.'s 200 I.Nimm ~ .

,. A,
bh
1470
0 .()()94
300 520
£,
"· !:.",;
200
- 30 6.67
98 Reinforced concrete design

11 + '2o..,rd
,l =-:-~-
2 + 2n.,r
= 520 + 1 X 6.67 X 0.009-f X 460 = '2?2 mm
2+2 X 6.67 < 0.0094

f, = G~ =:) uJ..,
= (460- 272)6.67 x 3 . N/mm1
15 2
(420- 272 )

M = il~!-, (d-~)-~h(h-Jlfc,c .l ~(II t))

1470 X 15.2 (460-
272
3
) J(} ·I>+ ~~ X 30()(520 - 272) X 3

X G X 272 i ~ (520 272)) 10 ,,

= 8.3 + 38.7 = 47 kN m
 CHAPTER 5
Shear, bond
and torsion
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the theory and derivation of the design equations for 5hear,
bond and torsion. Some of the more practic<JI factors governing the choice tlnd
arrangement of the reinforcement are dealt w1th in the chapters on member des1gn,
particularly chapter 7, wh1ch contains examples of the design and detailing of shear
and torsion reinforcement In beams. Punching shear caused by concentrated loads on
slabs is covered in section 8 1.1 of the chapter on slab design

99
100 Reinforced concrete design

5.1 Shear
Figure 5.1 represents the distributton of principal -.trc\~es ac.:ro~s the o;pan of a
homogcneou~ concrete beam. The din.!ction of the princtpal comprcssi'c <,tresses takes
the fom1 of an arch. '' hile the tensile \tre~ ...es have the cun e of a catenary or sm.pemled
chain. Toward~ mid-span. \\here the \hear i'> lm\ andthc bending Mrc~~c., arc dominant.
the direction of the !>tresses rends to be parallel 10 the beam axi'>. Ncar the support.'>.
where the shearing forces are greater. the principal :.tres!>es become inclined and the
greater the -;hear force the greater the angle ot mcilnation. The tensile stresses due to
l)henr are liable to cau-;e diagonal cracktng of the concrete near to the support so that
1>hear reinforcement must be provided. this reinforcement i~ either in the form of
(I) 'ltirrups. or (2) inclined har-. (used in conjunction with Min·ups) as shown in
ligure~ 5.4 ant.l 5.5. The :.tcel stirrup~ urc al~o often referred to as link~.

Load Comprtmlon
Figure 5.1
Pnncipal \ltl'I\C'I in d lJ(ldm

D1agonal tension cracks

The concrete uc;elf can rest\1 'hear hy a combinatton of the un-cracked concrete tnthe
wmpresston zone. the dowelltng action of the bendtng remforcement and aggregate
mterlocJ... across ten,ion cracks but. becau-;e concrete ts weal tn ten'>ton. the shenr
remforcement is destgned to restM all the tetl'ille stn~"'e' cau<;ed by the ~hear force'>
E\cn \\here the l>hear force!) are smull near the centre ol ~opan of a beam a minimum
amount of shear retnforcement tn the form of ltnk'> mu..,t be provtded 111 order to form a
cage supporting the longttUlltnal reinforcement and to resiM any ten~ilc ~>tresses due to
factors ~uch <L" thermal mo\ ~:mcnt und sht inkagc or the concrl.!tc.
I he actual hehavillur of rcinfor~:ed com:rctc in shear 1s complex, and diflicult to
analyse theoretically. but by applying the results from many experimental investiga-
tions. reasonable ~impliJ1ed procedures for anu ly:.~.:s und design have been Jcveloped.
In EC'2 :t method uf !>hear tlc~> ign i~ prese111cd which will be unfamiliar to t ho~e
designer:-. who have been usccl to design methods lxl'>cd on previous British Standard
design codes. Thi!> method b known a\ The Variable S1r111 lncfinlllion Mellwd. The use
of thi~> method allows the designer to seck out economic!. in the amount of shear
rcinlorcement pro\ tded. but rccogni~tng thnt any economy achieved may be at the
expense of having to prO\'tde :tdditional curtailment and anchorage lengths to the
lcnMon steel O\'er and above that normally requtred for re,i-.tanc:e to bending a-.
dcscnbed 10 'ecuon 7.9.

5.1.1 Concrete sections that do not require design shear

reinforcement
The concrete o;ectiom. that do not require -.hear rcmlorccmcnt are matnl) lightly loaded
floor ~lah~ and pad foundation~. Beam!'. arc genera II) more hea\ il> loaded and ha\'e a
smaller cross-.,cction \o that they ncar!) ah\3)''> require ~hear remforcement. Even
 Shear, bond and torsion

1ghtly loaded beams are required to have a minimum amount of shear link!.. The only
e\ceptions to this are very minor beams ~uch a!. short span, lightly loaded linteb over
"im.low\ and doors.
p:m of a
Where shear forces are small the concrete section on it'> own rna} have l>Ufficient
iSe' rakes
,hear capacity <VRd ~) to resist the ultimate shear force (V1,1) result1ng from the worst
lbpended
.:omhination of acuons on the slructure. ahhough in mo<,t ca-;es a nominal or minimum
"lmant.
Jmount of l>hear remforcement will usually be pro\ ided.
upport!-..
In those l>ectiono; where Vtd ::::; VRd, then no calculated .,hear reinforcement is
.md the
requ1red.
' due to
The shear capacity of the concrete. VRtt c. in such situations i:. given by an empirical
'o that
expres~ion :
torm of
O\\ n in
(5.1)
with a m1nlrnum value of:

VRd c = [0.035k 3 1~f~~ 1/~] hwd (5.2)

where:
I'Rd, the dc.,ign shear rc!tistancc of the section without ~hear reinforcement

/.. (I +\ ~10)
/-;;- ::::: 2.0 with d cxpre!tscd in mm

{II
tl,, <. 0.02
!ek mthe b..,d -
1 .:.:regate A ~, = the area of ten.,ilc
reinforcement that extend'> beyond the \CCtion he1ng
e 'hear con~•dercd
by at Jca.,l a full anchorage length plus one effective depth (d)
orces. b., - the \mallc~t \\idth of the l>ection m the tensile area (mm)
ll1lliiUUIU
form a Some typ1cal values ot the corresponding ~he<tr Mrc" capacitie~ (I'Rd, VRo1 ,fb.,d)
11! due w
.uc given in chapter 8 (table 8.2).

ICU it tO 5.1.2 The variable strut inclination method for sections that do
IC\tign- require shear reinforcement
dopCU.
:> tho:-c In order to derive the design cquutionl- the action of a reinforced concrete betlln in ~hear
tndard is reprc:-.cmcd by an analogous truss a~> shown in figure 5.2. The concrete acts u~ the top
The use
• shear Figure 5.2
e at the Assumed truss model for t
to the 1.,. b ---1 variable strut Inclination
method
:nding a<:

loaded
d

' 0
Section
have a
Even
102 Reinforced concrete design

compression member and as the diagonal comprcs~10n member!. inclined at an angle B

to the horizontal. The bottom chord is the horilCmtal tension steel anu the vertical links
are the transverse tension members. 11 should be noted that in this model of !lhear
bcha,iour all -;hear will be resisted by the prO\ i~ion of links 1rit/tno tlirect colllribution
from tlte ~hear capacity of the concrete itself
The angle (} increases with the magmtudc of the ma,amum shear force on the beam
and hence the compressive forces m the diagonal concrete members. It is set by EC2 to
h:t\C a value between 22 and 45 degrees. For mo\t cases of predominately unifonnl)
distributed loading the angle 0 will be 22 degree~ but for heavy and concentrated Joads it
can be higher in order to resist crul-lhing of the concrete diagonal mcmberl-..
The analysis of the truss to derive the de~ign equntions \.\ill be carried om in the
fo llowing order:

1. Con),iderution of the compressive strength of the diagonal concrete strut and it1-
unglc 0;
2 . Calculation of the required shear reinfon:cmcnt A,w/~ for the vertical tics:
3. Calculm ion of the nuditionaltcn~ion stccl/1,1required in the bottom chord member.

The following notation is used 111 the equations for the ~hear de1-ign

A\w = the cross-~ectional area of the two lege, of the lin~

1 = the ~pacing of the linb

the lever arm between the upper anu lower chord members of the
analogou:- tru'~
J;\\oJ the dcl.ign yield strength of the link reinforcement
1~~ the charactensttc strength of the link rctnforcement
VEd = the shear force due to the actionl-1 m the ultimate limit :-.tate
V~: 1 = the ultimate l>hcar force at the face ol the suppon
v.. ,j the \hear force in the link
VKu , the shear rcsiMance of the ltnk\
VKd rnu~ the maximum design value or the shear which can be resisted by the
com.:rcte strut

( 1) The diagonal compressive strut and the angle 0

The shear force applied to the sectton must be limite<.! so that excessive compressive
~trcssc:-. do not occur in the diagonal compressive struts, lea<.ling to compressive failure
of the concrete. Thus the maximum design shear force VK.J. 111"' is limitcu hy the ultimate
cm~hing !>trength of the diagonal concrete member tn U1e analogou~ trus), and its vertical
component.
With reference to figure 5.2, the effective cross sectional area of concrete acting a~
the diagonal ~trut il> taken a' b.., x ::co~o and the de!.ign concrete \trc~s.f.:.J f,k/ 1.5.
fhe ultimate '>trength of the srnu = ultimate dc~1gn \tres~ x cros\-sectional area
= lf.l/1.5) x (b" x ::cos B)
and its venical component - lf.l/1.5)" (b.. x :-cos B)) x sinO
!>o that v,td mu• i.kb .... : coso sine1t.5
 Shear, bond and torsion

t. angle 0 which by conversion of the trigometrical functions can also b~.: expressed as
~~·links
• -.hear }~kb.. :
rbution 1.5(COLO-'- tan 0)

In EC2 this equation ts modified by the indus ton of a Hrengllt redu('tivn factor (r 1)
e beam
for concrete cracked m shear.
EC2 to
Thus
lformly
I oads it J.~b.. ;:l't )
VRu m.t~ = 1.5(cot0+tan8 (S. 3)
• m the where the strength reduction factor takes the value of 1• 1 0.6( I - j~~ /250) and.
putting ;: - 0.9d. equation 5.3 becomes
Jnd its 0.9t! X b.. X 0.6( I - /.;~/250K~
VRd. mn~ = - l .5(cot8 + tan B)
0.:16bwrl( I - fck/250)fc~
111emher. (cotB+tanB) (S.4)*
and to c n ~ur~.: that there is no crushi11g of the diagona l compres~ivc 1-trut:
(5.5)
Thi:-. must he checked for the maximum value of ~hear on the beam, whid1 i~ u~ually
taken !I)> the 'hear force. \'tt· at the face of the beam·~ 'upport~ \O that
~ of the

A~ pre\iou,ly noted EC2 hmitr. B to a 'aluc het\\Cen 22 and 45 degree~.

(i) With 0 22 degrees (this is the usual case for uniformly distributed loads)
1-rom equation 5.4:
VRd , ma\(21J - 0. l24b~~od( l - fck/'250)fck (5.6) *
It v~" mu\r!l , < v, r then a larger value of the angle() mu~t be u~ed ~o thm the diagonal
concrete Mrut ha5 a larger vertical component to balance Vcd·

(ii) With e 45 degrees (the maximum value of 0 as allowed by EC2)

From equation 5.4:
ressive VRJ mnx !4.~1 - 0. IBb,.d( I - ./~k/250lt~~ {5.7)*
• latlure which is the upper limit on the compres~ive strength of the concrete diagonal member in
•a mate the analogous tnt).~. When \1~;1 > VRd. 013 ~t~ 5 ,, from equation 5.7 the diagonal ~trut wi ll
enicnl be over ~tre~scd and the beam's dimensions must be mcrensed or a higher clas~ of
concrete be u~ed.
ct ng as
1.5.
(iii) With 9 between 22 degrees and 45 degrees
area The requtred value for 0 can be obtained by equating Vc.t to VMcl•• ,, and solvang for(} in
equation 5.4 a~ follows:
0.36b..,.d( I - fck / 250)/.;k
\' "' - VRd - _ _.::...._..:....,-___:..::.::..:...-::-:--=:.;.:
"" - ' ma' - (Cot () T tan fJ)
104 Reinforced concrete design

and
I I (cot 0 l tan 8) = sine X cos e
- 0.5 sin 20 (sec proof in the Appendix)
therefore b} substitution

B=O.Ssin-'{ V1-.J .., } S 4S (5.8a)*

o.l8b"d( 1 - fc~o./ _so}f.;l
which alternatively can be expressed as:

0 = 0.5 sin-' { V VEr } < 45' (5.8b)

Rd mu,l-l'il

where Vr:1 is the shear force at the face of the ~upport und the culculutcd vulue or the
angle(} can then he used to uctcrmim: col 0 and cak:ulate the !<>hear reinforcement A~w/s
from equation 5.9 hclow (\\hen 12 < 0 <- 45 ).

(2) The vertical shear reinforcement

A~ previously noted, all ~hear will be resisted hy tiK· provision of linl--1. with 110 direCt
co11tri/.Jurion .fmm rlze 5I! ear cupacity c~( the COIIcrl'ft' it.1e(( U'ing the method of !>ections
11 can he seen that. at \ection X-X in figure 5.2. the force in the vertical link member
n·,",) mu~t equal the shear force (\'Ed). that i'
\ '"d = Vt:.J - /w.<JAw.
J~v~,...
=115
= 0.87f1 ~A"'
If the hnks are spaced at a distance 1 apan. then the force 111 each link is reduced
proporllonatel) and is given hy

v,..~ -s- = o.87/ykA,. .

:;cot 8
or
Vwu = VE,t
= O.R7 ! l.1'sw ~fvl cot 0
J

0.87 A,w 0.9t/}~k COl 8

s
thus rearranging
A,"' I'EJ
(5.9)"'
0.78d/yk cot8
EC2 spec1fies a minimum value for A\v./:. such that
A'" rnrn 0. 08fckO.S b,.
(5. 10)*
f)~

Equation 5.9 can be used to determine the amount and '>pacing of the shear links and
Will depend on the value Of (} USed Ill the de!o.ig_n. f-Or mo!-.t Ca\CS Of beams With
 Shear, bond and torsion 105

predominately unifonnJy distributed loads the angle B will be 22 degrees with

cot 0 2.5. Otherwise the value for 0 can be calculated from equation 5.8.
EC2 al~o ~pecifies that. for beams with predominately uniformly distributed loads.
the design shear force VEd need not be checked at a distance less than d from the face of
the ~upport hut the shear reinforcement calculated must be continued w the support.
Equation 5.9 can be rearranged to give the shear restMancc \' Rd , of a gi\en
arrangement of hnks Aw. / :..
Thus:

{5.11 )*

(3) Additional longitudinal force

When using this rneU10d of shear design it i~ necessary to allow for the additional
longitudinal force in the tcn::;ion steel cuused by the shear VEd· This longitudinnl tensile
force t::.F1d i:- caused by the horizontal component requ ired to bulance the comprer-sive
force in the inclined concrete strut.
Resolving forces hol"iz.ontnlly in the section YY shown in figure 5.2. the longitudinal
component of the force in the compressive ~lrul is given hy
fCI
Longitudinal force = (Vr:.d / ~in 0) x cos()
- ' '•J cot 0
It •~ a'~umcd that half of tht~ force is carried by the reinforcement 111 the ten~ion wne of
the beam then the additional tcll'.tle force to be pro\ided in Lhc tcn~llc 1one ts gi\en by
J./·111 0.5\'htCOtO (512 )
ro pnmdc for tlu~ longitudinal forl:c, at any crO\S-~>ecuon ll i~ necc,,al) to pro\ tde
longlludtnnl reinforcement additional to thut required at that ~ecuon to re,i'it bending. In
practice. increasmg the cunailmcnt length-. of the bottom-face tcn~ion reinforcement
cun U\Uttlly prO\ tde the required force. Thi~> reinforcement provide~ hen<.ling re~iMancc
in \Cction~ of lugh &ngging bending moment and then. "hen no longer reqUtrcd 10 rest<.!
bending. can provtde the add itional tensile force to re1-1st shear in those sections away
from mid ~ran nnd townrds the supports where ~agging bending moment~ reduce hut
shcur forces increase. Tim, is discussed further and illuqruted in section 7.9 (Anchorage
and curtailment of reinforcement)
The lolul force given hy Mt•d/:. -1- !:::.F1d shou lclnm be taken us greater thnn MHcl, 11111 ,/<.,
where Mr,l,""'' is the ma>.imum hogging or mnximum sagging moment along the beam.
Equntions 5.3 to 5. 12 can he Ul'ed together to design a i>ection for ~hear with n value
of (I chosen by the de~igner within limits of 22 anu -+5 degreef. as sped lied in EC2. I· rom
these equn ti on~ it i~ obvious that the steel ratio (A," /~) IS a function nf the inver~e or
cot (J (equation 5.9), the ma>.imum ~hear force governed by diagonal compression
failure is a function ot the inver~e of (cot 0 +tan 0) Cequmion 5.4) and the additional
longitudinal tensile force. j.f 1cJ varies with cot 0 (equation 5.1 J).
Figure 5.3 ~how~ the variation of the~c funl:tion~ from which it can be ~ecn that a~(}~~
reduced le'' ~henr reinforcement IS required, but thi.., is compen<;nted for by an increa'e
in the ncce..,<;ary longitudtnal re111forcemcnl. At 'alue<., of 0 greater or les~ than 45 the
• o,hcar capacny of the secuon. based on compressive failure in the d1agonal ~trut1-. i.., alo,o
reduced. 1 he de~1gner should calculate the -.alue of 0 but. a-. previously ~tated. for
practical reasons I-.C2 places a lower and upper limit of 1.0 and 2.5 re~pectively on the
th \alue of em 0. This corresponds to limiting B ro 45 and 22 respectively.
106 Reinforced concrete design

2.0
Figure 5.3
Variation of VRd , •., ~;,d
and A"" fS 1.5

c
g
...c 1.0
~

0.5

10 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90
Angle (0)

Summary of the design procedure with vertical/inks

1. Calculate the ultimate design shear forces \lEd nlnng the beam's span.
2. Check the crushing strcnglh VRd.mo\ of the concrete diugonal strut at the l;CCtion of
maximum shear, usually \11-1 at the face of the beam's support.
For most cases the angle of inclination of the ~lrut i~ 0 2:! . with cot()= 2.5
and tan f) = 0.4 so that from cqumion 5.4
0.36b.,.d( I /..k/250)J;k
VRII ma\ = (cot()+ tan())

and if \ 'Rd .max ?: Vn with 8 22 and cotO 2.5 then go directly to ~tep (3).
However. if VRd m.L\ < V1 r then 0 22 and therefore B mu)>t he calculated from
equauon 5.8 as:

() 0 5 -;in 1{ \ 'EI } < 45

.. 0. 18b.,.d(l ./..d250)/~~ .
Tf thi~ calculation give~ a value of B greater than 45 then the beam should be
rc-"ized or a higher cla"1-. of concrete cou ld he u'cd.
3. The 1.hcar linb required can be calculated from equation 5.9
A"' \lr:d
s 0. 7Rdf)'k cot (I
where Asw is rhe cross-sectional nrca of the legs of the links (2 x rrd>2/4 for single
stirrups).
For a predominately uniformly dislributcd load the \hear VE.t.J should be enlculnted
at a di~tance d from the face of the suppoll ami the ~hear reinforcement should
continue to the face of the support.
The shear re~i!>tance for the links actually specified is

Vmm-- X
A"' 0.78df.,k cot 0
s .
and this value \\ill be used together wnh the ~he:1r force envelope to detenninc the
cunailment position of each "et of dc~igned hnk\
4. Calculate the mmimum linh reqUired by EC2 from

0.08{.,~ h..
05
A"' ·'"'"
s i)k
 Shear, bond and torsion 1 0/

5. Calculate the additional longitudinal tensile force caused by the shear

J.f,d = 0.5 \l~..d cot 0
Thi~ addillonal tensile force can usually be allowed for by increa~ing the
curtailment length of the ten!>ion bars as described in section 7.9.
Example., illustrating the design of shear reinforcement for a beam arc given in
Chapter 7.

( EXAMPLE 5. 1

Shear resistance of a beam

The beam in figure 5.4 spans 8.0mcLres on 300 mm wide :-.uppons. It is requin:d to
~uppon a uniformly distributed ultimate load, ll'u of 200 kN/m. The c hara~.:tcrist i c
material strengths arc hk 30 N/mm 2 for the eontrcte and ./y~ 500 N/mm • for the
:tJon of steel. Check if the shear reinf<>rcement in the fonn of the vert ical links shown can
supron, in shear, the given ultimate load.
I = 2.5
b: 350
• H~ups at 17S spcg ... Figure 5.4
Beam wrth stirrups

[dII [1 11111 1 fO ~:
1

p (3).
Hl2
' lrom
Sectron

2H2S. A, 982mmz

MJid be
Total ultimate load on beam = 200 " 8.0 1600 kN
Support renetion = 1600/ 2 HOO kN
Sheur. V1 1 ut face of ~upport - ROO - 200 X 0.3/ 2 770 kl"\
Shear. VC<J distance d from face of ~upport = 770 200 x 0.65 640 kN
1. Check the cru~hing strength VRd. mnxOf tlw concrete diagonal :-.trul at the face of the
hcam!) ~uppmt.
ulaled From equation 5.6 with B= 22 ''
,hould
vl{d !n:t\ f !~J- 0.124h,.c/(1 .fc~ /250lfc~
0.124 X 350 X 650( J - 30/ 250)30
- 7-l5 kN ( < liEf = 770 I.N)
From equation 5.7 with 0 45
IIRdmJ~ -1~1 0.18b"d( l-/d../ 250}kk
= O.JK ) 350 X 650( 1 30/ 250)30
= 108 1 kN ( > VH 770J..N)
Therefore: 22 < fJ < 45 .
108 Reinforced concrete design

2. Determme angle B
From equation 5.8(a)

B=0.5sin-'{ \IEf } <45

0.18b_.d( I - f.:k 250}f.k -

or aJternatively from equation 5.8(b)

IJ = 0.5sin '{v Rtl

VEt
OM\{4~ '
} =0.5stn '{
77
°
108 1
} =:!2.7

From which wt 0 2.39 and tan 0 0.42.

3. Determine ~hear resistance of the linl-..s

The cross-1.cctional arca ""'' of a 12mm httr 11 3 mm 2• Thus for the two legs of
the link and a :.pacing of 175 mm
;\~II' _ 2 X 11 3 _ 1.
29
s 175
(or alternatively the value could have been obtained from Lahlc A4 in the
Appendix)
From equation 5.1 I the shear resi~tancc , VRJ , of the link~ il> given by
A,w
\ 1Rd,, = - x 0.78l({)k cot()
.\

= 1.29 X 0.78 > 650 500 >< :!.39 10

1
781 1-..N

Therefore shear rc-.istam:c of lin!-.-. 781 kN.

Oe,ign shear. VEt! diMancc d from the face of the -;upport - 640k\ (< 78 1 k.N).
Therefore. the beam can 'upport. in 11hcar. the ultimate load of 200 k'\/m.

4. Additional longitudinal ten:.ile force in the ten,ion '>tccl

It is nece:.sary to checlo.. that the bottom tension steel hu-, a suffictcnt length or
curtailment and anchornge to resist the additional hori1.ontal tcn,ion oF1" cuused
by the design shear. These addi tional tension forces arc calcu lutcd from
equation 5. I2. Therefore
D.Fcd 0.5Vtzd cot()
0.5 X 640 X 2J9 765 kN

This force is added to the MEd/: dingrom. us dc!,crihed in section 7.9, to ensure
there is sufficient curtailment of the ten<.ion reinf'mcemcnt and it~ anchorngc bono
length at the suppons, as described 111 section 5.2.
l~--------------------------------------~)
5.1.3 Bent-up bars
To restst sheanng forces. longintdmal tension bars rna) be bent up near to the support•
a~ shown in figure 5.5. The bent-up bar~ and the concrete 111 compress1on are considereo
to act as an analogous lantce girder and the \hear resistance of the bars is determined b.
taking a section X- X through the girder.
 Shear, bond and torsion 109

X Anchorage
length Figure 5.5
Bent up bars

~I
-'
~
s =0.9cl(cot u + cot 0)
(a) Single System

F' of

the
l/ZZZ?J
(b) Multiple System
l

hom the geometry of part (a) of figure 5.5. the ~pacing of the bent-up bars is:
.1 O.lJd(COl n t cot 0)
and at the '>Cctaon X X the <.hear rel>i'itancc of a single bent-up bar (\l"d ) mw.t equal the
'>hear force (I 1.a).

where A,.. i' the cross-.,ectional area of the bent-up bar.

ror a multaplc 'Y'tem of bent-up bar~. a' in part (bJ of ligurc '\.5. the shear rc~i,tum:c
" ancrca,cd proporttonately to the ~pacing, ~. Hence:
1 of
. . 0. 9d(cmn cot 0)
·~d Va d ().!l7fvkA,w Sill 0
. X --
s
rom
or

-A,w
·''
= 0. 7Rrl/yk (col Vt-.a --:-:--:--
n + col 0}sin n
(5.13)

Thi~ equation ic; ana logou~ to equation (5.9) for the shear rc!.istanc:e of shcua· lin i-s. In a
urc !.imi lur way it can be ~hown that, bused on cru~hing of the concrete in the compressive
nd ~truls, the analogous equation to (5.4) is given by:

_) (cot 0 + cotn )
VRdma~ < 0. 36h,.d ( l - fcl./250l.fck ;< ( I ' (J) (5.14)
· - I cot·

und the additional tensile force to be provided by the provi!.ion of additional tension
\lee I j.., gaven by a modtficd 'crsion of equation 5.12:
•11., ~Frd = 0.5va.J(cotfJ cotn ) (5.15 )
~ered
EC2 abo require., that the max1mum longitudinal spacmg of bent-up ban, as hmJted to
""by
0.6d( I + cot o ) and '>pecifies that at least 50 per cent or the rcquared shear
reinforcement should be in the form of shear link'>.
11 0 Reinforced concrete design

5.1.4 Shear between the web and flange of a flanged section

The provision of shear links to resist vertical ~hear in a nangcd beam i., identical to that
previously de cribed for a rectangular section. on the as!>umption that the web carries aJJ
of the vertical shear and that the web Width. b..,. is used as the minimum width of the
\Cction in the relevant calculations.
Longitudinal complemental) shear stresses also occur in a nangcd !>ection along the
interface between the weh and flange as shown in tigurc 5.6. Thi~ i~ allowed for b)
providing transverse reinforcement over the width of 1he flange on the a:.sumption that
thi~ reinforcement actl> a!> tic!> combined \\ ith compre.,s1ve stnlls in the concrete. It i.,
necesl>ary to check the posJ.ibility or fai lure by cxce. .sive compressive stresses in the
~truts and to provide sufficient steel area to prevent tensile fai lure in the ties. The
variable strut inclination method is used in a similar munncr to that for the design to
resist vertical shear in a beam described in 5CClion 5. 1.2.
The design is divided into the following ~tngcs:

1. Caleul::~te lhe longitudintll design shear stres1.cs, ,.,~ ut the web-flange interface.
The longitudinal she:lf stresses arc ut a maximum in the region~ of the maximum
changes in bending stresses that, in turn. occur ut the stccrest part<; of the bending
moment diagram. These occur al the length~ up to the maximum hogging moment
nver the supports and at the length~ awuy from the zero ~agging moments in the
~pan of the beam.
rhe change in the longitudinal force .J.Fd in the llangc OUtl.tand at a section i'
obtained from

.J.Fd = .J.M X bto

(d h, / 2) b,
where b1 = the effective breadth of the flange
bro = the breadth of the OLII'>tand of the flange (b1 b.,. )/2
b.., the breadth of the weh
h1 the thicknc),~ of the flange
and 6M the change in moment over 1he distance ~~

Therefore
6M (br - b-.)/2
---...,.X
(d hr/2) hr

Figure 5.6
Shear between flange
and web

•h
 Shear, bond and torsion 111

The longitudinal <;hear stress. I'Ed· at the vertical section between the outstand of
the Hange and the web is caused by the change in the longitudinal force, ..:':J.Fd. which
that
occur., over the di.,tance ~'· ~o that
all
the
(5.16)
the
r by The maximum value allowed for ...lx is half the dtstance between the \ection with
that tcro moment and that where maximum moment occurs. Where point loads occur
I i~ ..:':!..' should not exceed the distance between the loads.
the If ~'t::J is less than or equal to 40 per cent of the design tensile crad.ing \trength of
The the concrete. j~ 1J, t.e. I'F~ ~ OAfcw O..+Jc,,j 1.5 = 0.2?fc,~. then no ),hear reinforce-
l.to ment is required and proceed directly to step 4.
2. Ched.. the shear strel>ses in the inclined stmt
As before, the angle 0 for the inclination of the concrete strut is restricted to :J lower
:e. and upper value and EC2 recommends that. in this case:

num 2o.s · , e, _ 45 · i.e 2.0 > cot 0, ~ I .0 for fl ange~ in compre~~iu n

bg 3R.6 ::;: 01 ::; 45 ' i.e 1.25 > cot 01 > 1.0 for flanges in tcn~>ion.
nent
the To prevent crushing of the concrete in the compressive struts the longitudinal
shear \Ires~ i~ limited to:
ID is I ' Lf~L
l't:d < (S 17 )
- 1.5(cot o, - tan e,)
where the ),treng.th reduction factor,., =0.6( l - }d/250).
The lower value of the angle 0 i~ fiN tried and if the :\hear -;tre~se~ are too high
e
the angle J\ calculated from the following equation:

0.5 \in t{ 0.1( I

3. Calculate the trunsversc shear reinforcement required

The required transver~e reinforcement per unit length, A,1/.~ 1 • may he calculated
lrom the equtltion:
A,, > V[d h t
(5. 18)
1r - O.R?f~k cot Or

which is derived by considering the tensile force 111 each tic.

4. The reqUirements of tran~vcr~c ~teel.
EC2 require' that the area of transverse steel should he the greater of (a) that given
by equation 5. 18 or (b) half that given by equation 5.1 R plw. the area of steel
required by transverlle bending of the flange.
The minimum amount of tranwerse steel required in the flange is
1\, nun 0.26bdt.ifc~m/J).-.. (> 0.0013bdr) mm /m. where h - 1000 mm (),Ce table 6.8).
2

Example 7.5 (p. 184) illustrates the approach to calculating tran~ver~e shear
reinforcement in flanged beam~.
11 2 Reinforced concrete design

5.2 Anchorage bond

The reinforcing bar subject to direct ten'>ion 'ihown in figure 5.7 mu'>t be firmly ancll· •
if it is not to be pulled out of the concrete. Bar.. suhject to forces induced by flexure rr.
be ~imilarly anchored to develop their de),ign \tresses. The anchorage depend<; on
bond between the bar and rhe concrete, the area of contact and \\ hethcr or not the b;.;
located in a region where good bond condition'> can be expected. Let:
/b r<JJ = basic required anchorage length to prevent pull out
<iJ = bar size or nominal diUmeter
.ft>J = ultimate anchorage bond stress
.r:. = the direct tenllilc or compres~ivc strC!.ll in the bar.

Figure 5.7
Anchorage bond .I

Considering the forces on the bar:

Tensile pull-out force - cross-sectional area of bar direct '>treso.,
= m:rf'
-4 '
anchorage force = comact area .tnchorage hond '>trcll.,
- (lt> ryd7r<iJ) x At

therefore

hence
k.P
= 'ifbtJ
/h,rqd

and when h =/yd• the de~ign yteld strength of the rcinrorccmcnt (=/yk/ 1.15) tl--
nnchoruge length is given by
/h.rtjd = (¢/ 4) ([l;k/ 1.15]/!hd)
/h .rqd = (/yl/-+.6/t>tJ)¢ (5.19)•

Basic anchorage length

Equation 5.19 may be used to determine the /)(me anchorage lmgrlt of harl. which arc
either 111 tension or compre:.sion. For the calculation of anchorage length~. design ,·alucs
of ultimate anchorage bond stresses are specified according to whether the bond
conditions are good or otherwise.
 Shear, bond and torsion 11

direction of concreting Figure 5.8

Definition of good and
t poor bond conditions
"chored
-·e muc;t
'on the 45° <IX< 90° h> 2SOmm
l~e har is
for all v~lues of h

It< 250 mm h> 600 mm

I
Good bond conditions in unhatchPd zone
Good bond condition) for all bars
Poor bond conditions 1n hatched zone

Good hontl cond iti on~ are t:onsidered to he when (a) bors are inclined at an angle of
hctwccn 45 and 90 to the hori.amlal or (h) zero to 45 provided thnt in thi:-. second case
additional requirements arc mel. These additional condition~ nre that bar~ Ute

1. either placed in members whofte depth in the <.lircction or wncrcttng <.Inc~ not exceed
250mm or
2. embe<.lded in members With a depth greater than 250 mm an<.! arc ctther in the lower
250 mm of the member or at least 300 mm from the top ,urfm:c when the depth
exceed~ 600 mm.

Thc'c condlti<>n' ure Jllu,trated in figure 5.R. When hond condition' arc poor then the
-.~ctfied ultimate bond ~trc'i\CS 'ihould be reduced by a factor of 0.7.
The dc,tgn \alue nf the ultimate hood ~tres<; 1s also dependent on the bar ~itc. For all
har site' (o) greuter than :12 mm the hon<.l Mre:-.s 'hould addittonally he mulliplied by n
fm:tor ( IJ2 ¢)/ I 00.
Tahle 5. 1 give., the <.Jc),ign value~ of ultimate hond ),trc,~c., for 'good' conchtions.
Thc.~c depend on the cln..,:. of concrete and arc obtained from the equation ./t-.1 1 . 50}~ 1 ~
where .f~r~ if> the characteristic tent.ile strength or the concrete.

Design anchorage length

'I he baviC' unchorage length discussed above lll\ISt be further JllOUiticd to give the
minimum design anchorage lenglh taking into account factor~ not directly covered by
~) the tahlc 5. 1.

Table 5. 1 Design values of bond stresses fbd (N/mm 7)

5.19)*
f,k N/mm1 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 ss 60
Bars 32 mm diameter and
good bond conditions 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.7
Kh are Bars 32 mm diameter and
~ \alues poor bond conditions 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.3
e bond
114 Reinforced concrete design

Table 5.2 Coefficients a

Value (1 allows for the effect of: Type of anchorage Reinforcement in

of (I
Tension Compression
o1 The shape of the bars Straight 1.0 1.0
Other than straight 0.7 if <d 3.0o 1.0
or 1.0 if not
n2 Concrete cover to Straight 1 - 0. 15 ( c~ -Ol/o 1.0
the reinforcement but 0 7 and <:. 1.0
Other than straight 1 - 0.15(cu - 3o)to 1.0
but > 0.7 and < 1.0
OJ Confinement of transverse All types of K>. 1.0
reinforcement not welded to reinforcement but > 0.7 and ~ 1 .0
Lhe main reinforcement

Confinement of transverse All types, position and 0.7 0.7

reinforcement welded to the sizes of reinforcement
main reinforcement

Confinement by transverse All types of 0.04p

pressure reinforcement but 0.7 and • 1.0

NOll': tht' product "J >< "J • O) should be greater than or equal to 0.7

The required minimum anchorage length (/~><~) " given hy

ft..t r1t. n~. o,. o~ . o~/h ""11\, ,,.4/A, rrn' (5.20
where A, n:,1• = area of reinforcemenl required nod 1"0\ idcd at that section
A,. 1110,
o ( 1 to 5) = set of coeflicients a~ given in Table 5.2
In Table 5.2:
c0 - concrete cover coefficient us ~hown in figure 5.9
K values as shown in figure 5. 10
)., = (L:A,,- l:A,I,min)/A,
LA" = the cross-sectional nrcn of the trnn!>vcrsc rcinfon:cment along the design
anchorage length
l:A,~.mon = the cross-sectional nrea of the minimum tnmsvcr~c rcinforccmcm
( = 0.25A, for beams nnd Lero for ~labs)
A~ = the area of a single anchored bar with maximum har diameter
Thi!-. minimum design length must not be le!>~ than:
for tension bars: 0.3/b.rqd
for compression bars: 0.6/tuq.J
In both ca~es the mmimum value mu~t also exceed both lO bnr diameters and 100 mm.
Anchorage~ may also be prm i<.lc<.l by hook' or bends in the remforcemem. Hooks and
bends are con-;idere<.l adequate form' of anchorage to the main reinforcement if they
 Shear, bond and torsion 115

Figure 5.9
Values of Cd for beams and
slabs (see table 5.2)

Straight bars Bent or hooked bars looped bars

'• .. min (o/2, c,, c) '• =min (o/2. c,) Ceo= c

A, o,A., A, ~A,. A, o,A,,

Figure 5.10
Values of K lor beams and
o' slabs (see table 5.2)

K 0.1 Ka 0.05

Figure 5.11

-
90" < u < 1so• + r Equivalent anchorage length~
for bends and hooks
: I ft '

Straight bar Bend

•
-
loop
Minimum Intern~ I radius of a hook, bend or loop = 2o or 3.5\'l for Q >16 mm

~m is l'y the ITI1n1111UI11 uime n ~ i on s ~how n in figure 5. 1J. Bends and h ook~ ure IIOl
;n recommended l'or u~e a!> compression anchorages. In the ense or
the hook~> and bend&
shown in ligure 5. II the anchorage length (shown m. h,.~q) which is l'quiva lcnl to that
required by the straight bur can be simply calcula1ed from the ex pression:
/b eq= n 1/b,rqd where n 1 is Iuken us 0.7 or I .0 depending on I he cover co nd iti o n ~
(">ee table 5.2).
The internal diameter of any bent bar (rcfemd to as the mandrel size) is limited to
avoid damage to the bar when bending. For bar~ less than or equal to 16mm diameter
the mternal diameter of any bend should be a minimum of 4 time~ the har dtametcr. For
larger bar '>t7es the limJt as 7 umes Lhe bar diameter.
To give a general idea of the full anchorage lengths required forf.:k 30 N/nun1 and
2
f..l 500 N/mm • with bar diameters, ¢ < 32 mm. /b ~ can vary between 25 bar
diameter' (25¢) and 52 bar dJameten, (52o). depending on good and poor bond
condi tion~>. and the value of the coefficiems Ct from rable 5.2.
116 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 5. 2
Calculations of anchorage length

Determine the anchorage length required for the top reinforcement of 25mm bar~> in the
beam at its jum:lion with the external column as shown in figure 5. 12. The reinforcing
bars are in ten~ioo resisting u hogging moment. The characteristic material ~trcngths are
.fcL = 30 N/mm 2 and / ) k 500 N/mm~.

Figure 5.12
Anchorage for a beam framing
into an end column H25 bars 100 = 4Q

~vespan

Assuming there is a con~Lruc t ion joint in the column ju&l above the beam :~nd, as the
bars arc in the top of the hcum. from ligurc 5.8 the bond conditions arc poor nnd from
table 5.1 the ultimate anchorage hond -.tress i' 2.1 N/mm ' .
A~ the bar~ :~re hem mto the column and the concrete co,er coefficient. <'d (figure 5.9)
is equivalent to 4o. which i' greater than 36, from table 5.2 cocfticiento 1 i-, 0.7. Abo
from tahlc 5.2, codticicnl n' - I 0. 15ktt Jr11)/<P I 0.15(4ril - 3o}/¢ 0.85.
Hcm:c the requi red anchorage length i~

/t.J /. l ) 0
- ( 4.6/bd
Cl jll'

= 0.7 x () 85 ( t:.
500 -
) ri1 = 31 ~'>
4.\) X 1_, I
= 31 25 = 77~ mm.
Sec ahn tahlc A.6 m the \ppcndix lor tahulated \aluc' of anchorage length'>.
l~------------------------------------~)

5.3 laps in reinforcement

Lapping of remforccmcnt is often necessary to transfer Lhe fo rce:. from one bar to
another. Laps between bars should be ~taggcred and should not occur in regions of high
stress. The length of the lap should be ba~ed on the minimum anchorage length moditied
to take into account factors \Uch as cover. etc. The lap length /0 required 1~ g1ven hy
fu ftvqJ X 0:1 X 01 X Cl~ X (l~ X f\(1 (5.21 )*
where e~ 1 • n:!, o,, and ns, arc obtained from table 5.2. n 6 (!1 1/25) .5 (with an upper
0

and lower limit of 1.5 and 1.0 respectively) and p 1 ts the percentage of reinforcement
lapped \\ithin 0.65/0 from the centre of the lap length hcing considered. Values of 0:0
can be comcniemly taken from table 5.3.
 Shear, bond and torsion 11

Ta ble 5.3 Values of the coefficient a 6

Percentage of lapped bars relative to the tolal

cross-sectional area of bars at the section being <25% 33% 50% >50%
considered

1.15 1.4 1.5

lntermedoate values mc~y be onterpolated from the table

Figure 5.13
Transverse reinforcement

·Jl11 m:i:,~~~
for lapped bars

14 ~~J
(a) tension lap

1, .1s the -~~ .

~from 1,/3
r -
~e 5.9)
- Al\0
=!.85.

(b) compresston lap

Notwithl-llandtng the abmc rcquirements. the absolute lllllltnlum lap length~~ gi\cn us

In mlu 0.3nr,ll, r 1ol

_ __,)
1:.

> 15 diameter~ , 200 mm

(5.22)

'l runsvcrse rcinl'orccmcnt mu~t be providcd around lap), un lcs~ the hipped bars nrc
less thon 20 mm tl iumctcr or there is lc~.), than 25 per cent lappcd bar)\. In thcsc case~
minimum trun~ver~e reinforcement provided J'or other purposes )>Uch a~ shcar links will
he atlcyuate. Otherwi!>c transvcr~e reinforccmcm mu~t be prm 1ded. a:-, 1\hown in
ne bar to figure 5.13, having a total area of not less than the urea of one -.pliccc.l har.
.. of high The arrangement of lapped bar~ must al~o confom1 to figure 5. 14. 'I he clear ~pace
modified bet11 ecn lapped ha~ 'hould not he greater than ole;) or 50mm other11 i!>c an additional lap
_··en by length e4ual to the clear <.pace must be provided. In the ca~e ol atljm.:ent lap~ the dear
dtstancc hctween adJacent ha~ ~hould not be greater than 2o or 20 mm. The
5.21 )"'
longirutlinal dl\tance between Lwo adjacent lap~ should he greater than 0. ""' If allthe!-.c
.m upper condttion' arc compiled '' Hh then I00% of all tension bars 111 one layer at any o;ecuon
-cement may be lapped. mhemi'>e. where bar' arc in \everallayers. th1~ llgure \lmuld he reduced
~ .. of n6 to sorr.. In the CU\C of compress tOn !.!eel. up to I0011- of the reinforcement at a ~ectton
may be lapped.
118 Reinforced concrete design

~0.31.
Figure 5.14
Lapp1ng of adjilcent bars ,~ r-- '·
<40or 50 mm __..

5.4 Analysis of section subject to torsional moments

5.4.1 Development of torsional equations
Torsional moments produce shear stresse~ th<ll result in principal tensile strcs1.es
inclined at approximately 45 to the 1()11gituclinal md1. of the member. Di<\gonnl cracking
occurs when these ten~ile ~tresses exceed the ten~ilc strength of the concrete. The cracks
will form a spiJ:ll around the member ns in figure 5.15.
Reinforcement in the flmn of closed link~ and longitudinal bars will carry forces from
incn:asing torsional moment after crnckmg. hy a tn1~' action wilh reinforcement acting
m. tension members and concrete as compre~sive ~truts between links. Failure will
eventually occur by reinforcement yielding. coupled with crushtng of the concrete along
line A- A as crack!. on the other face open up. lt ts a\sumed that once the tor..ional ~hear
'treso; on a <.ection exceed.., the value to cau'e erad,ing. ten!>ion reinforcement in the
form of closed lin~ mU'.t hi! pro.. ided to rest\t the lullwn.ional moment.
The cquauon!- for tor.;iorlJI destgn arc developed from a !>tructural model where it b
:Mumed that the concrete beam m tor~ron beha1c-. in a <;rmilar fashiOn to a thin \\:tiled
ht)\ .,cction. The box'' rdnl'orced wrth longitudmal bar:- 111 each corner v.itJl clo~edloop
... urrup' a-. tran-.1er~e tcn,ron uc-. and the concrde prm iding dmgonal cornprCl.loiOn
.,trut,. It i., a..wmed that the concrete cannot provrde any tcn,tle resistance.
EC2 gi\'C!> the princtple' .llld .,orne lunucd design equations for a gcnerali~ed .,hape of
•1 hollow bo\ .. cction. In thi' se1.tron ot the text we\\ til develop the cquauons that can be
used lor the dcsrgn and analy~>i' or a typic<~! solid nr hollow rcctungle hox section.
Consider ligure 5.16a. The applied tmquc (Tt.r) at the far end or the section produce~
a .1hearjlnll' (q) around the perimeter of the box ~cction m the ncar end of the diagram.
rhe sheur now is the product ol' the <;hc<tr stress ( r) and the lhicknes~ or the hollow
section. lienee from clnl'osicul clnstie theory the applied torque can be related to the shear
now hy the expre:.sion
T === 2A~q
wher·c Ak ts the area enclosed within the centre \me of the hollow box section, hence
(5.23)

Figure 5.15
Tor.1onal reinforcement

l
 Shear, bond and torsion 119

Figure 5.16
Structural model for torsion

(a)
Compression slruts
I

Torsional shear Ioree

e'~es

·~ng Tension In
r.1cks longitudinal steel
Triangle of for~Ps
(b) Forces actfng on whole body (one face shown representative of all four faces)
·om

~
!.'JOg
h
•\ ill
~ •mg
car
the
h • [ u
.
:[~, ,<'~. , qh
•

L t is
qh hcotU
...
o~.lled (c) Forces actang on one lace of the sectaon
l 10p
""'ton
A~ q i'> the ~hrur force per unit length of the circumference of rhe bo\ :.l'ctton. the
~of forr£' produced hy the !>hear llow is the product of q unci the circumference {u~) of the
. ~be area A~. lienee. if it u<;:.umed thai this force i'> resi .. tcd hy the trus~ action of the ~:oncrerc
"\. compressive ~ trul\ acting m an angle. 0. together with tension in the longitudinal .-.tccl,
uccs from figure 5. 16b the force {F,) in the longitudinal tension Meclts given by
mm.
IIow (/Ilk cos() (jill. Tu~
(5.24)
,hear l> in () tan() 2/\k ton B
The required urea of longi tudinul tcnl'ion steel lo rcsi .. t torsion (/\, 1 ), acting at its
dc:.ign slrength ({y~/ 1.15), IS 1herel'orc given by
·nee A,Jyt~ lit~ Tu1. cot 0
1.15 2A1. tan() 2Ak (5.25)

In the ::tbO\C equation tJ1c torque. T, is the max11nurn that can he re~i,ted by the
longirudinal rcinfnrcernent and i~ therefore equivalent to the de-;ign ultunare tor'>tonal
moment. TCd· lienee

A,J~ tl
1.15 (5.26)

The required cross-secrional area of torsional link, can be determ1ned b) considering

one tace of the hox section m• .-.hown in figure 5.16c. If ir is assumed that the urea of one
120 Reinforced concrete design

leg of a link (Asw) is acting at it)> design yield strength([.,~ / 1.15) the force in one link is
given by
AsJ;i../ 1.15 = q X h
H1mc'"er if the linh arc spaced at a distance ~ apart the force 10 each link b reduced
proportionately and i~ given by
A,.J,l I s
· =qxtx-- ---
ql
1. 15 h cot 0 cOL ()
T&t-"
(5.27)*
2A• cot B
Equations 5.26 and 5.27 can be used w de~ign a section to res1st torsion and an
example of their u~e i~ given in chapter 7. The calculated amount oJ reinforcement must
he provided in addition to the full bending and ),hear reinforcement requirements for the
ultimate load comhinalions corresponding to the tor:.ionul lofld cnse considered. Where
longitudinal bending reinforcement is required the ndditional torsional steel nrea ma)
either be provitll:d by increasing the size of the bars. or by additionul bnrs. Torsional
l ink~ must consist of tully anchored clo~>cd links spaced longitudinally no more than
11~ /H apart. The longitudinal steel must con~i'>t of at lea'>! nne har in each corner of the
:-.cction with other bar5 di\trihutcd around the 111ncr periphery of the links nt no mor~
than 350 mm centres. Where the reinforcement I!) known equation~ 5.26 and 5.27 can lx
rearranged for :malysis purpo).es to gi\c TEd and 0 a-; follows:

) ~
11
A.,.. /\,1 .
rh, 2A~o. ( --0.87/,~.
\ . IlL
o.87J,,~.
•
(5.28

<Uld

• = (" '" )I (As-;;;:f)'"

tan· (}
5
[,~. I ) (5.29

The use of ullthe above equations a~:-.t1mcs that the seclion i!> replaced by an equivalcn
hoiiO\\ bo\ section. To determine the thickness of the !'>Cction an equivalent thickne~
Urtl 1-; used. detinet! a~ equul to the towl area of the cro!\)o-l'>CCtion dtvided hy the oute
circumfen:ncc of the ~ection. In the case of un aduul hollow section the cro~:.-~cctio
aren woulcl include uny inner hollow a rea~ and the culcu latcd thicknel.s should not be
taken u~ grcnter than the actual wollthickncs!'l. In no ca~c :-.hould the thickness be take'"
as lc:-.s than twice the cover 10 the longitudinal hm~.
When analysing or dc)oigning a ~ectinn it is abo necess~1ry to check that excess""
cnmpresl>ive stresses do nol occur in the diagonnl compre~sivc strut!>, leading possibly t
compre~sJve failure of the concrete. With reference to figun: 5. 16c and taking th..
lim1ting torsional moment for strut comprc~sive l"adure as '/~J 11111, :
rOI'CI! in ~trut = (q X h )/~i n(;J
An•a of strut = r~ 1 x (II co~ 9)

Stri!H in ~trut = rorcc; Area = --. CB/ J,~.; l5

II -
let Sill C0\11

"here f.:~o. IS the characteristic comprc-.si\ e stre~ in the concrete. As q = TRd ma,I(:!J\
then the above equauon can be e\pre~scd a-.

~ma.•/(2AI.) <J.. / 1.5

tcr sin0cos8 - ,1.
 Shear, bond and torsion 121

K' Link is or

TRd "''" $ 1.33}ckldAksin8cos8)

which can ai\O be expressed as
reduced /Rdm~' <. l.33f,~tcr\~ /( cot0-tan8 ) (5.30)
In EC2 th1s equation j, modified b} the inclusion of a rtrength reduction facwr (1· 1) to
gi\C
TMtl m." < 1.331'lfcltcrAl/(cot8 +tan 0) (5.31 )*
5 27)*
where the strength reduction factor takes the value of 0.6( I - f~l /250 ).
and an In using the above C(JU<llion~ to design for tor~ion, the designer L' free ro choose a
e,t mu't value of () which will permit a reduction in link requirements halttnced by a
, for the corre:-.ponding increase in longitudinal Meel, as for the Variable S11·ut Inclination
Where M<'fhod for !.henr design. However there are practical l i m i tation~> on the value~ of(} that
ca may can he u~ed and EC2 recommends that 1.0 < cOLO ~ 2.5 rcpre~enting limiting values of
r~ional 0 of -15 and 22 respectively.
e thnn The arproach to design for torsion is therefore:
tr of the
(a) Ba~ed on the calculated ultimate tor~ional moment (7'1c~). t:heck the maximum
more
tor"onalmomentthat can be carried hy the ~ection (TRJ 111,,.) whit:h ~~ govemed hy
- l311 be
compre~\ion in the concrete struts. w, given hy equation 5. 31:

7j ... <. /'~,l. ona' - 1.331·1f~ ~~~rA~ /(cot 0 t tan H)

: .28)*
(h) Calculate the tor-.ional rcmforcemem requ1red from equation 5.17·
A,. , 1 1,,1'(2. \~0 87}>k cot B)
5.29)* ~~here A " I'> the area of one lt•g of a hnk.
(l:) Calculme the additmnal longitudinal reinforcemcnt (t\, 1) from equation 5.26:
Jlent
\.'l.nes~
1\, 1 ('f',. 1 u~ / 2Ad cot 0/( 0.87{> 1d
c outer
~ection Further infonnation on the pmctieal details of design fo1 tor~ion and a de11ign
not be example arc given in charter 7.
>e taken

5.4.2 Torsion in complex shapes

ce~sivc
'1hly to
A ~et:tion consi~ting of a T. Lor I :,hapc should be divided into component rectangles
• ng the
and each component h. then de~igncd separately to C<lrry 11 proportion of the torque
! rEd). The torsion carried by each rectangle (7;) can be dctcrminetl elastically hy
calculating the torsional -.tiffnes~ or each part according to ih St \lt'IWIIt tor~ional
'u l'fnc~!. from the expres~ion

lj Jk, (limon 31lma,),

T, (5.32 )•
L (Ahmon'lima\}
''here limon and limo\ arc the minimum and maximum dimcn'>lon of each ~ection. K i-. the
5t Venant'1 torlimwl cml\tallt that varies according to the ratio hm."/ llm111 : typical values
of '' hich arc 'hOI\ n 111 table SA. The subdh ision of a ~hupc into Its component
rectangles should be done in order to maximise the stiiTne~s expres~ion L (Kh 111 ,, ~"""") .
122 Reinforced concrete design

Table 5.4 St Venant's torsional constant K

hmax hmon K hm••'hmon K

1.0 0.14 3.0 0.26

1.2 0.17 4.0 0.28
1.5 0.20 5.0 0.29
2.0 0.23 10.0 0.31
2.5 0.25 >10 0.33

5.4.3 Torsion combined with bending and shear stresses

Torsion is ~>eldom present alone, ttnd in most practh;a l cases will be combined '
shear and henuing ~lre~ses.

(a) Shear stresses

Diagonal cracking will start on th.: ~iuc face ol a member where torsion and '
~tres.,cs arc addi11ve. Pigurc 5.17 .,how' a typical ultimate torsion and ultimate '
intcrat.:tion diagram from wh1ch 11 can he ~ecn that the hcmn'., resistance to comh
shear and torsion i' lc~s than that -when \UbJCCI to either effect alone. The effe~t
comhined hear stres~ and tor~10nal ~trc ...s may therefore need to be considered a
th1' ca~e both shear and tor.,ion are calculated on the ha.,i:-. of the <>arne equivalent
"ailed <,ecuon pre\ iou:-.1} de~cnbed for tor\! onat de\lgn.
The recommended ...rmpllfied approach to de,1gn i' to cnl>urc that the ultimate 'ht
FigureS 17
Combined shear and tonton force (VEd l and the ultimate torl>IOnal moment (/ 1,1) ~o.ati•.f) the interaction formula
(5. ~'
''here
TRd ,.., the dc\ign tor-.JOnttl resi~tancc (equation 5.31)
I'Rd ma~ the design shear resi~tancc (equation 5.8)
I r thi!o. imcraction equation i~ Mlti ~lied. the de~ign of the ~hear andLOr!.ionnllinks can b..
carried ()Lit separately providing th:.H the assumed angle of the compressive su·ll!s (0) '
the same for both tor:-.ionul and lihe;lr design.
However for a solid rectangular sectiou, ~>uhj cctlo rcluti vcly small torsional and shea
s trcl>se~. neither shear nor torsional reinlon:cmcnl i.., necessary if

(5.3~

where VRd ~ is the ~hear capacity nf the concrete a:. given by equation 5. 1. TR.J.c i~ th~
torsional crad.ing momem \\hich can he calculated from equation 5.23 for a shear me,
equal to the dc!>ign tens1le strc..,..,, /<hi· of the concrete. i.e. from equation 5.23:
T
q=-
21\l
where q shear force per u1111 length :.hear ..,tress x (It~ x I) or
T = shear stre~' x tc~ x 2A~
 Shear, bond and torsion 1.

'0 \\hen the concrete reaches its design tensile cracking strength. .f~1d
'lkd,c =}~uJ X let X 2A~

26
- .l<~k 2A
- l.Sfet k
28
Z9 1.33J~~~~e~Ak (5.35)
31 It should abo be noted that the calculation for A"' for shear !equation 5.3) gives the
B
required cross-sectional area or both leg~ of a link whereas equation 5.27 for tor~ion
gives the required cross-sectional area of a single leg of a link. Thi~ needs to be taken
mto con-;ideration when dctermming the total link requirement as 1n c'<ample 7.9.
l·urthermore, lhe addnional area of longitudinal reinforcemem for l>heur design
(equation 5. 12) must be provided in the tension zone of the heam. whereas the
udditional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion (equation 5.26) must be distributed
ned \>.ith Jround the inner periphery of the links.

(b) Bending stresses

When a bending moment b pre~ent. dtagonal cracl,s will u~ually develop from the top
d \ hear of Aexurnl cracks. The nexural crac.:k~ them:-elve~ on ly slightly reduce the tor~ional
e 'hear 1-ttillness provided that the diagonal crack\ clu not dew lop. The ltnalmodc of failure "ill
~ mhincd depend on lhc di-,tribution and quantity nt reinforcement present.
..!feel of Figure 5.18 shows a typical ultimate moment and ultimate torsion iutcrur.:tion curve
c:J ,tnd in for a ~>c~tion. As cun be seen. tor moments up to approximately RO per cent of the
crll thin ultunate moment the section cun resbt the lull ultimate l<lf'>tonal moment Hence no
calculations tor tor~iOll OfC generally llCC.:CS~ttry for the tlltitnti!C limit Stale Of bending of \
te -,hcnr reinl'orced concret~o: unless tor~ion has been iucludccl in lht.: original analysis or is \
required for equi lihriurn.
nula
When combined n~.:xure nnd lor~ion il> COll\tdered the longttuclinal ~lecl tor both C:l'\C:.
I
-:i .J:I}* 0.8M,. M,
can be determined :-.cparately. In the flexura l tension tone the longitudinal .~tet: l required
Figure 5. 18
for both cases can be added. llowever in the flexural compressive ,.:one no additional Combined bend1ng and
tor'lonul longitudinal 'lee! i'> ncces<;ary 1f the longitudinal force due to tor~ion i' le% tor~1on

than the concrete cnmpresstve force due 10 Ocxurc.

' can be
h (8) is

(5.34)

is the
.tr stress
 6
......................................
CHAPTER

Serviceability,
durability
and stability
requirements
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
·•·•·••········•••···•··••····•••··•·•••••·····•·•·•···••••·•·•••···· ·•••··••
The concept of serviceability hm1t St<ltes has been introduced m chapter 2, and for
reinforced concrete structures these state~ Me often ~<1tisf1ed by observing empirical
rules which effect the detailing only. In some circumstances, however, it may be
desired to estimate the behaviour ol a member under work1ng conditions, and
mathematical methods of estimating deformations and cracking must be used. The
design of prestressed concrete is bclsed prirnilrlly on the avoidance or limitation of
cracking and this is considered sept~rately in chapter 1 I .
Where the loundat1ons of a structure are in
contact with the ground, the pressures developed
will influence Lhe amount of settlement that Is likely
to occur. To ensure that these movements are
limited to acceptable values and are similar
throughout a structure, the sizes of the foundations
necessary are based on the service loads for the
structure.
Consideration of durability is necessary to ensure
that a structure remains serviceable throughout its
lifetime. Th1s requirement will involve aspects of
design, such as concrete mix selection and
--.
124
 SeNiceability, durability and stability requirements

determination of cover lo reinfordng bars, as well as selection of suitable materials for

the exposure conditions which are expected. Good construction procedures including
adequate curing are also essential if reinforced concrete is to be durable.
Simplified rules governing selection of cover, member dimensions and
remforcement detailing are given in sections 6.1 and 6.2, while more rigorous
procedures for calculation of actual deflection and crack widths are described 1n
sections 6.3 to 6.5. Durability and fire resistance are discussed 10 $eCtion 6.6.
The stability of a structure under accidental loading, although an ultimate limtt
state analysts, will usually take the form of a check to ensure that empirical rules,
designed to give a minimum reasonable resistance agatnst misuse or accident are
satisfied. Like serviceability checks, this will often mvolve detailing of reinforce-
ment and not affect the total quantity provided. Slclbilily requirements are
discussed in section 6.7 and considered more fu lly for seismic effects In
section 6.8.

6.1 Detailing requirements

Thc\C reqturemcntl> cn\urc that a ~rructurc hal> 'att~factory uwahiltty and 'cnu.:cuhility
performan ce under normal circumstances. EC2 recommend~ \tmplc rule~ conccrmng
the concrete llll\ and cm.cr to reinforcement, minimum memhc1 dm1cn'IOil'-. and hmlt'
to n:infon.:emem quantilic!-., \pacmgs and bar diameter!> \\ hil:h mu\t be tuJ..en into
account at the member \t.!ing and remforcement dctathng \tagc. In \OillC ca~e' tabulated
value' arc pronded for I) p1cal common ca~c)>. "h1ch are ba,cd on more complc\
,. ...... formulae gi\en 111 the code of practtce. Reinforcement detathng may al~o he aflcch.:d hy
d for \tahi lity ctm~tderattOnll as tlc!>crihed in sectton 6.7. a~ well a~ rull!~ concerning
11 "cal anchorage and lapptng of bars which have been dbcu,~>cd in section' 5 2 and 5.3.
be
and
The
6. 1.1 Minimum concrete mix and cover (exposure conditions)
:on of rhese requirement~ arc interrelated and. although not rully dcwiled in
EC'2, EN 206
Concre/1! Pt't.fnmtance, Prod11clirm. Plal'ing and Complirmce Criteria and the
e in comrlememory Briti~>h SIUndard BS 8500 give more detailed gu idance on minimum
~oped comhinattons of thickness nf covel' anu mix chan.tcteris tics for variou~ clas~>cs of
s 1kely cxpthurc. It ~hould be noted that the UK national Annex to F.C2 (and B~ 8500) induuc
'igni licant modification~ to EC2 itself. The mixes arc CXJWC~'eu in tcnm of minimum
cemen t content. maximum free water/cement ratio and corre~ponding lnwe~t concrete
~ln:ngth cl:l\S. bxpo~urc clal>sification~ are given intahlc 6.1 whtch then define~ the mix
und cmcr reqUirements and so on "hich must be complied \\ith.
Con~r to re111forcement 1s specified and ~hown on drawing~ a~ a nominal \:tlue. This
e sure ~~ obtaincu from
iO..Il its
i'""m - <mm ~cdc,
~u of
and "here ~cd.- b an allowance for construction dcnation<, and b normally taken a~ I 0 mm
........ except where an appro\'ed qualtry control \)'Mcm on cover (e.g. 1111>1tu meawrcmenL~) i'
specified in which ca.\C it can be reduced lo 5 mm.
 126 Reinforced concrete design

Table 6.1 Exposure class designation

Oass
.
designatton Description Examples of environmental conditions
XO No risk of corrosion Unreinforced concrete (no freeze/thaw, abrasion or
- Very dry chemical attack)
Reinforced concrete buildings with very low
hum1d1ty

XC CarbonatiOn-induced corrosion risk Reinforced and prestressed concrete:

-1 Dry or permanently wet - inside structures (except high hum1dity) or
permanently submerged (non-aggressive water)
-2 Wet - rarely dry completely buried in non-aggressive soil
-3 Moderate humidity external surfaces (mcluding exposed to rain)
-4 Cyclic wet and dry exposed to alternate wetting and drying

XD Chloride-induced corrosion risk (not due Lo Reinforced and prestressed concrete:

seawater)
-1 Moderate humidity exposed to airborne chlorides, bridge parts away
from direct spray containing de-icing agents,
occasional/slight chloride exposure
-2 Wet, rarely dry - totally immersed in water containing chlorides
(swimming pools, industrial waters)
-3 Cyclic wet and dry exposed to de-•cing salts and spray (bridges and
adjacent structures, pavements, car parks)

xs Chlondc-induced corrosion risk (sea water) Reinforced and prewessed concrete:

-1 Exposed to airborne salt but not 1n direct external 1n coastal areas
water contact
·2 Perm.mently submerged - remaming saturated (e.g. below mid-tide level)
-3 Tidal, splt~sh and spray zones - in upper tidal, splash and spray zones

XF Freeze/thaw attack whilst wet Concrete surfaces exposed to freezing:

·1 Moderate water saturation - without vertical exposed to rau1
dt>-icing agent
2 Moderate water saturcll!On with vertical (road structures) exposed to de-Icing
de-Icing agent agents as spray or run -off
-3 lligh water saturation -without de-icing horitontal exposed to ra in or water accumulation
agent
-4 High water saturation - with de-icing - horizontal exposed to de-icing agents directly or
agcnL or sea water as spray or run -off. Others subject Lo frequent
splashing

XA Chemical auack
-1 Slightly aggressive
-2 Moderately aggressive - Defined in specialist literature
-3 Highly aggressive

=
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 12

The cover is necesr.ary to provide

1. c;afe tran!>fcr of bond forces:
2. adequate durabilit)<
3. lire reSIStance.
or
The value of r mon \hould not be le~s than the bar diameter (or cqui\ alent diameter of
bundled bar:.) to ensure satisfactory bond performance. Tile value of <"nun lO cnwre
adequate durability i'> inOuenced by the exposure das<;ificauon, mtx charactcri:.lb and
intended design life of the structure. Thi~ i1> a potentially complex proces!> since there
may commonly be a combination of expo·wre cla;;scs rduting to nuack ot the
reinforcement. whil5t freeze/thaw and chemical auad, apply to the concrete rather tiMn
ter)
the steel. The range of relevanr mix parameters include maximum water/cement ratio.
minimum cement content, cement type. aggregate size and air-entrainment.
Tuhle 6.2 show!' typical combinations of cover and mix dctui ls for commonly
occurring situations. If any of the parameters of cement type. uggn:gatc ,;,c or de1.>ign
life change, then adjuMmcnts will be nece.~sary. Design ~ hou l d he hu:-.cd on the most
severe exposure clu~sifkation if more than one nre combined. Minimum com:rcle mix
a 1ay requirement:. f'or ca~>es where freeze/thaw apply are summnriseu in luble ().3, wh ilst
exposure to chemical attack (class XA exposure) may place fun her limit), nn mix dctalls
nnd mny nl))o require additional protective mea:-.urc),. Reference should he mode to the
appropriate documentation in !>uch cases (e.g. BS R.'i00).
and
Table 6.2 Cover to reinforcement ~50-year des1gn life, Portland cement concrete with 20mm maximur
aggregate size) [Based on UK Nationa Annex]

Exposure class Nomma/ Cover (mm)

xo Not recommended for reinforced concrete
XCl 25
XC2 35 35 ---~
XC3/4 45 40 35 35 30
1
XDI 45 40 1 40 35 1 35 35
XD2 50 2 45' 45 1 401 40 40
XD3 60 1 551 50 1 50
Jtlon
XSl so 1 45 1 45 40
2 1 1
I or XS2 50 45 45 40 2 40 40
~t XS3 60 2 55 1 55
Maximum free
water/cement ratio 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.35 0.35
Minimum cement
(kg/m 1) 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380
Lowest concrete C20/25 C25/30 C28/35 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 CS0/60

Notes.
l. C~mt>nt contt>nt should be mneased by 20 kgtm 1 abolll' thE' values shown in the tdble.
2 Cement contem should be Increased by 40 kg/m 1 AND wat4'f 'E'ment rauo reduced by 0.05 compdred woth the value$ shown in I he
table.
Ctnerol Notes
These v,llues may be reduced by S mm 1f an approved quality control sy~tcm os spcclfoed .
Cover ~hould not be less than the bar diameter + 10 mm to ensure adequate bond perform<~ nee.
128 Reinforced concrete design

Table 6.3 Minimum concrete mix requirements for concrete exposed to

freeze/thaw (Exposure Class XF) - 20mm aggregates

Closs Strength Closs (maximum water/cement ratio)

------------------
No air-entrainment 3.5% air-entrainment
XFl C25/30 (0.6) C28/35 (0.6)
XF2 (25/30 (0.6) (32/40 (0.55)
XF31 C25/30 (0.6) (40/50 (0.45)
XF4 1 C28/35 (0.55) (40/50 (0.45)

Not!':
1. freeze-thaw resisting aggregate~ to be specofo!'d

6.1.2 Minimum member dimensions and cover (fire resistance)

In order that u reinforced concrete member is capable of withstanding tire for :1 specified
h
pcriou or time. it is necessary to cn~ure the provbion of minimum dimensions and cover
(here delincu as nominal minimum concrete !illrfncc to muin har axis dimension as
illustrated m ligure 6.1) for various types of concrete mcmher. In many practical
sli\Hltiono;, with modest fire resistance pcrioc.l\. the cover provided for durability wtll
b govern the design.
Structural fire design in coni-.idcrcd h> part 1-2 of l:.C2. wh1ch gi-.cs several po~sible
methods rang1ng from detailed calculations to 'impltried tabk:-. as presented here. Hre
Figure 6.1
effect\ are con,idered further m ~ection 6.6.2 and dc).1gn 1~ based on ~ati1>fying load
Deflntllon of oiXI~ do\t.mce, 0
heanng (R). 1ntegrit} (E). and msulatmg (II performance as appropnate.
!'he approach offers the destgner permts~lhlc comhtnallon~ ol member dimcn~iun and
a-.:1' dt,tance a" indicated 111 Tables 6.-t to 6.C1. for a range of \tandard lire resi~Lunce
period' (minutes). These '' 111 generally appl) ''hen nonnul deta11tng ntleo;, have been
follm' cd und ''hen moment redt,tribuuon doc:-. not C\cecd 15q f-or benms nnd !.labs.

Table 6.4 Minimum dimensions and ax1s distance for RC beams for fire resistance

Standard fire n•slstance Minimum dimensions (mm)

Possible combinations of a and bm1n where a is the overage axis distance and brn 111 is the
width of the beam
Simply supported Cotllinuou~

A B c D c r G H
R60 bll111l 120 160 200 300 120 200
a 40 35 30 25 25 12
R90 bmon 150 200 300 400 150 250
a 55 45 40 35 35 25
R120 b,n•n- 200 240 300 500 200 300 450 500
a 65 60 55 50 45 35 35 30
R240 bm~n- 280 350 500 700 280 500 650 700
90 80 75 70 75 60 60 50
Note: The oiXt) do~tdnce o,1 from the sidt' of a beam to the comer bar should be o+ IOmm except whtrl.' bn,., tsgreater lhdn the values in
cofumm C and f
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 1~

further detailing requiremenb may appl} for higher fire periods. \\htl<;t effecti\e length
and nxial load (relative to design capacity) may need 10 be specili<.:ally considered for
columns.

Table 6.5 Minimum dimensions and axis distance for RC slabs for fire resistance

Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)

resistance One-way Two-way spanning Ribs in two-way spanning ribbed
sponmng --- slob
ly I. < 7.5 1.5 < ly, l. 2.0
REI 60 /1, - 80 80 80 bmln- 100 120 20C
a- 20 10 15 o- 25 15 10
REI 90 11, 100 100 100 bman - 120 160 250
a- 30 15 20 a= 35 25 15
REI 120 hi 120 120 120 b,,,ll ... 160 190 300
o- 40 20 25 a- 45 40 30
REI 240 h, = 175 175 175 bmn 450 700
vet a- 65 40 50 a- 70 60
Notrs:
I. The! sl"b thlckne~~ 11. 1S the 111111 ol the slab th1cknes~ ond tht' thlckncs~ ol ''"Y non·combultlbh• lloo11ng
2. In two-way siJbs the axis ref€'rs to the lower I,Jyfr of re1nlorcrmfnt
3. Th€' term 'two-way Sldbs' rcl<~l~s to slabs supported .11 cJIIfour edgPs, if this •s not the Cd5e they shmold be lteo~ttd .u one-wJy sp.mmng
hie 4 For two-wc~y r bb od llabs.
I 1re (a) Th~ axis d11l.10CP measuretlto the iatpr,ll surfctce oftht' rib should be •ltleu~t to 10J.
1ad (b) The values ~pply whPre thtorc h predomli1cH1tly unitormty clhtrllluted loatllllq
(c) There \hO\Jid llc at le~\t olll' rrstrained t><lqt>
(d) The top remfor<.cment should be pi.Krd in lht' upper h'll of the ll.snge
o~nd

Table 6.6 Min1mum dimensions and axis d1stance for RC columns and walls ror fire res1stance

Standard fire Minimum dimem1ons (mm)

rc1lstance Column width bmnlaxis distance, a, of the main Wol/
--
thicknes~/oxis distance, a, of the main bars
bars
Columns exposed on Columns exposrd on Wall exposed on one Wall exposed 011 two
more than one side one side side sldel
R60 250/46 155/25 130/10 140/10
350/40
R90 350/53 155/25 140/25 170/25
450/40 2
R120 350/571 175/35 160/35 220/35
450/51 2
R240 600/70 295170 270/60 350/60
Nore1.
1 Based on the ro~ho of the deSJgn cJxtcJI lo.1d under lin: cond1Uom to thl! dPs1gn reSJStanct> at normal tempt>rature cond•llons
conservat&v~>ly t~ken as 0 7
2. Mmlmum of 8 bars reqwed
130 Reinforced concrete design

6.1.3 Maximum spacing of reinforcement

Crad..ing of a concrete member can result from the effect of loading or can an~
hccau~e of re~tmint to \hrinkage or thermal mo\l.:ment. In addition to providing
minimum area of bonded reinforcement (see sectton 6.1.5). cracking due to loading
minimised b} ensuring that the maxtmum clear 'pacing-. hetween longirudm~
reinforcing hars in beams i<. limited to thm gi\Cll in table 6.7. Thi., \\ill en~ure th..t
the ma\imum crack \\ idths m the concrete do not exceed 0.3 mm. It can he seen that li c
:-pacing depend~ on the •arcss in the reinforcement which should be taken as the !.trc,,
under the aclion of the qua.11-pemwnem loadings. The qumi·perma11ellf loading i~ tal-.el'
a' the permanent load. Gk. plu~ a propmtion of the variahle load. Qk, depending on the
t) pe of su-ucture. The calculation or the f>tn.:.,!-> level (j~) can be complicated and an
acceptable approximalion is to take l as

.f.. (6.1

I'm orlicc and domestic ~ituations (sec fable 2.4 for other circum&tances), where .r;k j,
the characteristic )>trcngth of' the reinl'orccment. h will hove a value of 1.0 unle'
mnml.!nt reubtribution hm. been earned out. in whil.'h ca~e t i~ the ratio of the distribute..
moment to the undi~tributcd moment at th~: ~ection at the ultimate Iunit.

Table 6.7 Maximum clear bar spacings (mm) for high

bond bars 1n tension caused predom~nantly by loading

Steel stress Maximum bar spacing

(N/mm 1) (mm)
160
-----
300
200 250
240 200
280 150
320 100
360 50

Thcl'te ~racing rule~> do not apply to ~ l 11hs with u11 overall thickness of200 mm or lc"'
In this cu!.c the srmcing of longitudinal rcinforcemem '>hould be no greater than thrt:o;
times the ovcrull ~luh dcpth or . wo mm, whichever is the le!>ser, and secondar:
reinforcement three-and-a-half time' the ucpth m 450 mm gt:nerally. In arens o
concentrated loadi't or maximum mo111cnh these shou ld he rl!duccd to 2h < 250111111 al1'
311 400 mm respectively.

6.1.4 Minimum spacing of reinforcement

To permit concrete llO\\. around reinforcement during con . . truction. the clear di~tan~.-~
between bar~ should not be less than (t) the maximum bar siLc. (ii) 20mm. or (iii) the
maximum aggregate size plu~ 5 mm. \\h1chever ts the greater figure.
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 13

6. 1.5 Minimum areas of reinforcement

For most purpo~es. thennal and shrinkage cracking can be controlled \~ithin acceptable
mit<; by the use of minimum reinforcement quantities. The princtpal requirements, to
"e checked at the detailing stage. are as specified in table 6.8. Requirement-; for \hear
nks are gtven in sectiOns 7.3 and 9.3.
In addttton to the requuements of table 6.8 a tmntmum \tecl area, \, mon· mu!'tt he
" ovided tn all ca es to control cracking. The proviston of the minimum \!eel area
.. n,ures that the remforcement does nor yield when the concrete in the ten~ion Llme
.. mcks with a 1oudden transfer of stress LO the reinforcement Tim, could caUM! the
tncontrolled development of a few wide cracks. Whenever thi'l minimum area is
~onthe provided, then yield should not occur and crad.ing will then he diMributed throughout
and an
the !.Cction with a greater number of cracks but of lc%er width. A, min i~ given by the
c\rn.:ssion

6. 1 A,,""" J..~J..fct.el l Act/.fyk (6.2)

\\ here
A,.m 111 minimum area of reinforcement that must be provided within the tensile
-
zone
Ac~ - area of concrete within tensile 70ne det1ned a., that area which is in
ten ion JUSl before the initiation of the fir..,t crack
.f,1 ctt ten<.tle strength of concrete at ttme of cracking \\'llh a 'ugg~"tcd minimum
of 3 /mm 2 otherwi!.e obtained from tahle 6.11 u~;tng a concrete ~trcngth
cla\s appropriate to the anticipated time of cracking
J.., wess dt~tributton coeffictenl ( 1.0 for pure tenston. 0.4 for llc\ttre)
non-linear ~tress dt!>tnbutton coeffictent leading to a rcduclton 111
restrattll force
1.0 for web less than 300 nun deep or 11ongcl> lcs~ than 100 mm \\ide
0.65 for webs greater than ROO nun deep or flange' grcatcr than
ROO mm '' ide
(intcrpohttc for imermeduue values)

Table 6.8 Minimum areas of reinforcement

Tension reinforcem ent In beams Concrete claS$ (fyh 500N/mm 2 )

and slabs ------------------
C25/30 (30!35 C40/50 CS0/60

0.26 fctm ( 0.00131 0.0013 0.00 15 0.0018 0.0021

fyk

Secondary reinforcement > 20% main reinforcement

Longitudinal reinforcement in columns

A '"'" 0 1ON..., 0 87 f>~ 0 002Ac where N!d is the axial compression force
Vertical reinforcement in walls
A, m11• 0 002-A.

Note· b, es the ml'dn wodth of the tenseon zone.

132 Reinforced concrete design

6.1 .6 Maximum areas of reinforcement

The~e are determined largely from th~ pracllcal need to achic\e adequate compaction of
the concrete around the reinforcement. The limns specified arc a.-. follows
(a) For a ~lab or beam, ten'>ion or compressiOn reinforcement
IOOA, A, < -l per cent other than at lap..,
(b) For a column
IOOA,/ Ac ::; 4 per cent other than at laps and 8 per cent at laps
(c) For a wall. verticnl reinforcement
lOOA, j A, ::; 4 per cent

6.1.7 Maximum bar size

Sl·ction 6.1.3 dc\crihed the.: limitations on har \ ptlcing to cn:-.un.: that crack widths due to
loading nrc h.epl within acceptable limi t\, When cnnsidcring lmu..l-induccd cracking bar
diameters may be rc~ t rit'tcd a' indicated 111 tahlc 6.9 which is ha~ed on ('30/.n concrete
nnd 25mm cover as an altcmativc to limiting -;pac1ng. Jn calculatmg the ~!ee l stre~s. the
approximation given in equation 6. 1 may he U\ed.

Table 6.9 Maximum bar diameters (0.3 mm crack width)

Steel stress Mox1mum bar lize

(Nimm') (mm)
160 32
----
200 15
240 16
280 12
320 10
360 8
400 6
450 5

When cracldng occurs as u re~ult of re:-.truint to ~ hrinh.nge or thcrmul effects then the
hur si;ws nutst be limited us indicated in table 6.9. but the maximum ~pucing lim it~ of
tnbk 6.7 do not need to be applied. l'he \Ice! ~tre!>s to he used in table 6.9 can be
cnlculated from equation 6.3 where A, P''" is the steel area pmvidcd at the ~cc ti on under
con~iderntion and A, nun i5. given in equation 6.2.

(6.3 )

6.1.8 Side face and surface reinforcement in beams

In beams over I m deep addiuonal remforcemcnt mu ... t he prO\ 1ded in the 'Ide faces to
control crad.ing as indicated 111 figure 6.21al Thts reinforcement ~hould be distnbuted
evenly between the main tension steel and the neutral a\.t\ and within the \tirrups. The
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 133

I
Figure 6.2
I. Side-lace and surface
N/A re1nlorcement

t(d - x)
< 600mm

Side-face
reinforceml'nt rcmforcemcnt
(a) (b)

m111imum area of this reinforcement can be cakuluted from equation ()_2 with k taken
as 0.5. In assessing the maximum spacing nnd ~itc of lhi:. reinforcement from tables 6.7
and 6.9 a -.tress -.alue equal to one half of that calculated for the main tenc;tle
reinforcement may be used and it mny he a11sumcd that the side face reinforcement is in
pure tension.
In addauon to the ahove requirement, EC:? requires that surface reinforcement ~~
provided where it is necessary LO control spalling of the concrete due to tire (axis
distance> 70 mm) or where hundled hun, or har~ greuter than -10 nun diameter are u~cd
U\ main rcanforccment. In the Ul\, however. thi'> " not adopted due to practical
dirtkullie~ in providing such relJ1fnrccmenl. !·or high covers il i~ n:conunencled that
udditional fire protection i' provided and crack wiuth calculations are recommended
with largl! daametcr har~.
The sua·face reinforcement, if provided, :.hou ld consist of' welded mesh or small
diumeter high bond bars located 0111\iclt• the lin"-' as indicated in lagurc 6.2(b). Cover to
thi' reinforcement mu't comply\\ llh the requirements of )o.ectton 6. 1.1 and the mimmum
area of longitudiawl ~urfacc reinforcement should be I per ecnt or the area ol the
cnncrete ouhide the link.!> and in the tension zone below the neutral axb: shO\\ n as the
~l1.1ded nre.t in figure 6.2(b). The ..urface reanfon.:cment bar~ 'hould he ~puccd no further
than 150 mm ~tpnrt und if properly nm:hored can he taken into account as longitudinal
bending and shear reinforcement.

6.2 Span-effective depth ratios

The appearance and function of a reinforced concrete heum or skah may he impaared if
the deflectaon under 'e" iccahiltty Joadang ts c.\ce~stve. Deflections can he calculated il~
indicated in ~ection 6.3 but it is more usual to control dellcctions hy placing a limit on
the rutio of the spun to the effective depth of the hcam or ,Jah. EC2 specilie' equations
to calculnte ha,ic span-effecta\e depth ratio~. h> comrol deflection' to n maxamum of
span/250. Some typical values are given in table 6.10 for rcct::tngular sections of cluss
CJ0/35 concrete and for grade 500 steel. The ratios can abo he U~>ed for Hanged sections
except where the rtltl() of the width of flange to the \\idth of web exceeds 3 when the
h(l~ie values shou ld be multiplied by 0.8. For two-way ~>panni ng slabs. the check for the
hn~;ic -;pau effective depth ratio ~hould be based on the \horter span whereas for nat
'lab~ calculations \hould be ba~cd on the longer span.
The two columns given in table 6. 10 correspond to levels orconcrete !'>trcs!. under
"erviceability conditaons: highly Slrc-,sed when the steel ratio p exceeds 1.5 per cent and
1 34 Reinforced concrete design

1
Table 6.10 Basic span-effective depth ratios (fyk- 500 N/mm , C30/35 concrete)

Basic span-effective depth ratio

Factor for Concrete Concrete
Structural system
structural highly stressed lightly stressed
system K (p- 1 5%) (p- 0.5%)
1. Simply supported beam or 1.0 14 20
one/two-way spanning simply
supported slab
2. End span of continuous beam 1.3 18 26
or one-way continuous slab or
two-way slab continuous over
one long side
3. In tenor span of continuous beam 1.5 20 30
or one-way or two-way spanning
slab
4. Slab on columns without beams 1.2 17 24
(!lilt slab) based on longer span
5. Cantilever 0.4 6 8

lightly strc:.\ed when p equal:. 0.5 per cent. pi-. gtven hy IOOA, rr.:<J/bd where A, r«t 1
the area of tension retnforcement required in the ~ection. lnterpolauon b..:tween the
values of p indicmcd is permissible. In the case or 11lahs it is reasonable to a\sumc th ll
they are lightly \tr..:~~ed.
Since the value of allowable ~pan effccti\e depth ratio i-. atfccted b> ho
reinforcement rntio and concrete &trcngth it may be more convenient to use the char
in rigurc 6.3 \Vhich is for a simply supported '>pan with no compression steel togcthc
with a modification factor K (as -;hO\\ n 111 table 6.1 0) accord111g to member type. T1
upprouch is basl.!d on the same ha~ic equations and offer!> greatl.!r flexibility than rchnn~ •
placet! on tabulated values.

Figure 6.3 N 36
Graph ot basic ~pdn effective v"'
depth ratios for different .,
~

classes or concrete b
c 32
0
....vc
.
~
:t:
-Q
28

~ 24
0
Zl
~
-5 20
CL

"'
"Q

"'2: 16
~
:::: 100A, .,1
'I'
c 12 bd
"'
Q.
0.40% 0.80% 1.2% 1.6% 2.0%
"'
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 135

:-te) The basic rutios are modillcd in particular cases a:- follows:

(a) For spans longer than 7 m (except tlat slabs) and where it is necc1-sary to limit
dellcr.;tions to ensure that finishei>, such as partitions. are not damaged. the basic
values -,hould be multiplied by 7/ span.
tb) For llat ,Jabs with span-, in e'<cess of 8.5 m. similarly multiply the ha~tc ratio~ by
8.5/span.
(c) For characteristic steel strengths other than 500 '/mm 2, multiply the basic ratios
by 500/J;·~·
(d) Where more tension reinforcement is provided (1\, prm) than that calculated (A,.rcq)
at the ulttmate limit state, multiply the basic rauos by A, rn" / A•. req (upper
limtt I 5).

These basic ratios assume a steel working stress of .f~ = 3 10N/mm~ where
= 500 N/mm 1
[yk

( EXAM PL E 6 . 1

Span-effective depth ratio

A rcctungul:lr continuou~ hL·am or cla:,s C25/30 concrete spans 10 m. If the breadth is
300 mm, check the acr.;eptahi lity of an eJTer.:ti vc <.h:pth of 600 mm when high yield
reinfon.:ement, ./y~ = 500 N/mm'. is used. At the ultimate limit :.tate it is determined that
1250 mm1 nt tension Mecl ill needed and 3 No. 25 mm diameter reinforcing b<u·:.
(A, f'"" 1~70mm 2 ) an: actually prmtded in an intenor 'pan.
p IOOA, "'<l/bd
( J0(l X 1250)/(300 X 600)
~r
0.7 per cent.
From table 6.1 0, tor nn intcnm 11pan K = 1.5
Ba~tc -.pan cffecuvc depth rn11o (figure 6.3) = 16
Thercfure for an anterior ~pan. ba~ir.; srxan-etTcctivc depth ratio= L.5 x 16 :!~

T<> avoid damage to finishCll fllr span greater than 7 rn:

Modified ratao = 24 x
1~ 16.X

Ylodthcation for :.tccl area provaded:

1470
Modified rmio 16.8 x - 19.8
1250
Span c1..lecuvc
. depth ratao
. provJ'dcd = I 0 X I () l = 1,1. 7
t.
600
which tl> lcl>S than the allowable upper limiL thus deflection requirements nrc likely to be
sati~tied.
136 Reinforced concrete design

6.3 Calculation of deflection

The general requirement i<. that neither the efficiency nor the appearance of a structure
harmed hy the deflections that will occur during its life. Deflections must thu.,
considered at ntriou~ stages. The limitation~ neces ·ar) to satisfy the requirement'
vary con.,iderably according to the nature of the structure and its loadiJ1gs, but
reinforced concrete the folio"' ing ma) be considered as rea~onablc guides:
1. the final deflection of a beam. slab or cantilever should not exceed 'pan/ ::!50
2. that part of the dellection which takes place after the application of fini!>he~ or tl
of partition., should not exceed span, soo to a-.osd damage to fixture~ and tutm<-
Tile code ~uggests that deflections should he cakulated under the action of the quCl\
permanen1 load combi nation, assumwg tim loading to be of long-term duration. Hem:,
the total loading to he tuken in the calculation will he the permanent load pJu.,
proponion of the variable loau which will typically be 30 per cent of the variable hl••L
for ortice-type construction. This i., a rea-.onahle as,umption a\ deflectson will 0.
affected hy long-term dfech ~uch as wncrctc creep, while nOL all of the variahle loud
likely to be long-term and hence wtll not contrihute tt> the creep cflect~.
Lateral delkction mu't not be ignored. especially on tull ~ lender structures. and
limitation:-. in these case~ mu~t be Judged b) the engineer. It i~ smpot1ant to realise th. l
there arc many factors which may have \ignificant effects on dcOcclion~. anti me
difficult to allow for. Thus any calculated values mu-.t be regarded a' an cMtmatc onh
The mo.,t unportunt of these factors arc:
1. suppon re-,traint mu\t he c:-.timatcd on the ham ol si mpllticd as~ umpti ons. whll
\\ill have varying degree~> of aceur:tl.);
2. the prl'ci'e loadmg cannot he predicted and crrnrs in permanent loading may have a
signsflcalll l'lfect,
3. a cr;K~cd rneml1t:1 will heha-.c differently from one that is uncracked - thi<. may be
problem in lsghtly resnlnrccd mcmher~ wher1.· the v.orksng load may be ncar to th~
crac~sng 1tnu1.
4. the effects ul floor 'creed~. finishes und partition:-. urc very tlsfficult to as~>eS<>
frequemly these are neglected dcl.pllc thesr ·.,uffemng' effect.
It may he po~-.iblc to allow fur the'c factors hy averaging maximum and minimut
estsmalcd effects and, provided that this is done. there :m.: a number of culculattor
methods available \\ htch \\ill give reasonable rc.,ults. The method adopted by LC2 1
ha<.ed on the calculation of curvature oJ sections ~ ubjectcd to the nppropriatc moment'
wtth allowance for creep and 'hrinl...age effect~ where necessary. Deflections arc the'
calculated !rom Lhe~e curvature:.. A rigorou~ approach to dellcction is to calculate th(
curvature at intervab along the ~pun .md then use numerical Integration technique' t\
estimate the critical dellections. ta~ing into account the fact that ~ome sections along tht
span will be crac~cd under load and other:.. in rcgson' of lesser moment, \HII ill;
uncracked. Such an upproach is rarely justified and the approach adopLed below. based
on EC2, assumes that it i~ acceptahly accurate to calcu late the curvaltlre of the beam o
slab ba,cd on both the cracked and uncracked ~eclion' and then l o U'\C an ·average·
value in estimating the final deOection using standard deflection formulae or simpl"
numerical mtegration based on clasric theor).
The procedure for estimating deflcctionl> involves the following stages which :lrl
slfustrated m example 6.2.
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 137

6.3.1 Calculation of curvature

Curvature under the action of the quasi-permanent load should be calcul::ued hased on
both the cracked and 11/ICracked ~cction11. An estimate of an ·average' value of curvature
can then lh: olnained usmg the formula:
1/r ~(1/r)~., +( I (){ l fr)u, (6.4)
where
lfr average cunature
( 1/r)u, } _ value~ of curvature calculated for the uncracked Calle and cracked case
(1/r)., -
respectively
coefficient g1ven by I - {1((1s,fa~l allowing for tcn1.ion stiffening
loud duration factor (I for a single short-term load; 0.5 for ~tustained
load~ or cyclic loading)

strc~1> in the tension ~tecl for the cracked concrete ~ection

stresf> in the tension steel calculated on the hasis of a cracked section
1111der the loadinp, thar ll'ill just cause rrar-king at the secllml heing
c·nll\idered.
Appropriate value\ of concrde tensile strength to he u-,cd in the cnlculation of 11,1 cnn
he obtained from table 6.11. In calculaung ~. the rmio (a,,/11,) can more convcmcntly be
replaced hy (Mc 1 /M) \\hen: M,., 1s the moment that \\ill ju't cau<,e cracl-ing of the
'>ection and M i' the del>Jgn moment for the calculmion of curvature und deflection.
In order to calculate the 'average' curvature. separate calculation' have to be earned
out lor both the cracked and uncracl-cd ca'>e\.

Uncracked section
fhe :h1-Um.:d clu-.tic stram and ~.trC\1-> di.,trihution for an uncraci-cd ~ec11on ts shown in
tigure 6.4.
For n given moment. M. and Irom elastic bending thenry. the curvature of the ~t:ctiou.
( I/ r).,,. is g1ven by
M
(6.5)

where H~.cf1 i1. the ciTective clastic modulu~ of the concrete allowing for crccr effects
anti ''" is the second moment of arcH nf the uncracl-ed concrete section.

Table 6. 11 Mean tensile strengths of concrete and secant modulus of elasticity

Strength class
20/25 (25/30 00/37 05/45 (40/50 (45/55 CS0/60
fcrm (N/mm 2) 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
Ecm (kN/mm 2) 30 31 33 34 35 36 37
138 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 6.4 b
Uncracked section strain and --I
stress distnbutiOn

-. .
d - -f-

A.

Section Strains Stress

Figure 6.5 b
Cracked section - strain and x/3
stress distribution
neutral
nxls (d- x/3)

• •
A,
- -
F,,

Equ1vaient
Section transformed sect1on Strain Stress

Cracked section
The a'~umed ela~ttc strain and 'iti'C':- di•MihUiion tor a cracked section is ~ho\vn in
figure 6.5. Thi-; IS identical to that shown in ligures -1.27 and -1.21:!. and equation 4.48 or
figure -1.29 can be u:-ed to determine the neutral·a>.i' depth. Alternativcl). momenb ol
area can be taken to c'tabli~h the neutral-a>;~). depth d1rectly. 'I he l>Ccond moment
ol area of thc cracked section can then be determined hy laking <>econd moments of area
about the neutral axi'
(6.6
where a~ is the modultlr nttio equal to the ratio of the cla!>tic modulus of the
reinforcement to that of the concrete.
For a given moment, M , and from clastic bending theory, the curv:uurc of the cracked
section. { I / r).:,·• is therefore given by
M
( 1/rlcr=-EI (6.7)
~. elf ~r

6.3.2 Creep and shrinkage effects

Creep
The effect of creep will be to increase ddlccuons v.ith t1me and thu' 'hould be allowed
for in the calculations by using an cffccthe modulus. /.:., ell· u-.ing the equatton
t.~ cfl = Ecm/ ( I - 6( ~. ro)) {6.8
where tt> IS a creep coefficient equal to the ratio of creep strain to initial elastic strum
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 139

Table 6.12 Final creep coefficient of normal weight concrete (Class C25/30)

Age at Notional size (2fl.cfu) mm

loading
100 200 300 500 100 200 300 500
(days)
Dry atmosphere (inside: 50% RH) Humid atmosphere (outside: 80% RH)
1 5.5 5.0 4.7 4.3 3.8 3.5 3.4 3.3
3 4.6 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.8
7 3.8 3.5 3.2 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2
28 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.3 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9
100+ 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6

Note: A- cross-~eclional area ot concrete, u perimeter of that area exposed to drymg.

The value of rJ>. \\ hile oeing affected oy aggregate properties, mix design and curing
conditions. is also governed by uge at lir~t loatling. the durm.ion of loatl and the section
dunenl>ions.
Table 6.12 gives some rypit:al long-term value~ of q'( XJ, to) a)< ~>ugge:-ted by EC2 for
a class ('25/30 concrete made with a type N cement. The~e arc valid if the concrete i~
not subjected to a compressive ~Ires~ greater than 0.4~f...~ 1 1 ,, , at age fn (age at time of
loading) and wi ll reduce as the concrd<.: strength incrc.:a~es . Equations and charts arc
~ tveo in EC2 for a range of cement type,. concrete cla,se~ . loadtng age' and nottonal
member !>i7es. These equation~ includ~: the tlevelopmenL of creep with time anti
.tdjustmcnts if the :.lre~s at loading exceeds thut indicated above. The ·notional ~ite' of
the secttcm is taken U'\ I\\. tee the cm~s-!>ectwnal area divtded by the penmcter of the area
e xpo~ed w drytng. An estimate or
the ela&tic moclttlus of concrete, l£,rn. can be obtained

r
!rom taole 6.11 or from the cxpresl>ion:

f.:.'.:m 22 [ (!:\ ~ R) l kN/mm 2

Shrinkage
l'he ciTect or !>hrinkag~ nf the concrete will be to increusc the curvanm: and hence the
deflection of the beam or 'ilab. The curvature due to shnnkage can be calculated using
the equation
1/ t;; = E,,a,S/ 1 (6.9)
where

L/ r.:, = rhc \hrinkage curvature

'".:, = free shrinkage strain
S = fifl>t moment of area of reinforcement about the centrotd of the section
I = second moment of area of section (cracked or uncracked a" appropriate)
lie - effective modular raho (l:. ,f Ec. cff )
Shrinl..age i~ influenced by many features of the mi\ and con~truction procedures hut
for most normal weight concrete:. values of .,, may be obtatned from table 6.13.
Shrinkage strains are affected by the ambiem humidity and t:lement dimensions. The
total shrinkage strain can be considered a'i two component).: the drying shrinkage
140 Reinforced concrete design

Table 6.13 Final shrinkage strains of normal weight concrete (10 6) (Class C25/30

Location of Relative humidity Notional size (2Ac tu) mm

member (%)
100 200 300 ?::. 500
Inside 50 550 470 410 390
Out.side 80 330 280 250 230

Note· A .., cross-sectional area of concrete, u penmeter of that area expo!oed to drying

strain E:nt which develops slowly as water migrate~ through the hardened concrete and
the autogenous shrinkage ~train. = cu which develop1. during hardening at early ages.
Thus:

EC2 provide~> formu lae to evaluate lhese components al various ages or the concrete
from which the typica l long-term values in table o. l j have hecn d,:velopccl for a ciOS'I
('25/30 concrete. The total slui nknge wi ll tend to he fut lc:.s for higher strengrhs
c'pccinlly a1 lower relative humidities.
The ·average' shrinlage curvature can he calculmcd from equ:uion 6A having
calculated the curvature based on both rhc 'cral.'kcd' and 'uncrad.cd' seclton ~.

6.3.3 Calculation of deflection from curvature

The total curvature can he determined b) adding the c;hnnkap.e curvature to the
calculated cunmure due to the qua~i -permancnt load~. havmp. made aliO\Hmcc lor creep
effect,.
The dcflecuon of the beam or -.lab can be calculated from the IOta! cur\<llltrc u~ing
elu'>tic hcnthng theory which for smnll deflccuon~ 1~ b:1~ed on the cxprC'>'>ion
d!,.
M, HI ~ (6.10
tl\·-
whcre M~ ts the bending moment nt a section distun~.:e 1 rmm the origin 3); shown in
ligure 6.6. l·or small deflections the term d'y/tl.t~ upproximalely equals the cu rvuturc
which is the reciprocal of the radiu~ of curvalurc. Douhlc integnuion of equation 6.10
will yield un expression for deflection. This may be illu ~ t ratcd by considering the case
of a pin-ended beam subjected to con.,lunl M throughout its length. ~o thttt M, - M.
d2 1•
El ., ·, M (6.11 )
u\-

therefore

y
Figure 6.6 :::;
Pin-ended beam subji'Cl
to a constdnl moment M
i. /
M
-, 8
X
- L
"
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 141

::25 30) but if the ~lope ~ ~ zero at mid-span where x L/2, then

C=- ML
2
am.l
d\· ML
f1....:....-MI--
dl . 2
Integrating agarn grves

M.1.:. ML\ D
Ely
2
- -2+
•lit at support A whcn .t 0. y = 0. Hence
D ()
ncrete ll\

1r a cia'
ngth M
f,J ('"I2 - J..'·) ut any !>ection (6. 12)
2
The maxtmum dellcction in tht ~ cu~e will occur m mid-'>pan, where t L/2. in which
cac
M J2
,.ntJ\ = £1 R
(6.1.3)

but '"1c.:c at any uncracked section

H
II r
tne ma\imum dcllcction may be expressed a\
I ,I
6.10 Yrn l\ p, I. r

In general, the bending-moment di~tribution along a member wil l not be con~tant, hut
Ill be a function or.\. The ha1.ic form of the result wi ll however he the l\ame. antlthc
c:tlcction may be expres~cd as
1the ca.~
I = \f mux .rmum del1cellon
. a = kL'
· -I (o. I·W
rh

6.11

k n con~t unt , the value of which depends on the di~trihution nl bendrng moment~
in the member
L the effective span

,,, =-
..!_ the mid-span curvature for beams. or the support curvature for cantilevers

T)plcal valucll of k arc given in table 6.14 for varioull common shape!> of bending-
ment diagramll. If the loading is complex. then a value of k muM be estimated for the
c :nplete load smce summing deflection" of simpler components will y1eld incorrect
1. ults.
 142 Reinforced concrete design

Table 6. 14 Typical deflection coefficients

Loading B.M. diagram k

(.M M
;; !~d 0.125

w
....'aq- ~(1 -o) 4a 2 - Ba 1 1
~a
t ~ (if a- 0.5 then k 0.83)

w
~ 0.104
Fi wLl/8

-WaL
~~
at3 - a)
~ End deflection -
6
(if a - 1 then k 0 33)

wo1 L'/2
1--oL...
l End deflection -a(412 a)
jltlw (if a 1 then k 0.25)

Although the derivation hn'> been on the bu-,h of an uncracked -;cction, the final
cxprcl>sion is tn a form that will deal with u crad.cd ~ection ~imply by the :-.uh~titution of
the appropriate curvature.
Since the exrrel>~ ion involve11 the square of the lipan, it is important thut the true
el'fccti vc span as dclincd in chapter 7 i~ used. particularly in the cu~c of cnmilevers.
Dcllections of canti levers may al~o he im:rcascd by rotation of the ).Upporting member.
and tim mu.,t he taken into :u.:count when the ~upporting structure 1s fairly 11cxible.

( EXAMPLE 6.2
Calculation of deflection

~ - 30~ E~llmatc the lung-term deflection of the he:.un ~h ow n in figun.: 6.7. It spans 9.5 metre~>
nnd '·' designed to carry a unirormly di.~trihuted load giving rise to :1 qun~>i - pcrmuncm

8,....
J
~
moment of 200 kNm. It i~ l:Onstructcd with class C25/30 concrete, is made of normal
aggregate\ and the construction props are removed at 28 duys.
II
II 't> (a) Calculate curvature due to uncracked section
"'
.• ....• Ll
A,

5 No 25mm bars
I rom equation 6.5:

( I /r)""
M

Figure 6.7
Deflection caltulalion where from table 6. Ll. Ecm - 31 1-.N/mm·. From table 6.12, a\suming loadtng at 28 day!.
example with indoor exposure, the creep cocflkienl ri> ~ 2.R hecau~c
2A~fu (2 X [700 X 300])/2000 = 210
and hence from equation 6.X the effective modulus i~ given by
Ecctf 31/(l-2.8) 8.15k.N/mm~
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 143

lienee
2()() X 106
(1/r) -
uc - 8.15 X 101 X (400 X 7003I 12)
2.86 X 10- 6 1 mm

• ote that in the above calculation lu..: has been calculated on the ba\i~ of the gross
concrl.!tc \CCtional area ignoring lhe contribution of lhe remforcemcnt. A more accurate
calculation could have been performed. as in example 4. 13 in chapter 4, but such
accuracy i~> not JUstified and the 111mpier approach imlicatct.l will be ~ufficient l y accurate.

(b) Calculate curvature due to cracked section

To calculate the curvmure of the crackct.l section the I value or the tra n~formcd concrete
section must he calculated. With reference lO fi gure 6.5 the calcul:llionl> can be ~et out as
below.

(i) Calculate the neutral axis position

Taking arcu moments about the neutral axis:
b X .1" X .r/2 llcA,(d - t)

300 <.\' / 2
:wo .,
8.15 ( .450(600- .I J
.
nat
\~hich has the \Oiuuon
of
x- 329mm

(ii) Calculate the second moment of area of the cracked section

1
/" b.1 f 3 t a~A,(tl 1),
\{)()X 329' 200 ()(60() _ )2
245 329
3 8 .15
=7976 X I 0 ' mm 4
1

(iii) Calculate the curvature of the cracked section

From equation 6.7

( 1 /r)~,

200 x J06
8. 15 x 101 x-7-9-76_
x_l_Q6
6
3.08 x 10 f mm

(c) Calculate the 'average' of the cracked and uncracked curvoture

From equation 6.4:
1/ r W/r)<, +(I -{)( 1/ r )oc
'"here
{= I - i(a"fa,)
2

= I - 3(Mcr/M)1
144 Reinforced concrete design

(i) Calculate Mer

From lltble 6.11 the cracking ~trengr:h of the concretc.fctm· is given a~ 2.6 Nlmm2 • Hence
from el~tic bending theory and considering the uncracked concrete section, the moment
that will just cause cracking of the section. Mc1· , is given by
M,, :: .fc~rn X (bwhzl6)
= 2.6 X (300 X 7{)0) j 6) X 1() 6

63.7kNm
(ii) Calculate {

~ = I - ,i(M.,jM )2
= I 0.5 X ( 63.7/ 200)2
= 0.95

(Iii) Calculate the 'average' curvature

1/ r =c( I lr)"' + (I - ~)(1 lrluc
6
0.95 X 3.08 X I() -r ( I - 0.95) X 2.X6 ,.. 10 I>

3.07 ,.. 10 ~>;mm

(d) Calculate shrinkage curvature

(i) For the cracked section
l f r<, = . ,,a.Sj fer
where
s "~( t! - .1)
2450(600 329)
664 10 mm 11

and I rom table 6.13. · ,., ::::: 470 x 10 11

(becau:-e 211, lu 210. a.~ in pan (a)).
Therefore
470 X 10- 1'(200/ 8.15 )664 X 103
llr,., :: - - -w,6xlQO- --
= 0.96 x 10 11
/ mm
(ii) For the uncracked section

1I rc, = c, a~S I fuc

where
S A,(tf x)
= 2450(600- 70012)
=- 61 2.5 x 10~ mm 1
Therefore
470 X 10 11 (20018.15)612.5 X 1()3
l I ,.,, :::: 300 X 7003 I 12
=0.82 x 10-f> j mm
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 145

(iii) Calculate the 'average' shrinkage curvature

1/ r., ~( l f r ),r- (1 - {)( 1/ r)IK

= 0 95 X 0.96 X 10 6
( I - 0.95) X 0.82 X 10 6

= 0.95 x 10 11
j mm

(e) Calculate deflection

6
Curvature due to loading = 3.07 x lO j mm
Curvature due to !.hrinkage = 0.95 x lO~ / mm
Therefore tottll curvature = 4.02 x 10 6 / mm

l·or a 11imply supported ~.>pan subjected to a uniformly distributed load. the maximum
mid-!>pan deflection is given by
Deflection . 0. 104L2 (1 / r)
0.1()4 X 95()02 X 4.02 X l Q (>
37.X mm

Thi~ value almost exactly matt.:hcs the allowable value of \pan /250 (9500/ 250 =
3X mm) and would be con~ic.Jercd acceptable noting the tnhercnt um:crtainty ol ~ome of

l
~. ___________________________________________)
thc parameter' u~ed 111 the calt.:ulation~.

6 .3.4 Basis of span-effective depth ratios

The cnlculatmn ol tkOcction ha' been shO\\ n to be a tediou<, operation. llowevcr. for
general u~c. ntb ba,cd on limiting the span-effecuve depth ruuo of n memhcr arc
adequate to cn1>urc that the deflections are not excessive. The application of th11. method
was described 10 \ection 6.2.
1 he rclauonsh•p between the deflection and the span effective depth ratio ol a
memher can be derived from equation 6.14: thus

L~
1
dcflccliou r1 1-
l'h

<lnd for smull dcncctions it can be !\een from figure 6.8 that for unit leugth, s
1 "'em + " till
rb=-=
I'll d
where

cc,rn." maximum compressive !>train in the concrete

"'rm ten),ile \train in the reinforcement
1- a factor whtch depends on lhe pattern of loading.
therefore
1>pan
-
effective depth tl

= al - - - - -
Lk (~c. rna\ - !'rn~)
146 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 6.8
Curvature and strain
distribution

The strains in the concrete and temile reinforcement depend on the areas o•
reinforcement provided and their ~tresses. Thus l'or a particular member section and .,
pattern of loading. it i~ possible to determine a span-ciTective depth ratio to satisf) ..
particular a/Lor deAecrion/span li mitation.
The span- effective depth ratios obtained in section 6.2 are bnsecl on limiting Lhe tot ••
dellection to !.pan/250 for a uniformly di1-trihuted loading and are presented fc·
dirft:rent stress level~ depending on whether the concrete i~ highly or lightly stressed
Thi~ in turn depends on the percentage or ten~ion reinforcement in the section. For span
of le~!> than 7m this shoulcl abo ensure that the limit~ of ~pun /500 after application o·
linishes are met but. for span~ over 7 m when: avoidance of damage to finishes may be
important, the basic ratios of tnble 6.10 should he factored by 7 ; ...p<m.
For loading patterns that are not umformly di!'ltributcd a rcvbed ratio is given h
changmg the basic ratio in proportion to the relati\e value~ of L a!. shm\ n 1r
example 6.3. Similarly, for limiung the deflectiOn to \panf.j
250
revised ratio = baste rauo ) 1
Tn cal>cs where the bas1c rntio ha!'l been modified for 1-ptm~ greater than 7 m, maximu
deflections arc unlikely to exceed span/ 500 after con~truction of partitionl- and tini,h!:
When another deflection limit ill required, the ratio' given ~hould he multiplied t'l.
500/ a where a is the propo~ed ma'\imum dellection.

( EXAMPLE 6.3

Adjustme nt of basic span to effective depth ratio

20kN Determine the appropriate basic ratio for a cantilever beam supporting a uniform load
10kN UDL ~
and a concentrated point load at its tip a~. !.hown in figure 6.9. A:-.sume that Lhe concrete
~ I I I I I II ! is C30/35 and is highly stressed.

Basic ratio from table 6.10 = 6.0 for u.d.l.

effective span L
From table 6.14:
Figure 6.9
Point load on a cantilever /.. for cantilever with u.d.l. over full length 0.25
example
/.. for cantilever with po1nt load at tip = 0.33
Thu!>, for Lhe point load only. adjul>ted ba~ic ratio equal!>

60 0.25 - 4-
• X 0.J3- ..:>
 SeNiceability, durability and stability requirements 1·

An adjusted ba!>iC ratio to account for both loado; can be obtained hy factoring lhe
moment due to the poim load by lhc ratiO of the J.. value:. as follow!>
Mudl = 10 X L/ 2 = 5/,
MP<,tnt = 20L
.
AdJUSte d balae
. rauo
. = Bastc
. rauo
. (Mu<ll- M"'""' X ku~t /kfl"'"')
Mud!+ M~mnt

_ 6.()(5 20 X 0.25/0.33)
s 1 ::m
= 4.8
em. of
lThu~ it can be !teen that the effed of the point load dominates.

:rued for 6.4 Flexural cracking

..esscd.
\1embcr~ ),UhJeCt to bending generally cxh1bit a ~cries of di::.trihuted fle.xural cracks.
f r'pan~
~:o~Ho n of even at wQrking l ond~. The:-.c cracks ore unobtrusive und harmless unle!>s the width
11ay be hecomcl> excessive. in which ca~e appearance and durability suffer a' the reinfon:cment
" expo~ed to corrO!>JOn.
\Cn by I he actual widths of cracks in a reinforced concrete 'truclllre w11l vary between wide
1wn in limits and cannot he precisely e!-.timated. thu:- the limitutg rcqui remclll to be sflt i~>licd is
that the probability of the maximum width exceeding a !>atisfactory value i' <>mall. The
ma\lmum acceptable "alue 'ugge,ted b) EC2 1\ 0.3 mm for all expo~ure classe'> under
thi.! action ol the qua~i-permcmmr comtuna11on of load~. Other codes of pract1cc may
rccommend lower values ol crnck wi<.lths for important member:-. and req u ireme n t~ for
~pedal cases. such a:-. water-retaining ~tructurell. may he even more stringent.
Flexural cracking i-. generall)' controlled by providing a minimum area of ten.,ion
rcinlorccment hection 6.1.5) and limiting bar ~pacing., (\ection 6.1.3) or limiting bar
s1zes (section 6. 1.7). If culculmion::. lo estimate maximum crnck widths arc performed,
they are based on the qua.1i f!t'mlwzelu combination of l oad~ and an effective modu lus
of elasticity of the concrete \hould be u!>cd to aiiO\\ for creep effect,,

6.4. 1 M echanism of flexural cracking

Thi-; can be illu\trated by COihidcring the hcha' 1our of a mi.!mher subject to a uniform
moment.
A length or beam a~ shown in ligure 6.1 u Wi ll initia lly behave elastically throughout,
as the urplied moment M i~> increased. When the limi ting tensile stra1n t'or the concrete
i~ reached. a crnck \\ill form and the adjacem tensile ;one will no Iunger be acted on by
direct tens1on force!'.. The curvature of the beam. hO\\.C\'Cr, cnusc~ further direct tcn~ion
stres!-.cs to develop at some diswncc from the original eruck to maintain equi librium.
This in turn cau~es further cracks to form, and the process continue1> until the distance
between cracks does not permit sufficient tcn~ile strl.!sscs to develop and cauf.e further
cracking. The-.e tnt11al crach are called 'pnmary crack•;. and lhe average spacing in a
region of constant moment is largely independent of reinforcement detai ling.
A"~> the applied moment is increased beyond this point. Lhc development of cracks is
governed to a large extenL hy the reinforcement. Ten-.ilc stresses in the concrete
148 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 6.10
Bending of a length of beam

Strain

surrounding reinforcing bar::. are caused hy homl a~ the strain rn the rcinforceme •
increa:.es. These !:>tresscl. increase with distam:c from the primary cracks and m...
eventually cause further cracks to form approximately mid-way between the primar
cracks. This action may continue with increal.ing moment unti l the bond betwee
concrete and steel i~ incapable of developing 1.uflicierH tension in the concrete to cau"t;
further cracking in the length between existing crnc~s. Since the development of th~
tensile stresses is caused directl y by the prc),ence of reinforcing bars. the spacing o
cracks wi ll he innuenced by the spacing of the rei nforcement.
If bar<; are sufficienlly close for their 'tones of inAuem:c' to overlap then ~ecnnda~
eracb wil l join up across the member, while otherwif..e they will form only adjacent!
individual bar~. . According to EC2 (sec 'ection 6.4.2) the average crack spacing 111
Hexural member depends in part on the effictency of hond, the diameter of reinforcin:
bar used and the quantity and location of the reinforcement in relation to the tensto
face of the <,cction.

6.4.2 Estimation of crack widths

If the behaviour of the member m figure o.ll i-. exammed. 11 C<lll he 'ccn that the over..
extension per unit length at a depth ' helm~ the neutral ~t\ts io; gtvcn b)

where e., is the avcmgc Mrnin in the main reinforcement over the length considered, a
may be as~umcd to be equal to rrJ
E, where rr,
is the ~~tee I ).\res' ttl the cracked ~cctior
1 1 is the strain at level y which hy definition is the extension over the unit length ott.
member. Hence, assuming any tensi le ~trnin of concrete hctween cracks is ~mal l. ~in~
!'ull bond is never devek1ped. the totnl width of al l craeb over this unit lenglh \\
equate tn the extension per unit length, that is

y 0', ~
Et = - - -
(d - x) E,
= L._. W
where L 11' the sum of all cruc~ widths at level ."·
The actual width of indJVrdual crack!> Will depend on the number of cracks in this u
lcnglh, the average bemg given by unit length/a">erage 'pacrng (snn)· Thus

average crack width w., = - - -L:\1' ---

av. number of crac~-.
~.

= ( If.\nn)
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 14

1 Figure 6.11
IX Bending strains
d

The designer is concerned however with the maximum crnt.:k width which ha1-. an
acceptably IO\\ probabilil) o1 betng exceeded. l·or dc!>1gn purpo~c1-. the design maumum
crack width, ll'k, c~1n be hu~o.ed on the max1mum ~pacing. sr.rn•• ~· lienee the design crm:k
\\ idth at an) level defined hy ,. in a member will thu'> t>e given b)

"~cause

of the The exprc,sJOn for the dc~ign crack \\idth g1vcn in EC2 J' of tlu: above form ami tS
·mg of given a<;
em) (<1.15)*
.... mdury
·em ttl '"here
• 1g in a
H'k • the dc.,.igu crack width
1rcing
en~ ion .lr ma\ the maximum crack 'pal'ing
c\ 111 the mean .llrain in thl! reinfiwn•nu'lll allowing for the effects of ten-.ion
suiTcning of the concrete. ~hnnkagc etc.
~-."' thc mean -.train in the concrete between c.:rads

l\'er!lll The mean ~tram. ,111 , will he less than the appun:nt value t 1 and (e\m E'.:m) i~ given by
the expression
.fcL d l
/...,- (I + 1\dlp <II)
~ell > 0.6"" (6.16)*
£, H,

.. uons. where i-. the stres' in the tcn~mn steel calculated u~111g the cracked concrete sectl()n .
rr,
i~ u
factor that accounts for the dura!IOll of loading (0.6 for ~hort-te1m loud. 0.4 for
or the /..: 1

,ince long-term load).

h will The maximum crack spacing•.11, 11,.,. ~~given hy the empirical formula
(6.17)*
where <f> is the bar 11i1e in mm ur an average bnr '11e \\here a mixture of different \i7es
have been u~cd and c is the CO\Cr to thL' longllutlinal re111forccmen1. /q ~~ a coeffic1elll
accounting fm thc honcl pmpettics of the reinforcemelll (0.8 for high hontl. 1.6 for plain
bnr... ) und f..:, i' a coefficient accouming for the nature ol the \tram dJ~trihut1on "'htch for
,., unit cracking due to llcxure cnn he taken as 0.5. l'p.cfl is the cffet.:tivc reinforcement ratio.
-\,f A, efl· \\here A, i'i the area of reinforc.:ement within an effccllw ten\ion area of
concrete Ac.en. as 11hown in figure 6.12.
The effective ten~ion area io; that area of the concrete cros\-~Cction which \\ill crack
1'
due to the ten)>ion developed in bending. Thi~ the crncking which will he controlled
hy the presence ol tm appropriate type. amount and distribution of reinforcement.
Generally the dfecthc tensiOn area should be taken a-, having a depth equal to 2.5 tunes
the distance from the tcn~>ion face of the concrete to the centroid of the reinforcement.
150 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 6.12
Typical examples of effective
concrete tension area
Effecliv4!
Effective
EffectiVe tension area
d tension area for thas lace
h

!1'". -- -,
. . .• • : q.: ht,«ff

Seam
Effecllv4!
tension area

{. • • • , • .~ . i-
Member in tensaon

he, ttl
'!
Slab
h, .~ ~ lesser of 2 5(h d), (h - x)/3 or h/2

although for slab~ the depth of this effective art:a should be limned to (h - \ )/3. A 1
ovcrnll upper dcplh Jimil of h/'2 al~o applies.
Although not directly incorporared into the above formulae. it should be noted th.u
crack wiuth11 may vary acros~ rhc width of the ~ol'lit of a beam and urc generally lil-.cl.
to he greater at po,iliom, mid-way hclwccn longitudinal rcinforciJJg bar~ and at the
corner-. nl the beam. Where the ma\lmum crack l>pacmg cxcccdf. 5(,· +- (;~/2) then o~.
up)'ler hound to cracl-. "1dth can he estimated b) usmg ~r ma' 1.3(11 t).

6.4.3 Analysis of section to determin e crack widths

To uM: till' formula of EC2 i t i~ m.:ccs~ury to carry out an clastic analysis of the cracl-.eo
conm.:tc ~ectinn u.,ing nn effectiw mmlulu~ £, ell· a~ given in equation (l.R to allow for
t-rccp ette~·t~
The method.., d1scu~c;ed 10 \Cct1on 4.10.1 :-hould he used to find the neutral axi
po),iuon. \, ant! hence the ~trc~~es. u, and rT,,. in rhe ten ile reinforcement from
which "" (equation 6.16) can he obtained.

( EXAM PLE 6.4

Calculation of flexural crack widths
Calculntc rhe design flexural crack width.., for the beam 'hown in figure 6.13 when
~ubject to u qua~i-permancnt moment of 650 kN m. The concrete is da\s C25/30 and the
reinforcement i s high bond with a total cross-secrional aren of 3770 mm2•
(a) Calculate the mean strain f sm
Fmm t.1ble 6.11. Ecm 31 kN/mm1. hom table 6.12. a~suming loading at28 days \\ith
indoor exposure. the creep coefticicm o ~ 2.63 (hecau\e '21\J u = 2 x II000 x 4001/2800
= 285) and hence the effccri vc modulus is gi ven hy equation 6.8 a~
Ec,ttl - 31/( I + 2.63) 8.54 J...N/mm2
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 151

-b= 400
... Figure 6.13
Crack width calculation
X
example
_ y neutral axis

•J •
'-
3 No 40mm bars
Section Stress

(i) Calculate the neutral axis depth of the cracked section

Taking moments about the neutral axis:
h x ,, x x/ 2 - acA,(d x)
1 00
400 X .r2 /2 -- - X 3770(93() X)
8.54
~. l.n which hu~ I he solution .\ 457 111111.

(ii) Calculate the stress in the tension steel, I'Ts

td that
Taking moment~ ahout the leH!I of the compre~'1ve force in the t·oncrctc:
1 likcl~
at the a~- M /(d \ jJ)A,
an 650 >< to~>
(930 457/3 )J770
- 222 N/mm ~

ked (iii) Calculate ( 1m- E'cm)

\\ tor .f..t.rlt (
()', - "• - - I
Pr.dl
1
+ OcPp.cll ) 17,
~m -~m= ~ ~ 0.6~

where:
/.. 1 = 0.4 assuming long-term loading
j~,,d1 }~un (from table 6. 11) = 2.6 N/mm~
t., 200
n,. 6.45
F.un 31
A, 3770
\\hen {Jp.cli == -..,.....-,:-::-:---: 0.0539
A~ <II 2.5( 1000 - 930)400
lhe
giving:
2.6
222 - 0.4 x - ( I t 6.45 '>< 0.0539) .,.,.,
- 519
_ ___,0=.0=-= > 0 6 ...:.:.:._
:!00 X 101 . 200 X 101
.,.,., - Jl' 97
-w- _ 'J_
, - > 0.{)()067
200 JOl -
X
CJ.OOl > 0.00067
152 Reinforced concrete design

(iv) Calculate the maximum crack spacing (s, max)

~,rna\= 3.4c - 0.425klk~O/Pptff

where:
c = cover = 1000 - 930 401 2 = 50 mm to main bar-.
1.: 1 0.8 for ribbed bar;
k1 0.5 for flexure
o - bar diameter = 40 mm
hence
- 34 X 50 0.425 X O.R X 0.5 X 40
.I, ln.l.l< - • + 0.0539
296mm (which is le~s than S(r I r&/2) 350mm)
(v) Calculate crack width
1\'k ().()Ql X 296
=0.30 mm
which ju..,t satisfies the recommended limit.
l_______________________________________ ~J

6.4.4 Control of crack widths

II I'- ~1pparent from the expre:-.,ion'> derived ahove that there arc four fundamental \\'8)
111 \\ h1ch .,urfacc crack '' idth' may he reduced:
(I) reduce the .. tre~' in the retnlorcement (a ) "h1ch w1ll hence reduce "":
tiil rc.!duce the har dtamctcr' (ol \\h1eh \\Ill reduce b:u -;pacmg and ha\c the effect d
reducing the crud. spacing (1, 111a,):
(iii l tncrease the effective rcint'orccment rnrio (Pp.rtt );
(iv) U\C high bond rather thtm plain bar~.
The u:-,c of steel at reduced 1>tn:s~c~ i:. generally uneconomicul and, ulthough ll
approach is used in the design of watcr-rctllining ~trucwre~ where crading mu\t ofl~
he avoided altogether, it is generally easier to limit the bar diumcter11, incrcal!c f!p,dl
u~c high bond bars in prclcrcncc to plnin bnn•.
To increase Pr .r1 the effective ten~ ton area A ~.e l'f' should he made a~ small .:.
possible. Thil' i~ hest achieved by placing rhc reinforcement close to the tension fal~
&uch that the depth of tension area {2 ..5(11 d)} i~ mudc as ~;mall as possib-
recogni . . ing, nevertheless, that duruhility requirements limit the minimum value c.
cover.
The calculation of the design crack width~ indicated above only applie~ to region•
'' ithin the effective tension zone. Since cracking can also occur in the side face of
beam it j., also good practice to con!>idcr the provbion ot longitudinal !>tee! in the siti..
faces of hcam\. The critical po<.ition for the \ddth of ~uch crack\ is likely to tx
approximately mid-way bet\\ecn the main ten!\ion steel and neutral axk Recommend ..
tions regarding rhis and requirements for the matn remtorcement arc discus'>ed t•
'ection 6.1. u· these recommendation" are foliO\\ ed. 11 ts not nece'>'>ary to calculate cract
width" except ll1 unu,ual circunmances. RelllfOrc.!ement detailing. however. has beer
\hO\\ n to have a large effect on flexural crack1ng. and mu-.t 1n practice be a compromt'e
hct\\ccn the requiremenL\ of crack.ing, durab1ltty and con.,tructional case and costs.
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 153

6.5 Thermal and shrinkage cracking

Thermal and !>hnnkage effects. and the :.lrc~ses developed pnor to cracJ...ing of the
concrete. were dtscuc;sed m chapter I. The rules for providing minimum areas of
remforccment and ltmiung bar l.i.tes to conLrol thermal and c;hrinJ...age cracJ...ing were
Ji~cu~scd in sections 6.1.5. 6.1.7 and 6.1.8. In this section. further con-.idcration "ill be
given to the control of such crncJ...ing and the calculations that can be performed. tl
ncccs~ary. to cakulate design cracJ... \vidth!..
Consider the com:rctc section of figure 6.14 which i1> in a state ot stress owing w
thermal contraction and concrete shrinkage and the effects of external restrnmt. After
cracking, the equilibrium of concrete adjacent to a cracJ... is lll> illustrateJ.

Figure 6.14
ForcE's t~djacent to a crack

l::.quaung tcthion and comprc-.sion forces.

t\ ,/:t A.J~L - A,J-..,
If the condllton J), con-.idcrcd when steel and concrete \tmultancou,Jy reach the1r
limiung values in tension. that "' /.. 1 /}~ and j~, =f(t.etr = the ten\llc strength ol
concrete at the time \\hen cmcJ...ing i' expected to develop (usuall) taken a-. thn.!e days).
then

AJ)~ ll,tf.. ~ ..t( - A..J-..:

The value of 1~. can be calculated hut is generally very lomall and may he taJ...en a-.
7ero without llllroducing undue inaccuracy. Hence the criucal value of steel area i'

If the ~teel ureu isles!) than this amount then the steel will yield intension. resulting in a
few wide cracks: however, if' it is greater, then more crach will be lormcd hut of
narrower width. In EC2 this l'ormulu is modi lieu hy the inclusion ol a f..lrcss tlislrihution
coefficient (kc) wJ..:en a~ 1.0 !'or pure tcn!'ion and a furt.hcr coefficient (/..) thnl accou nts
for non-linear stress distribution wi thin the section. For thermal and shrinkage cl'fcc l ~. k
can range from 1.0 for web~ where II 300 mm or nangc~ with width 300 mm tc> 0.65
for webs with II > ROO mm or flanges XOO mm interpolating accordingly. lienee the
recommended minimum steel area required to control thermal and shrinJ..:agc cracking i\
given by

A, mon = /..).A,/.;L ell//~~

- kAJ,, c~r/hl (6.18)"'

6.5.1 Crack width calculation

The expression for the design cruel.. wtdth gtven m EC2. and di1>cusscd in 'ection 6.4.2
for the Calle of ncxural crackmg, can be used for the calculation of thermal and
154 Reinforced concrete design

Table 6 .15 Restraint factor values

Pour configuration R
Thin wall cast onto massive concrete base 0.6 to 0.8 at base
0.1 to 0.2 at top
Massive pour cast onto blinding 0.1 to 0.2
Massive pour cast onto existing concrete 0.3 to 0.4 at base
0.1 to 0.2 at top
Suspended slabs 0.2 to 0.4
lnfill bays, i.e rigid restraint 0.8 to 1.0

;;hrin!..age cracking with some minor modilicationl-. The cruck widlh i~ given in
equation 6.1 S by
ll'k ~r. max(E",m f rm)

where wk is th~: design crack width..1,.""" is the maximum crack spacing and c~m is the
mean 1-lrain in the ~eclion.
For steel areal. greater than the minimum requir~:d value as given by equation 6.18.
and when the totnl contraction exceed~ the ultimate tcnsi l~: ~train for the concrete. the
shrint..age and thermal movement will be accommodated by cuntrollcd cracking uf the
concrete. Any tensile strain in the concrete between crack~. em· as ~mall and Lhe effect
may be approximated for buildang \tructure.., by u~ing the e>..pression
(- .n1 - - cm l = 0.8R£" 1mp• \\here 1mp " the -.um ot the free shrinkage and thermal
-.tralll~. That is

{6.19)•
where " i' the "hrinkagc ~train. I i-. the rull in ll:mpcruturc rrom the hydration peak and
oa • il. the coefficient of thermal expan~mn of concrete often taken as half the value
for mature concrete to allO\\ for creep ctlcct~.
The rcl.traint factor. R. i~ w altO\\ for differences in restraint according to pour
conliguration. and typical value' are given in table 6.1 5.
In prnctice. vnrintion~ in re~traim conditions cau~e large variations within members.
and hetween otherwi~e :-.imilnr mcmhcr1., with ·full' re~ t rn 1 nt seldom occurring as
indicmed in wble 6. .I 5. Cracking behaviour thus depend~ considerably on the degree and
noture of the restraint and temperatures at the time of casting. CIRI A Guide C660
(ref. 25) offers further guidance on early-age crack control.
The maximum cruck ~pacing. 11 mu' is given hy equation 6. 17 with fuctor k2 taken
a:-. 1.0. Hence !'or rihheJ han. :
(6.20)
C'alculntion~ of crack width:!> ~hould there tore be considered as realistic 'estimates' only
and engineering judgement may need to be applied in interpreting such results.

( EXAMP LE 6 . 5

Calculation of shrinkage and thermal crack widths

A :-.cction of reinforced concrete wall i'> ISO mm Lhick and i:. cast onto a massive
concrete base. A drying :.hrinkage Mrain of 50 mu:ro~tnun ( c.. l j<, anticipated together
with a temperature drop (T) of 20 C after setting. Determine Lhe minimum
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 155

emforccmcnt ro control cracking in the lower prut of the wall and calculate the design
rae~ width and maximum spacing for a suitable reinforcement arrangement. The
ollowing dc~>ign parameters shou ld be used:
Three-day tensile strength of concn.!te (/.: ctt ) = J.5 N/mm2
Effective modulus of elaf.ticity of concrete (Ecerd 10 k /mm~
Coefficient of thennal expansion for mature concrete (liT,) = 12 microstram/ C
Cbaractcrbtic yield strength of reinforcement (j}l) - 500 N/mm 2
Modulus of ela~o.ticity of reinforcement = 200 1-N/mm~
Mini mum steel area to be provided. from equation 6.18:
\,.mm- I.OA,Jc, tta/J;~
.N,uming n value of 1.0 for factor k in equation 6.18
If hori7ontal steel is to he placed in two layers the area of concrete within the tensile
lOne, A.:t· can be taken as the full wall thickness multiplied by a one metre height. Hence
A s,nun 1.0(150 X 1000) X 1.5/ 500
450mm'/m
Thi1> could be convenient I> pro' ided a., I0 mm bar~ at 300 mm centres m each face of
the membet (524 mm 2/m). For thb reinforcement and :1ssuming 35 mm cover, the crack
spacing is given by equation 6.20 :ll>
Sr. mu' JA<· +0.425 X 0.8 X l.O<i!/ /)p oil

"'here
¢ JOmm
fir ~rr = t\, fA~.•rh = 524/( 150 x HXlO} = 0.0035
therefore
Sr. 1111,, 3.4 x 35 -1 0.425 x O.H x 1.0 x I0/0.0035 I090 mm
The imposed Mra1n in the section i~ gtven by equuuon 6.19:
f 1mp=(. Tnr. )
=(50 20{12/2}} X ]() h

170 micro!>! rain

The ultimate tensile Mrr~in J'or the com:rclt'

= 1.5! ( J(X)()())
150 rmcro~trai n
Therefore the section can be considered as cracked. The design crack width is given n~

W~ = Sr nr.1x X O.XRc,mp
Thus tiling U CUI (table 6.15)
II'~ = 1090 X 0.8 X 0.8 X 170 ( J0 h

= 0.12 mm
156 Reinforced concrete design

6.6 Other serviceability requirements

The 1wo principal other seniceability considerations are those of durability and
re~i,tancc to fire. although occasionally a situauon an es ut \\hich some other factor
may he of importance to ensure the proper performance of a stnlctural member in
'en icc. This ma) include fatigue due to moHng loads or machinery. or specific thermal
ru1d sound in~ulation properues. The method\ of dealing with c.uch requirements rna}
range from the use of reduced working \tresses in the material.... to the u\e of special
concretes. for example light\\eJght aggregates for good thermal re~btilllce.

6.6.1 Durability
Deterioration will generally he associated with water permeating the concrete, and the
opportunttie!> for this to occur shoult.l he minimiset.l us far a:- possihle hy providing gotld
nrchitectural dewils with adequate drainage and prmcction to the com:rctc surface.
Permeahility is the principal churactcriqi<.: or the com:n:te whi<.:h affects t.lurahility.
although in some situation~ it is necc~sary to <.:Oilstdl'l al~o phy~icul und chemical effects
which may cause the concrete lo dccuy.
rOI rdnforcet.l <.:Oncretc. U further imp()rttllll uspe<.:t of durability i~ the degree of
pmtcction which is given to the reinforcement. Cnrhonation by the rnmosphere will. in
tim~.:, de,troy the alkalinity of the ~urfnce zone concrete, antl il thh reaches the Je,·el of
the reinforcement will render the '-tee! vulnerahle to co1n1~10n 111 the pre~;ence of
mm~ture and oxygen.
II a concrete 15 made w11h a . .ound mert aggregate. dctennratmn \\' Ill not occur 10 the
absence of an external mfluen<.:e. Smce concrete '' a h1ghly all-.alinc matenal. it'
rc,Jstance to other alkah.., 1s good. hut Ill' hm\e\er \Cr) ,u..,ceptihlc to auad hy acid' or
\Uhstnnces \\h1ch en,ily decompose w produce uc1d .... Concrete made \\ith Portland
cemclll I'> thus not <.uttahle for U\C in ~itua11ons \\here 11 ~:nme' into contuct with ~uch
material:-. \\ htch include hcer. mill. tmc.J futs . Some neutral \a Its may also attack
~:nncrete. the t\\o rno't notahk hc.:ing calciUm chlondc.: unt.l !>oluhlc \Uifulc.:!>. These react
\\ l£h a mtnor wn,tituent of the hydration prmlucts in different \\aY'· The chloride mu~t
he Ill t'lliH:Cntratcd \Oillllllll. \\ hl.!n 11 hll\ <I Solvent dfcct Oil the concrete in audition 10 itS
more \\ idcly n:t:ognised aeuon in promoung the corrn,ion of the reinforcement, while
'ullall'' need only be pre,em 1n much 'maller quantities to cau~e internal expansion of
thl' t:ota:n.:tc \\ ith consequent cracking and streugth lu\1-o. Sulfates present the most
~:omnmnly met chemicnl-n1tack problem for concrete si nce they may occur in
gmundwatcr and sewage. In such case~ t:cmc nt ~ conwini ng reduced proportions of
the vu lnerable tncalciurn aluminate, ~uch a~ Sulfate Re~i~ting Portland Cement. should
be used. The addition of Pulverised l·uel Ash (Pf") or ground granulated h l u~t furnace
'lag <ggbfs) may also be henelkial. Both chlorides and sulfates arc present in sea water,
and because of thi~ the chemical actHm' arc different, rc~ulting 111 reduced sulfate
damage. although if the concrete is of poor quality. 'crim1~ damage may occur from
rcactiOJh ot 'oluhle magnesium saltll with the hydrated cumpounc.Js. Well-constructed
Portland cement structure~ ha\e ncvcrthelc1-oll been found to endure for many year!> in
'ea water.
The mallcr of exposure da:o.\itication' related to erwironmental condillon!. is dealt
\\ ith Ill detail in E:-\ 206 and BS 8500 together \\'llh the provi~1on of appropnate concrete
matenuk BS 8500 includes the use ol n \)'stem of clas~iticauon of a wide range of
chemtcully aggrcr.si\e em·1ronments based on recommendauons of the UK Building
Research E:-.tabli!>hment (BRE Spec1al Digest I). In some ca~es linble Ill aggressive
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 157

chemical attack Adtlitional Protective Measures (APMs) such a~ controlled penneahility

formwork. smface protection. sacnficial layers or site drainage may he recommended.
Phy~ical ~mack of the concrete must also be coni>itlered. This may come from nbra,ion
or anriuon as mny be caused h> sand or shingle. anti by alremate \\cUing and df}ing. The
Iauer effect I'> panJcularl) important in the ca.-.c of marine structure). nenr the \\ater
surface, and cause strco,~e' to develop if the movements producetl arc re),traincd. It ~~
also JX>ssihle for crystal gro\\ lh to occur from drying out of sea water in cracks and pores.
and this may cause further mtcmal stresses. leading 10 cracking. Alternate free7mg anti
thawing is another maJOr cau~e of physical damage. particularly 111 road anti runwa) slabs
and other ~>ituations \\here water in pores and cracks can frccLc und expand, thus lead111g
to spalling. It hu~ been found that the cntrainmem of n .small percentage of air 111 the
concrete 111 the form of small dllicrete bubble'> offer::. the mo<.t effective protection againl>t
thi~ form or attack. Although tlus reduces the strength or the com:rcte. it is recommended
that between 4.0 and 6.0 per cent by volume of entrained air llhould be included in
concrete subjected to rcgulur welting and drying combined with ~cvcre lrost.
All the:>e form~> o f attack may be minimised hy the production of a dense, well-
compacled and well cured concrete with low pcnncahility. thus rc1-.tricting damage to
the surfucc 1011e of the rncmhcr. Aggregates which are likely to react with the a l~ ali
matrix ~hou ld be avoidetl (or the alkah levels of the cement carefully limited). a:- must
tho~e which exhibit unu:-.ually high -.Jmnknge charactemtic~. If thi\ i:-. done, then
pcrmcahili ty, and hence durability. i~ affected by
1. aggregate type and dcn,lly;
2. water cement ratto:
3. degree of hytlr<llmn of cement:
4. degree of ~.:ompacuon.
A low water cement rutm •~ necessnry to limn the vouh due to hydration. which mu~t
be well advnnced \\lth the ussl\tance of good curing techniques. E:\ 206 recommend~
minimum ~.:unng periods taking account of expnsure cl:Js\tficmion. ~.:oncretc \trength
development rate. concrete temperature nnd ambient conditionl> Coupled with this I' the
need fnr n nn-porou~ aggregates \\ hich arc hard enough to re,ist any allntion, and lor
thorough compuction. It is e~~entiul that the mix i' designed to have adequate
workability J'or the situnlion in which it is to be used. thUll the cement content of the mix
must be reasonably high.
EN 206 1>pecifics minimum cement content:- for vnriou:- expo~ure contlitions
according to cement ty pe~. ns well as minimum strength and maximum wmer t·em~·111
ratio which can ulso be related to minimum cover requirement~ a~ dc~crihcd in
~ce ll on 6. 1.1.
The con~e4ucnccs of thermal effects on duruhility must not be ove1lookcd, and very
high cement content~ ~hould only be used in conjunction with u detai led cmcking
u~~es~rnent. A cement content of 550kg/m i!. oJ'tcn regarded a~ an upper ]unit fnr
1

general u~e.
Provided thnt ~uch mcallure~ ure taken. and that adequutc cover ol \Ound concrete ~~
gtven to the remforcement, deterioration of reinforced concrete i~ unlikel> Thus
although the ~urfnce concrete mu} be affected. the rcinfor'-111!! \ICC] \\Ill remain
protected by nn alkaline concrete matrix which hn~ not hcen cnrbonated h) the
atmosphere. Once tht!> CO\ er hrcaks dlm n and '' ater and po!>sihl) chem1cab can reach
the Mecl, ru-;ting and con\cquent cxpan,ion lead rapid!) to cracking nnd ~pallmg of the
cover concrete and /.evert: dnmage - \ i~uully and sometimes :-.tructurally.
158 Reinforced concrete design

6.6.2 Fire resistance

Depending on the type of structure under cono,idcration. it may be neces~ary to constde""
the lire reststance of the individual concrete members. Three conditions must -
examined:

1. effects on structural strength

2. name penetration re:>Jstance in the ca~c of dindmg memhcrll \UCh as \\'all
3. hc<ll transmi,sion properties } am! slabs

Concrete and steel in the form of reinforcement or prestressing tendon~ exhib

reduced wcngth after being subjected to high tcmpcruturc.... Although concrete has k
thermal conductivity. and thu1. good resistance to temperature rise. the strength begin~ •
drop significamly at temperatures above 300 C and it haf> n tendency to spall at hi:
temperatures. The extent of this spalling is governed hy the type of aggregate. \\ 1
si liceous materials being particularly susceptible while cn lcurcous and lightwetg
aggregate concrete& suffer very little. Reinforcement will retain about 50 per cent of
normal strength after reaching uhout 550 C. while for prestressing tendon~ tl-!
corresponding temperature is only 400 C.
I hu:- as the tcmpcralllre rise' the heat i\ tranF-ferred to the interior of a concrt :
member. w11h a thermal gradient cstahlished in the concrete. Thi~ gradient will
affected by the area and ma~~ of the member 111 addition to the thermal properties of the
concrete. and may lend to e\pan,ion and los' of strength. Dependent on the thid.n
and nature of cmer. the ~tccl ''ill ri~e 111 temperature and lo~c <;trength, thus leadin.,
dellecuom. and eventual \tructllral failure of the mcmher II the \tccl temper: • ~
becomes e\cc,.,i,·e. De~rgn mu\t therefore he aimed at prm tdtng and maintaining~..,
cover of concrete as a protcction. thu., delayrng the tempcratllre nse m the o.;teel. 'The
presence of plaster. ~creeds and other norH.:omhll'.tihlc lint~he~ a\,i<.ts the cover
protecting the retnforcement and may thtl' he allowed for 111 the design.
£~C2 givc~o tabulated values ot mi111mum dimen.,ion\ and cover' for variouf> types
concrete member which arc neces . .ary to permit the member LO withstand fire for
<;pecified period of time. These values. which have been ..,urnmari~ed in tables 6..+. 65
and 6.6 for siliceous aggregates may be considered ndequute for mo~t normal purpo'c'
More detailed information concerning design for fire rcsi,tum:e i:o. given tn Part 1.2 l
Eurococle 2 including concrete type, member type nnd detai l:. ol finishes. The periw
that n member i)o required to ~urvive. both in respect of 1.1n.:ngth in relnt ion to worldn.,
londs and the containment of lire, will depend upon the Lypc and usage of the strucwre
and minimum requirements arc generally ),pccilied by building regu lation~. Prcstrcs~ca
concrete beams must be eon~idered ~epar:llc ly in view of the incrcu,cd vulnerability or
the prestrcs~ing steel.

6.7 Limitation of damage caused by accidental loads

While n would he unreasonable to expect u '>tntclllre to '' nh,tand cxtrcmcl. ot accidental
loading as may be caused by colli'>ion, c\plo.,ion or stmtlar, n i' important that resulting
dumagc 'hould not be di~proportionate to the cau-.e. It follm'' therefore that a major
<;truclllral collapse mu~;t not be allowed to be cau ..cd h> a rclathely minor mi,hap which
ma) ha\'e a rea~onahl) high probabihry of huppcnmg in the anticipated lifetime of the
~tructure.
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 159

The po~sihilities of a structure buckling or overturning under the 'design· loads will
have been con~idered as part of the ultimate limit ~tate analysis. However. in ~orne
instances a ~tructure will not have an adequate lateral -;trength e\en though 11 hal> hcen
designed to rc~ist the speci fied combinations of wind load and vertical load. Thi' could
be t11e case if there IS an explo~ion or a slight earth tremor. since then the lateral load\
are proportional to the ma~s of the '\tructure. Therefore it is recommended that at any
floor level. a ~tructure should alwayl> he capable of rcsio;ting a minimum lateral force al>
detailed 111 section :\.4.2.
Damage and pOl>sihle in,tability should also he guarded again-.L \\hercvcr possible.
for example vulnerable load-bearing member~ '\hould be prmected from collision by
protective features iluch as hanJ..s or barrier),.

6.7.1 Ties
l.n addition to the&c precautions, the general stabi lity and robustness or a bu ilding
structure can be increased by providing reinforcement acti ng a~ tics. These ttes ~ohould
act both vertically hetween roor and foundations. ami horizontally around anti m:rw.s
each noor (figure 6.15). and all external vertical load-bearing mcmhl!rs should he
anchored to the noor~ nnd beam~. If a building i~ divided hy expansion joint~ into
~lructurn ll y independent sections. then each section should have an independent tying
~y~tem.

Column ties
Figure 6.15
Internal ties Penpheral
T1e forces
lie

Vertical ties

Vertical ties
Vertical tics are not generally neces~ary in ~tructurc~ of lc),s than f1vc ~torcy~ hut in
higher hui l d 1 ng~ should be provided by reinforcement, effect1vely continuou~ from roof
10 foundation by means of proper laps. running through all vcnical load-hcruing
member~. 'I hi~ \ tee! ~hould he capahle of resisting a tcnsih: force equal to the maximum
tlc~ign ultimate load carried hy the column or \\all from any one ~torcy or the roof.
Although the accidental load ca.\c io, an ultimate limit ~talc, the ultimate load u~ed
hould reflect the loads hkely to he acting at the umc and the qut1.1i-pemwnen1 value
would normally he taken. The mm i~ to contribute lO n bridging sy:-.tem in the event of
loss of the member at a lower Jc,cl. In in silu concrete. thi~o. requtrement i~ almost
invarinbly satisfied hy a normal design, but joint detailing may he affected in preca<;t
work.
160 Reinforced concrete design

Horizontal ties
HoriLontal ties '>hould be provided for all bulldmgs, irrespective of heighL in three
\\'3}11:

1. peripheral Lies:
2. internal ties:
3. column and wall Lies.
The re~istance of thc:,e ties when strcs!>ed to their charm:tcril>LiC strength is given m
terms of a force F,. where F1 60 I. X or (:!0 + 4 x numhcr of storey~> in structure) k.\1.
\\ hichever is less. Thil> expression tal.cs into account the increased risk of an accident in
a large building and the seriousncs:-. of the collarsc of u tall structure.

(a) Peripheral ties

The rcripheral rie must be provided. hy reinforcement which is effectively continuous.
around Lhe perimeter of the building at each lloor and roof level. This reinforcement
mu~l lie within 1.2 m of the outer edge and at it~ characterist ic strc!>s be capahle of
resisting a force of at least /• 1•

(b) Internal ties

lntcmal tie ... should abo h~ provided at each noor in two perpendicular directions anu
he anchored at each end. c1thcr to the peripheral tic or to the continuou~ column or
\\all tiCS
The~e ues mu~t be effect!\ cl} contmuous and they may either be ')pread even I)
acros'> a floor. or grouped at beam~ or wall~ a-. cun,en1ent. Where walls are used. the tie
reinforcement must be withm 0.5 m of the lop or hottom of the floor -,lab.
The resi•ilance required h. related to the :-.pan and loading. lntemal uc:-. mu~t be
capable of rc~i-,ting a force ol F1 kN per metre w1dth or lltCIIl + lJk )/7.5 1r/5l.N per
metre width. if this 1' greater. Ln th1s expression. lr ~~the greatest homontal di~tance 111
the d1rcction ot the tic between the centre!'> of vertkal load-bearing m~.:mbcr . Tht..
load1ng (Rl - q!..) I.N/m! is the avcrag~.: characteristic load on unit ~rca of the floor
con~'>ldered. If the tie:-. are grouped their maximum spacing should he limited to 1.5/r.

(c) Column and wall ties

Column and wnll tics must be ahle ll) resh.t n Coree of ut lenst ~ per ~.:cnt of the total
verlil:al ultimate load at that level for which the member has been designeu
Additionally, the resistance provided must not he li.:sl. than the smaller of 2F1 or
F1IJ2 .5 kN where/, is the floor to ceiling he1ght in metre:.. Wullti~.:s ure nssesscd on tht
basi' ()['the ahovc forces acting per metre length of the wall. while column tics are
~.:onccntrated within lm of ci th~.:r ~1de of the column cemrc lim.:. Part1cular care ~houla
be taken with comer column' to cnr,ure they urc tied 111 two perpendicular directions
In eon~idering the structure subjected w accidental loading it i., assumed that no othe
force:-. are acting. Thu reinforcement pro\'ided lor an} other purpmes may also act a
tics. Indeed, peripheral and intcmalt1es mu} abo be con~1dcred to be acting a:-. columr
or ""all tie'>.
A<, with Ycrtical tiC'>, the provision of horiLontal tiC~ for ;, \itu construction wi I
-,cldom affect the amount of reinforcement promled. Detailing of the reinforcemcn
may hm,cvcr be affected. and particular auenuon mu~t be paid to the manner in whic..
internal tics are anchored to penphcral tics. Typical detail"> for the anchorage of intern...
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 16

three
Full anchorage length

~;-

- • •
'

-:1
.....-
• , •
Figure 6.16
Typical anchorage details fo1
internal tie~

••• ••• •••

(a) (b) (c)
en 111
~.kN.
l'lt in tie~ are illu~truted
in figure 6.16. If tull anchorage i-. not posc;iblc then the a~sumcd
strel\se1. the ties muM he reduce<.! appropriately.
tn
Prcc~tst concrete construction. however. present~ " more l.eriou~ problem ~ince the
requirements of tie forces anti ~imple easil> com.tructed joum are not always
1US, compatible. Unle!.!. the rctluir~:d ue force~ can be provided WJLh the bar!> anchored by
hook!\ and bend~ in the case of column and wall tie~>. an analysis of the structure must be
performed to as-.e~s the remaining stabilit) after a 'f>'!Ctfied degree of structural damage.

( EXAMPLE 6 .6 '
Stability ties
Calculate the \lability tiel> required in an eight-storey buildtng of plt~n area 'ho\\11 in
figure 6.17:
Clear storey height under lk:ams = :! 9 m
rloor to ceiling height ({,) 3.4 m

Characteristic permanent load C.~d =6 kX/m'

Characteristic variable lo<Jd (qk) \ I..N/m ~

Chanl<.:tcn-;tie steel strength (/~ d 500 N/mrn'

f1 (20 + 4 X number Of sLOrcy~ )

= 20 I 4 8 - 52kN 60k'i

(a) Peripheral ties

Force to he r..:,i-.tcd - F, 52 kN
52 X J() 1
lhr area required I04 mm'
500
Thb. could be provided by one H12 bar.
Precast floor slab
long1tud~nal bedm Figure 617
Structure ldyout
\ t

'""'~"' i•-----1----------11---.. .
b,.m,
14bays® 6 Sm -
~ -- --
26m
----r
162 Reinforced concrete design

(b) Internal ties

. . FrCI?l -1 qk) I,
l·orce to be rcl>J~ted = 7.5
" -::-) k p.:r metre

(1) Transverse direction

5"'(6 ..L 3) 7
Force = ----7.5
x-
5
= 87.4 J...N/m > F1
Force per bay= 87.4 x 6.5

= 568.1 kN
Therefore. bnr area required in each mmwcrse interior beam i..,

56H.~=
500
113"
. \)mm
2

This could be provided hy 4 ll20 burs.

(2) Longitudinal direclion

.
f·orce = -5::!(6- _ ~~- --:--
7.::.
6.5
)
X1.1 J...N/m 1'1

rhe•o:forl' force alnng kngth ol huikhng XI. I x 7 567 7kN. hence bar area
required in each lnnglluc.hnal heam .,
567 7 IO' _ ,
--=::.67mm·
2 500
rtm could he prm 1dcd h) 2 H20 har,,

(3) Column ties

l·mcc 10 he designed for i!'.

(L1 )F~ G:~)52 = 1o.n~ < 2F,

or 3 per cent of ultimate lloor loud on a column i~

8 [~ ( 1.35 x 6 + 1.5 x 3) x 6.5 x ~] - 69 kN al ground lcvd

10() 2
To allow for 3 per cent of' column self-weight. taJ...c design forc.:c tt> be 72 kN. say, at
ground level.

Area of ties. rcquire·u1 = 72 50010' I(

144mm~

Thi' would be provided by I IT20 bar and incorporall:d with the internal tics. At higher
floor lcwb a design force ol 70.7 kN \\oultl hi! u~cd giving a similar practical
remforccmcnt requirement.

(c) Vertical ties

As~ume quasi-pemumenr loading \\ith 111 , 0.6. Thull the ultimate dcllign load
= 1.0 > 6 1 0.6x3=7.8k~/m~.
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 163

...,unum column load from one storey i~ approximately equal to

7.S X 3.5 X 6.5 177.5 kN
nerefore bar arc<t required throughout each column is equal to
177.5 x 101 ,
500
=.355 mnr
' would be provided by 4 Ill 2 bar~.

6.7.2 Analysis of 'damaged' structure

I h1~ must be undertaken when a -.tructure ha\ five or more storeys and doe!> not comply
1\ nh the vertical-tie requirement~. or when every precast lioor or roof unit docs not have
,ufficient anchorage to resi~t a force equal to F1 kN per metre width acting in the
direction of the 1-pan. The an:1ly:-.i1> mu~t ~>how that each key load-bearing m~.:mhcr. it~
~:onnections. and the horizontal mcmher:-. '' hich provide lateral support. arc able to
1\ ithstand a sped lied loading from any direction. If this cannot he satt:,.hed. then the
maly:,.is must demonstrate that the rcmm al of an} single \ en1cal load-hearing element.
Hhcr than key membcrs, at each store) 111 turn \dll not re~uh 111 collapse of a !.igniticant
part of the 1>1ructun.:.
Thc minimum loading that m;,y m·t from any direction tlll a key member is
recommended us 34 J..N/m1. The decision as to what load:. should he considered acttng is
left to the engineer, but will generally he on the basis of permanent and reali~tie variable
O<ld estimate\, depending on the building usage. Thh method i~ attempting. therefore,
to asse~., quantitall\ ely the effect\ of exceptional load111g \uch a~ e\plosion. I he de,ign
pressure' must tlms be regarded "'a l>Omewhat arbnral) value.
The 'pressure' method wi ll generally be suitable for npplicatinn to column:- in preea~t
tmmed structure~; however, where precast load-bearing panel con~truction is being used
an approach incorporating the removnl of individual element.-. muy be more uppropriatc.
ln this case. \ c111Cal loading/> -;hould be U'>:;e-..,cd a' described. and the ~tructure
mve:-.tigated to dcterr111ne '' hcther it i-. able to remain ~tand1ng b) a d1fferent ,true tum I
Jet ion. Tills actton may 1nclutle parts of the damaged :.tructurc bchtl\ 111g a. . a canttlcver
or a catenary. and it ma> also be necc~sary to con~idcr the strength of non-load heanng
pur1itions or cluoding.
Whichever upprouch is adopted, such analyses arc tedious. and the provi~ion of
~o:lfeetive tie forces within the structure ~hould be regurded as the preferred solution hmh
from the poun of view of design and performance.
Continuity reinforcement and good detailing '' 111 greatly enhance the overall ltre
resistance of a \tructure with respect to collapse. A tire-damaged ~tructurc with reduced
member ~trength may even be ltkened to u ~tructure subjected to accidental overloud,
<111d analysed nccordingly.

6.8 Design and detailing for seismic forces

Earthquakes are cau:-.ed hy movement of the earth's cru~t along faults or slip planes.
TI1ese movements re!>ult in horizontal und vertical force~ with vibrations of varying
lrequcncy, amplitude nnd duration to act on ~tructures within the earthquake zone.
164 Reinforced concrete design

The earth· cmst i~ not one contmuous outer layer but cons1sts of seven major p
number of minor tectonic plates as shown in figure 6. I8. These plate~ bear ag<limt"
other contlllually moving and grinding at their adjacent edges. Occasionally a
slippage tnkcs place with o Jnrge release of energy. causing an e:u1hquake
horiLOntal and 'eru~:al vibr.Hions. These c:Ul cau~e de,truction and damage to strut
and land:,lide~ with large losse' of life. Mo~t of thc),e earthqual-..cs occur ne..
boundaries of the tectonic plate~ but powerful earthquake' sometime~ occur 1n
interior or u plate.
When the earthqual-..c occur:-. on the ocean floor. large wave~ called tsunamJ'
generated \\h1ch :-.pread out rathall) !rom the epicentre at a large speed of po~'
ROO km per hour. The ~reed i~ proportional to the depth of water so as the w:l\ e
approach the coa,tline the\ sl<m dov.n and there '' a large build-up of \Hiler "u
ma~sivc wavts hitting the coast and causing extensive major dcslfUction.
Se1~nuc dbturhancec, are mea,ured according to their intensity on the Richtt.
lognrithmic ~>~:ale . lnten~itie:- up to ~ in magrutudt: are generally con!>idcred to
motfl'rate but higher intensitie~ oJ' 0\·er 0 are \eVCI'e. i nlCJl',iliC~ as high as 9.5 have lk~
mea~ured.
In many parts or the world, such a.~ Turl-..cy, Japan and California. where earthqual-..t.
can be se\erc. rc~•~tance 10 ~eism1c force' form' a cnllcal part of the structuml dest~
In other area:-. of the world. such a~ the British Isles. earthquakes arc less common an~..
not nearl) so -,e\ere so that the de~ign for \\ind loadtng. or the requirements for thl!'
'truclltrc to be able to resist a minimum hnri.wnwl force, plu' the prm ision of
continuity \tcclthroughout the structure according to the requirements in section 6.7 are
generally adequate. (l;evcnhele''· \\ tth Important structure~, -,uch a~ rmtJOr darm Jt
nuclear pO\\Cr stations where l':ulure or damage can hove cnta!-.lrnphic cl'fects. the
re~•~tunce to set'illllC diMurhance~ nm\1 .tbo he consrdcred. C\Cil in the Bntbh J,b
The nmurc of the vibrations and the lorces induced by an cnrthtiLtnke arc complt.
phenomena, as ,., the dyn.tmlc rcspon'e of a highl) 111detcm1inate concrete ~tructure
This has ltd to the development of computer programs to carry out the analysi,,
\Otllctimes rdem.:d to a~ a multi-modal rc,ponse 'pectrum analy\i~. A .,jrnplcr approacl'l
i~ the equrvalcnt ~tallc analysis tn which 1he ba~e ),henr at the fool of the 'tru~;ture

Figure 6.18
TectoniC plaitS

Pacific
Plat!'
 Serviceability, durabilily and stability requirements 165

a calculated and distributed as hori1ontal forces at each floor level according to certain
defined criteri:t. Thil> approach is allowed in many national codes of practtce for the
design of approximately regular and symmetrical structures. 1-:.urocode 8 provides
guidance relev:tm to countries within the European Cnion.
The full numerical dc'>ign requirements of the coder. of practtce are beyond the <;cope
of tht<; book but it is hoped that highlighting some of the import:tnt principles and
requirement<; tor the overall design and detailing may be of ~orne help in the design of
safer structure~.

6.8.1 Construction and general layout

Jt is particularly important that good quality material<;, including high ductility
reinforcing )tccl, arc used together with rigorous tc~ting and control procedures. Design
shou ld ensure thut sudden bnrtle shear or comprcs1;ivc fai lure b nvoit.lcu with emphasis
on energy dissipmion. Good construction practices, inc.:luding steel lixing. c.:ompaction,
!!'ell curing and inspection arc also essential if n Stntcturc is to perform satl~fat.:tori l y under
seismic loading.
Foundntions should be designed to provide a regular lavout in plan and elevmion und
to he aprroximntely symmetrical about both orthogonal axes in plan with no ~uddcn and
major change in layout or con:.trul:tion. It is important that there i' adequate bending
and tor~ional rcsi,t:tncc about both axes of the ~tructure . Some illu,trattve examples or
01 good and poor prnc!lce are shown in figure~ 6.19 and 6.20.
are Sway effects under horizontal motions should be minimi'>cd hy ensuring
or approximately equal loading at each floor le\el with no hea\y lond' in the higher
the \tore}~. Effort' 'hould he made to pro' ide a highly indetermmate !.tructure that '' well

Figure 6.19
Examples of good and poor
plan lc~youts
Good plan layout

D===O
Poor piJn layout

Figure 6.20
Examples of good and poor
elevations

Good elevat1on des1gn

(
Poor elevat1on des1gn
166 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 6 .21
One-storey building

I
I

tied together with continully reinforcement so that the loading can be rcdi~tributed ano
alternative :.tructurul actions may develop if ncce~sary. The principle~ d1~cussed m
lleCLion 6.7 are relevant to this.
Slah!. can provide rigid diaphragm~ to transfer loads at the roof" and cm:h floor
Figure 6.21 :;hows hO\\. in a one-storey building, a rigid hori7ontal slab or hrucing
roof le' el enables the -.tructurc to act us a closed box gi' ing more rigidit) and streogt
to resist cracklllg.

6.8.2 Foundations
In addition to a regular and ~ymmetncal layout in plan a~ discuiosed above. it
preferable Lhtll on ly one type or l'ound:llion is u!>ed throughom n :.tructure and thutn
con~tructetl on a level ground base and tied together with strong ground beam11 to lin
relati\e mu\'ement. Tim. i~ illw,trated in ligure 6.22.
Land~lidc~ arc a common feature of earthquakes and they cause much 11tructu
damage and loss ol lile. f'ht.:rcfore ~tructurcs ~houlu nm be built on steep ~lopes. 111
ncar gullcy~ or nct~r cl ifl\ II mu~t al:-.o be recognised thm vibrations during
ca11hquake can cau).e liqucf.tction of ~m11c sot!~. ~uch as sandy or silty ~oils, cau-.
lo~s of bearing !>trcngth. excessive seulcment and failu re.

Figure 6.22
Examples of good and poor
foundation design

Good deslg~

firm
 Serviceability, durability and stability requirements 167

6.8.3 Shear walls

Shear wal11> provtde a strong reSiStance to the lateral force~ from an earthquake and they
should continue down to. and be anchored into. foundations. They should never be
~upported on beams. 'lah" or columns
If coupling beam-, are required these should be reinforced '"ith diagonal cage~ of Mccl
bar& and diagonal reinforcing bars should also be provided to resist hori7ontal sliding at
constntction joint1> in the wall. These bars should ha\·e at lca't a tension anchorage on
either ~ide of the con,truction JOint. Some typical reinforcing !.lccl detail" are given in
I:C!! and a typtcal detail for a coupling beam is shown in figure 6.23.

X coupling beam Figure 6.23

--- I - ·v TypiCal reinforcement detail
for a coupling beam

~
Section X -X
opening
v
\
~hear wall

diagonal cage
of rCinforcement

X _.

6.8.4 Columns
Column' and their connection' to beaml> are critical parts of a 'tructurc. ratlurc of a
column in a huilding can be cata~trophic leading to a progrcs-.ivc collapse. and the
formation of plastic hinges 111 columns above the ba~c of u building 'hould be avoided.
llorimntul hoops of helical reinforcing bars have been found to give a •Monger
containment to the longitudinal vertical bars than thot provided by rectangu lar links and
at a beom-to-cotumn joint horizontal steel reinforcement hoops not les.~ than 6mm
diameter are udvisahlc with in the depth of the beam.
At extetnal columns the longitudinal reinforcement of beam:-. should he well
anchored within the colu mn. Thi!-. may rcquirc special mea~ures ~u ch as the provision
of henm hounches or anchorage plate~ and some typical examples of details ure given
in hC8.

6.8.5 Beams and slabs

Beam~ ~hould he ducule so that plastic hinges can form. and thc~e should be dtstributed
throughout a \tructure. uvotding 'soft' sroreys. This will provide a gradual type of
failure und not a 'udden catastrophic frulure such a:; that U!)suciatcd with shear or brittle
compre~stve failure. The formotion of plastic hinges also allows the ma\imum moments
to he rcdi,trihutcd to other pans of the statically indelenninatc \lructurc. thu)) provtding
more overall Mtfcty.
The fir:-t pluMic hinges arc likely to form in the sections of the beam ncar the column
\\here the maximum moments are hogging, causing compression on the lo""cr fibres i.O
that the section acts cffecuvely as u rectangular section. Plastic hinges which form later
168 Reinforced concrete design

at mid-span will have compression on the upper fibre!. -,o that the '\ection is effective!} ..
T-section \\ith the slab acting a!-. the flange and there i' a large area to resist the
compress10n. Further discu~sion of the de,ign of ducule \ectJOO'> i~ given in Section~
4.2. 4.4 and 4.7.
The beam section<; near the .,upport \hould he reinforced by dm.ed :-.tecl link!>. close!)
'paced to resist the c;hear and to prmide greater compre...sive resi,tancc to the cnclo:.t'd
concrete The provision of comprc\sivc steel reinforcement abo cn\ures a more ductile
~ection.
The \lab' in a building act :1!> rigid horitontal diaphragms to stiffen the ~tructure
against tor11ion during ~ei:.mic di~turbances and nlso tran~fer the hori7ontal forces into
the columnl> and shear walls. The l>labs ~hould be well ned into the columns. the ::.hear
walls and the perimeter beams wtth contimuty reinforcement a~ indicated previously.
When precast concrete slabs nre used they ~hould have good length' of hearings onto
the :-ttpporting beams and sheur walls ~hou l d also he provided with continuity 'ltcel over
their supports so that they can net :\)., cont inuous indeterminate members. In this way
they can also develop their full ultimate reserve of 'llrcngth hy enabling a tensi le
(:!liCJHiry action.
 CHAPTER 7
Design of
reinforced
concrete beams
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

Reinforced concrete beam design consists primarily of producing member details

which will adequately resist the ultimate bending moments, shear forces and torsional
moments. At the same time serviceclbility requirements must be considered to en~ure
that the member will behave satisfactorily under working loads. It is difficult lo
separate these two critf'ria, hence the design procedure consists or a series of
interrelated steps and checks. These steps are shown 1n detail in the flow chart in
figure 7.1, but may be condensed into three basic design stages:

preliminary analysis and member sizmg;

2. detailed analysis and design of reinforcement;
3. serviceability calculations.

Much of the material in this

chapter depends on the theory
and design specification from
the previous chapters. The load-
Ing and calculation of moments
and shear forces should be car-
rit.>d out using the methods
descnbed in chapter 3. The
equations used for calculating
the areas of reinforcement were
derived in chapters 4 and 5.
Full details of serviCeability
requirements and calculations
are given in chapter 6, but it IS
normal practice to make use of
simple rules which are specified
__..
169
 --
1 70 Reinforced concrete design

EC2 Section
2.3.1 Y4ttable actiOns Concrete class 3.1

D D
Estimated self-weight Concrett' cover 4.4.1

D D
2.3.1 Permanent actions Mtnimum sectton

D D
5 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Durab1hty and 4.3 and
fire re~istance 4.4

D
Trial b c
·;cOl
0
Esumate d from ~

.E"'
c
6.1
singly reinforced
~
...
doubly reinforced
r--
.[~
6.2 Vw m~ximum allow~ble?

7.4.2 ChPc~ basic 1pan-crfrcttVe depth ratoos _ __

.;L
Select II
.,
-<..>-
DETAILED ANALYSIS & DESIGN
8endong moment and shear force
envPiclpcs
,J.
6.1 Bend1ng re1nforcement design

,l..
84 Anchor~ge

( ..:.'"J.. c
0'
8 and 9.2 Bending relnforcPmcnl details ·~

~ r-1
../....?
0
;;
c
7 4.2 Check span-cff~tovc u:
depth rauo "0
...c
D ~
·~
6.2 She~r rconforcement deso9n c;
D 0

7.3 C~lculate crack wodths (of rtQuored)

D
7.4 Calculate denectlom (if required)

D
FINISH
Figure 7.1
Beam design flowchart
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 171

in the Code of Practice and are quite adequate tor most situations. Typical of these are
the span-effect1ve depth ratios to ensure acceptable deflections, and the rules for
maximum bar spacings, maximum bar sizes and minimum quantities of reinforce-
ment, which are to limit cracking, as described in chapter 6.
Design and detailing of the bending reinforcement must allow for factors such
as anchorage bond between the steel and concrete. The area of the tensile
bending reinforcement also affects the subsequent design of the shear and
torsion reinforcement. Arrangement of reinforcement is constrained both by the
requirements of the codes of practice for concrete structures and by practical
considerations such as construction tolerances, clearance between bars and
available bar sizes and lengths. Many of the requirements for correct detailing are
illustrated in Lhe examples which deal with the design of typical beams.
All calculations should be based on the effective span of a beam which is given
by
lrtt In · a, ~ a2
where
111 is the clear distance between the faces of the supports; for a cantilever In
is its length to the face of the support
o1, o2 are the lesser of half the width, 1, of the support, or half the overall
depth, h, of the beam, at the respective ends of the span

7.1 Preliminary analysis and member sizing

The luynut anti -.i;c of member\ nrc very often controlled hy archttectural tletail1-. and
clearances for machtnery nnd equipment. The engineer mu<>t either chcc'- that the hcam
~i.Ge!> arc adequate to carry the londing. or altcmutively. decide on !lite:-. that arc
adequate. The preliminary analy..,i~ need only provide the maximum moment~ and
~heors in ordet to asccrtuin reasonahle t.limensions. Beam dimension~ required arc

1. cover to the n.:inlorccmcnt

2. breadth (b)
3. effective depth (c/)
4. overnll depth (h)/

Adequate concrete cover i-. required to ensure adequate bond and to protect the
reinforcement from corrosion and t.lamagc. The necessary CO\'er depend~ on the dass of
concrete. the exposure of the beam. and the required fire re!.i~tnnce. Table 6.2 give~ the
nominal cover that 'hould be provided to all reinforcement. including lin~s. Thi' cover
may need to he increased to meet the fire resistance requtrements of the (ode of
Practice.
The -.trength of a benm is affected considerably more hy its depth th:ln th breadth
The spun-depth rauos usually \'ary between say 14 and 30 hut for large spans the ratio\
can be greater. A \ttitahle breadth may be one-third to one-half of the depth: but it mu)
be much les:-. for a deep heam. At other times wide shnllow hcam'i are u~ed to conserve
1 72 Reinforced concrete design

headroom. The beam should not be too narrow: if it is much less than 200 mm wide
there may be difficult)' in providmg adequate side cover and c;pace for the reinforcing
bare;.
Suitable dimensions forb and d can be decided by a few trial calculations as follows:

1. Por no compression reinforcement

K = M/bd~fd ~ Khut

where
Kt-..t 0.167 for fc~: < C50
With compression reinforcement 11 can he shm' n that
M / bd1fck < 8/.f<~
approximmely. if the urea of hcnding reinforcement is not to be excessive.
2. The maximum design sheur force Vblmux !>hould not be grculcr than VRu m.u =
0.1 ~b"d( I - .f,~/2501fd· To avoid congested shear reinforcement. Vl'u 11 ~;1x should
preferably be somewhat clo~cr to half (or less) of the maximum allowed.
3. The span -effective depth ratiO for 'pun' not exceeding 7 m should he within the
hNc \'aluc' given in table 6.10 or figure 6.3. For ~pans greater than 7 m the basK
b ratio' arc multiphcd by 7/..,pan.

hold I , covN
4. The overnll depth of the beam 1s g1ven
II d +cover + t
h)

where 1 cslimnled distance from the out~> ide of the link to the centre of the tension
bnr~ (:-.ec figure 7.2). For exumple. with nominal sited 12 111111 link!- unJ one layer ot
I i
32 mm tension barli. 1 2~. mm approximately. It will. in fact, be slightly larger
Figure 7.2 than this with deformed har~ a~ they have a larger overall dimension than the
Bcdm dimensions nominal bur :-.ite.

( EXAMPLE 7.1
Beam sizing
A concrete lintel with an ciTcctive ~pa n of 4.0 rn supporLs 3 230 mm hrick wall as shown
in ligurc 7.3. The loads on the lintel arc G~ lOOkN nnd Q~ 40kN. Determine
~uitable dimens1ons for the lintel If class C25/30 concre1e i~ u~cd.

I
Figure 7.3
Lintel beam

Assumed load
 Design of reinforced concrete beams

m wide The beam breadth b will match the wall thieknl!ss so that
rcing
b;;;;: 230mm
llows: Allo" ing. say. 14 I..N for the \\eight of the beam. gives the ultimate loac.l
/· 1.35 X 114 1.5 X 40
;;;;: 214k.\

Therefore maximum design shear force

VFd = 107 J..l\
Asc;uming a triangular load dbtribution for the preliminary nnalybis. we have
M _ r x span= ::!14 x 4.0
6 6
143 "'-N m

For 1>uch a rclati vely minor beam the case with no compre~sion steel ~ h ould be
con:-idered
M
K ,}. < Khu1 0.167
t n the I )( / ' Ll
le basic therefore
141 ( 101'
0.167
230 d' )< 25
Rcammging, d .;> 386 mm.
.:11\tOn A\\umc a com: rete cover of 25 mm to the reinforcing steel. So for I0 mm link~ and .
er of s.t}. n mm han.
arger O"crall beam c.lcpth h d + 25 + 10 32/2
' n the =d+ 51
'll1crelorc make II - 5::!5 mm as an integer numher of bril:J.. courses. So that
d 525 51 474mm
Maximum ~hear rc~istance is
I
VRd.n1u' 0.1 Rbwd( J - /.;~/250lf~k
own 0. 18 X 230 x 474 X ( I -"15/250) x 25 x 10 J

nine 4461..N -:. ll.,..t = 1071-N

Basic :.pan effective depth ~7~0 = 8.35 < ::::: 20 (for a lightly ~trc!.scd heam in C25
concrete tabll! 6. 10)
A heam siLc of 230 mm by 525 mm deep would he 'uitablc.
Weight of beam 0.23 x 0.525 x 4.0 x 25
- 12.1 kN

l" hieh i!> 'uffic•entl} dose to the assumed value.

1 74 Reinforced concrete design

7.2 Design for bending of a rectangular section with no

moment redistribution
The calculation of main bending reinforcement is performed using the equations and
charts derived in chapter 4. In the ca~e of rectangular sections which require onl~
tension steel. the lever-arm curve method i~ probably the simplest approach. Whert
compression :,teel is required. either design charts or a manual approach with the
simplified design formulae may be u'cd. When design charts arc not applicable or nll
available. as in the case of non-rectangular sections. the formulae balled on the
equivalent rectangular stress block will !>implify calculations considentbly.
The grade and ductility class of reinforcing steel to be u~ed must he decided initial
-;ince this. in conjunction wtth the chosen concrete class, will affect the areas requirt.-.
and also influence such factor' a:, bond calculation\. In moM ctrcumstance~ one of th..
available types of high-yield hars will be used. Areas of reinforcement are calculated
the critical M.:ctions with maximum moment~ . antl1-uitable bar si1.c:-. ~-oc lectecl. (Table~ c
bar areas arc given in the appendix.) 'I hi ~> permit~ anchorage calculations to bt
performed und dewil\ of har arrangement to be produced, tak.ing into account t ~
gutdance gl\cn b) the C'otb of Practice.
An exl:e.,~ tv e amount ot n:111forcemcnt u'ually indicate'> thUl a member is undcr!>iZt
and it may also cause tid llculty in lixing the bars and pouring the concrete. Therefor~:
the code ... tipulates that
lOOt\ 1 \, _ 4Cf· except at lap~.

On the other hand too ltttlc reinforcement i' abo unde~1rable therefore

I00/\, I b1rI .>

;. .f~trll
2of. - per cent and nol less than 0.I.,.., per cent
y~

where:
A, i~ the area of concrete = b x II for a n:ctangular ~cctmn
lJ 1 b the mean width of the beam's tension .wnc
•1 :. 13 10r.
~·, 1rn .ts ,'I1e concrete ' s mean ax .to I tenst'Ie MrengtI1 0.•"1 x.f'-d. r j'<k C50
Value'> for tltfferent concrete .,trengths are given in table 6.8
To avotd exces,he detleetion' it i\ abo nece,~ary to check the span to cllecuve dcp
ratio tt!-. outlined in chapter 6. -
It :-.hould be nmed thm t~e equations derived in th i:-. chapter are ror concrete class~
less than or equal w C5016d·. l'he equations for higher cla\!.es of concrete can be deri\(
ut.ing '>imilar procedure., but using the ultimate concrete '>tratn' and constant~ for c•• ~
clas~ of concrete from EC2 and it~ attonul Annex.

7.2.1 Singly reinforced rectangular sections, no moment

redistribution
A beam section need<; reinforcement onl> in t11e tenstle tone \\hen
M
K
ld
u < Kh.•t
) ./Ck
= 0.167
The singly reinforced section considered ;., \hown in figure 7.4 and it is subjected t<
sagging de\tgn moment M at the ultimate limit state. The design calculntion'> for l
longimdtnal \teet can be summarised a-. follows:
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 17

0.0035 0.567fu
b
th no ~ 1-- Figure 7.4
Singly reinforced section witl
-s2

f I
1C s~ 0.811 I rectangular stress block
d- neu __..L. __ _!"
'and ax z =t.d
onI) A,

• • E,, F,.

Section Strains Stress Block

tr uall)
M
-tUired 1. Check that K = bd~J(~
<r < Ko.d = 0.167
e ~f the
2. Determine the levcr-am1, <., from the curve of figure 7.5 or from the equation
., e' of
to be " r~[o.s + ,j(0.25 - K/1.134)] (7. I)*
1t the
3. Calculate the area of tension steel required from
k 'ILCd M
'le1"Cimc O.R7fvk: (7.1 }*

4. Select ~Uitablc bar 'i7e~.

5. Chcd that the urea or -.tccl actually provtded i1. within the limit~ rcqutred hy the
code. that ss
100 A, m.o, < 4.W'f
bh •
und

'>
f.:om
26 -% and not less than 0.13~
~\
J~~
0.3 X /~~ for fc~
3
whcrej~ 1111 < C50
depth 1.00
maximum value of z/d Figure 7.5
according to the Concise Code Lever-arm curve
du:-.~e1.
Dnd previou s UK practice
demcd
~each

~
II
0.95
-I Compression
I
~ 0.90 reinforcement
requ1red (at M0 .,)

0.85

0.82 L.._ _ __ L __ _ _ _..L.._.::.:_ _ _ _

0 oo.s 0.10 0 .15 0.167

ed to a K = M/bd1fa
f1 •r the The percentage values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced
section with moment redistribution applied {see section 4.7 and table 4.2)
176 Reinforced concrete design

( EX AMPLE 7. 2

Design of tension reinforcement for a rectangular section, no moment

redist ribution
b .. 230 The beam section shown in rtgure 7.6 h a~ charaetcristic material strengths of
.fck = 25 Nlmm 2 for Lhe concrete and[yk = 500 N/mm 2 for the steel. The de~ign moment
0
at Lhe ultimate limit state i'> 165 kN m which cause\ sagging ol the heam.
""
"'
II .,.,
0
.,., _!!_ __165 X 106 -Q p
"b II 1. K
.<:; bcf2/ck - 230 X 4902 X 25 - . ~

••• Thh. is less than Kb•l -= 0. 167 therefore compression steel j., not required.
A, 3·H20 2. From the lc\er-arm cur\C of figure 7.5 1. 0.88. therefore lever ann := lad =
Figure 7.6 0.88 ( 490 = 431 mm und
Singly reinforced beam
example M 165 X 1011 1
3 ' A~ - 0.87/.l;: = 0.87 x 500 x 43 1 = RHO mm·

4. Prm ide three H20 bar... area = 943 mm' .

. ( ()()/\ , ( (){) X 94J
5. l-or thl! ~teel prov1ded -c;;-- 230 J<
490
= 0.8.:1 ( > 0.11%)
and
IOOtl , 100 943
0.75 ( 4.011)
~~() )( 550
therefore the ~tccl perccntagl! is wuhin the l imit~ l>pecilicd h) the code.
l~----------------------------------------~)
7.2. 2 Rectangular sections with tension and compression
re info rcement, no moment redistribution
Comprc!..,ion steel i ~ required whenever the concrete in cn mprc~sion , by i t~c l f. i!. lln::tbk
to develop the ncce~~ary moment of resistance. Des1gn charts <;uch Ui> the one 1
figure 4.9 may he used to determine the \tee\ area~; hut the "mphtied equation-. based <
the equivalent rectangular Mrcs' block are quick to appl} . The arrangement of the
reinforcement to rc!>ist a sagging moment h shown in ligure 7.7
In order to have a ductile section so avoiding u sudden compressive i'ailure or the
concrete it i'> generally required that the maximum depth of the neutrnl axis I'

Figure 7.7
Beam doubly reinforced to
resist a sagging moment

Equivalent
rectangular
Sect1on Strams stress block
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 177

Xt>al = 0.45d and this is the value used in the design of a section with compression steel.
The de~ign method and equatiom are those derired in Chapter .J for fertions lllbject to
bending.
The design step~ arc:
ot
~m
1. Calculate K = f. M ,
. dbd·
ff K > Kt>al = 0.167 compressiOn reinforcement is required and .I = .l~>;aJ =0.45d.
2. Calcu late the area of compression steel from
I (M - Kbalf~.bd~)
A, :.. .f-.(d dl) (7.3)*

where .f~c i ~> the compressive stress in the steel.

If t/1 /x < 0.3S the compression steel hal> yielded and j~. O.S7jy~
If d1/r > 0.3S then rhc strain e,c in the CC>mpressi ve steel mu!>t be calculated fro m
the proponion1) of the ~trai n diagrum and .f..L £~'"' '• 200 x 10 1e-".
3. Calculate the area of tension ~tee ! required from
Ktmtf.:l. hd2 I f.,<
A, 11\ - - (7.4)*
Cl.S7f)•' 'O.S7],1.
with le'ver arm :: = 0.82d.
4. Check f~r lhe areas of \tee! required and the areas provided thai
_) (.\: """ A: rc") ~ (A, pro' - A, rtq} (7 .5)
Thi' i'> w en~ure rhar the depth of rhe neutral axi~ has nnl exceeded the maximum
value of 0.45d by providmg an over-excess of tensile rcinforcemem.
5. Check thm the area of 1>lecl actual!) provided i' within the ltmil'> required by rhe
Code of Practice.
ble
Ill
,edon
(EXA MPLE 7.3
the
Design of tension and compression reinforcement, no moment redistribution
f the
,, The beam section shnwn 1n figure 7.R has chnracteriM ic matcril1l :-.lrenp,lhs or
f.k 25 N/mm2 and .f)k 500 N/mm1. The uliirnare design moment is 105 kN m,
caul>ing hogging uf the heam:
• b:: 230, 1
M 165 X 1011
1.
bd~J:.~ 230 " 3302 X 15
0.26 ,> K~al 0.167

2.
\O that comprc,.,ion 'tee! is required.
x 0.45d- 0.45 330 = 148 mm
~I
tl' I \ 50/ 14X 0.14 < ().3R
therefore the compre~~ion \tccl ha~ yielded and Figure 7.8
'
Seam doubly reinforced to
resist a hogging moment
 1 78 Reinforced concrete design

From equation 7.3

. 1 (M - 0 167f.:•bd2}
Compress1on steel 1\ = )
0.87J;dd d'
(165 X 10~ 0.167 X 25 X 230 X 3302)
= - --
0.87 X 500(330 - 50)
= 496mm 2
Pro\ ide two H20 bar'> for A~. area 628 mm 2 • bottom 'iteel.
3. From equation 7.4
Q.J61f~kbd2 1
Tem.ion steel A, ---::-~- ~ A
0.87fyl;. '
0.167 X 25 X 2J0 X 33Q2
- - - + 496
().1{7 X 5()() X 0.82 X 330
X8H + 496 1384 mm 2
Prmide three H25 har~ for A" area 1470mm". top ~teel.
I 4. Chccl. equatton 7.5 for the area'> ot '>tccl required and prO\ 1ded for the compre-;sll)n
I
and tcn~ion remtorccment to ensure dw.:tility of the section
{/\ ~ pnw- A ~.fCIJ) ~ (1\l.prnv- A,, ,cq )
That i.,
628 496 (= 132) 1470- 1384 ( 86)mm1
5. The har areas provided arc within the upper and lower limit~> specified by the codl
To rc!.train the comJWO!.sion l.>teel, at least 8 rnm links nt 300 mm centres should ~
provided.

7.3 Design for bending of a rectangular section with

moment redi stribution
The redl\trihution of the moments obtained from the ela'>tiC analysis ol ;1 concrt
strucrurc Hil-es account of the plastic1ty of the reinforced concrete as it upproachc~
uhimatc limit srate. In <m.lcr to achieve thi1- plasticity the concrete secti()n:o. muSI
designed so that plaMic hinges can form with the yielding of the ten~ile rcinforceme
Thi~ will result in a ductile structure thut has a gradual failure at the ultimate limit 1
and nm a !.Udden cata\troph•c failure of the concrete in compress1on. To en,urc this H
place~ limits on the maximum depth of the neutral ax111 ·'"''' so that there ure high stm.
in the tension steel allowing sufficient rotmion of the section ror pla~tic hinges to for
The limit to Xt>ul is set according to the amount of redistrihution 6. Por the EC2 code it
,.bal :::: 0.8(b- 0.44)d for hL < CSO (7.L
where
h = moment at the section after reclistrihulion
moment at the ~ecuon before rcdi&~ribution

However the UK Annex to the EC2 modifies the limit to xro~ as

Xbal < (h 0.-l}d (7.6b •
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 1 7S

Table 7.1 Moment redistribution factors for concrete classes ~ CS0/60

• M.vumum permitted rediWibutton for cld$S A norm~ I ductility steel

" Maximum permitted redistribution for cl.m 8 and C hogher ductihty ~teel, ~ee sectoon I 6.2

In this chapter the examples will he ha~ed on the L K Annex·~ equation 7.6h. hut.
because many of the de~igns in the UK arc for project~ uver~ea~ which may require the
u'c or the 1!('2 1-opcci lic ati on~. example 4.9 part (a) was hascr.l on the usc of the EC2
~4ll <llion 7.6a. Also !able 7. 1. which is a copy of table 4.2, lists all the relevant design
odors such a~ l'h;oh Zbat und Kt>at for both the EC2 and the UK Annex equationl. so that
e examples on mo111cnt redi!>tribution in thi:-. chapter can be readily amended for usc in
.:rm~ of the EC2 equmton. The ratio d' fd in table 7. 1 o;ct ~ the limiting upper value for
l e yield of the comprCS\1011 Meel.
The moment redtMribuuon i'> generally carried out on the maximum momems along a
m and the'c arc generally the hogging moment~ ttl the beam~ ~>upports. Example J.9
oment rediwihu tion 'hows how the hogging moment may be n:duccd without
l!a,mg the maximum sagging moment in the bending moment envelope. Thus there
n economy un the amount of steel rcinfon.:ement requ ired and <1 reduction of the
~e,ti on of' ~tccl hur~ at the beam-column connection.
'he equa tion~ usl!U in the design procctlurc1-. that lollow arc ha~ed on the equation ~
ed tn section 4.7.

- 3 1 Singly reinforced rectangular sections with moment

cG·stribution
L'tgn procedure u~mg the equations based on the UK Annex to EC2 "
u ~ul:ne K M / fu/ 1/..1.
~e Kbnt from table 7.I, or alternatively calculate

i..~al 0.454(b - 0.4) - O. IR2{b- 0.4)~ l'or.fc~ 5. C50

here b = moment after redistribution/moment hcfore redislrihution
a check. that K < Kb.oi· Therefore compres~ton steel b not required.
180 Reinforced concrete design

3. Calculate ~=d[0.5- j(0.25 K1 1.134)]

M
4. Calculate A 5 = - -.-
o.87A,:
5. Check that the area or steel provided is within the maximum and minimum lirnll
rcquiJed.

7.3.2 Rectangular sections with tension and compression

reinforcement with moment redistribution applied
(based on the UK Annex to EC2)
TI1e \teps in the design are :
1. Calculate xb.u < (b- OA)d
2. Calculnte K = M /bd2.fck
3. Take Khnl from table 7. 1 or alternatively culcLLiatc
Kh.il 0.454( f. - 0.4) - 0. 182(b - 0.4 )2 for [cl ~ C50
If A. K~., 1 • compres<>ion 'tccl j.., required.
4. Calculate the area of comprc"ion 'tccl from
(K - Kt..,,JJ~l hd
(7.7)
J~.Jd - d')

where .f,,. i.\ the ~tre!>s in the cmnpres,ion steel

If d'/ r <" OJ8 the compre)>sion /ilCel has yielded and/,.~ O.R7(y~

I r d' / r > 0.38 then the strain c'" in the compressive ~>I eel must he calculated from
=
th(! proportions of the )>train diagram nnd .h, £,_.,._- 200 x 10 1 .._..
5. Calculate the area of tension \Lccl from
KNtfclbd: -I-A'~
O.R7ho.:. '0.87/yk
\\here ;: - d O.RxhJI/2.
6. Ch(!c(.. cquauon 7.5 fnr the area~ ol ~tecl required and the an.:u ... provided that

(1\~-ll'"'- !\~.rcc 1 ) > (A,,pto• A,,rcq)

This i~ to ensure that the depth of the neutral axis hns not exceeded th(! maximum
va[U(! of' Xb3 1 by providing Ull tlVCf-eXCC~S Of tensile reinforcement.
7. ChccJ., that the area of steel pr<Widcd il> within the maximum and minimum limit'
required.

( EXAMPLE 7.4
Design of tension and compression reinforcement, with 20 per cent moment
redistribution, 8 = 0.8 (based on the UK Annex to EC2)
The beam section sho\\n in figure 7.9 has characreri~tic mutcrial ~trengths of
r.~ 25 Nlmm 2 and f.,k 500N/mm 2 . The ultimate momt.:nl j., 370 "-N m, cau<>ing
hogging of the beam.
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 181

Figure 7.9
Beam doubly reinforced to
res1st a hogging moment

Section Strain s

1. A~ the moment reduction factor b = 0.80, the limiting depth or the neutral ax i!> ill
X - (6 - 0.4)d
= (0.8 0.4 )x 540 = 2 16mm
2. K M jlu/2}~k - 370 X 10('/(300 X 5402 X 25)
0. 169

3. Knal 0.454(b - 0.4) - 0.1R2 (~- 0.4 ) 2

0.454(0.8 0.4) - 0. 182(0.8 OA )2
() 152
K '> Kt>.J therefore compre~~ion ~teel i~ required.
1
4. tl / \ I00/ 216 0.46 ~ 0.38
therefore f.._. 0. 87/)~
From the proporuon~ or the \train diagram
. 0.0035(x - d' )
Stet:! compre!.<,Jvc Mra111 e" -
X

0.0035(2 I 6 - I 00) = O()()ISS

216 .
Steel compressive Mrc~t~ EsE'sc
= 200()0(} X 0.00188
= 376 N/111m2
Compression ~teel 1 (K Knudfckbd1
1\ - --
\ .t:.c (d tl')
(0.169 0.152 )25 X 3()() J< 54()2
= 376(540 - 100 )
224 nun 2
Provide two I 120 hars for /\;. area = 628 111111 2• hot1o111 ~tee!.

5. Tension steel
K~tfckbd2 I f...
-- +A - -
0.87/yk: ' 0.87/yk
where
-: d 0.8.\/ 2 540 - 0.8 x 216/ 2 = 454 mm
182 Reinforced concrete design

therefore
2
;\, = 0.1520.87X 25X 5()()
X 3l)() X 540
X 454
+224 X
376
- -
0.87 X 500
= 1683-'- 19-t- 1877mm1
Provide four H:?S bars for ;\. area= l960mm~. top ~tee!.
6 . Check equation 7.5 for the areas of !>teet required and provided for the compress10r
nnd ren:-.ion reinforcement w l.m!.ure ductili ty of the section
(!\~ I""' - A:. ceq) ;::: (/\,,prov - A,,rc4 )
That is
628 - :?24 ( 40-t) 1960 1877 (- 83 ) mm 2
7. Thc:.e area!-. he within the rnax1mum and minimum limits specified by the code. T ,
re)>train the compre~~ion 1>teel, at teaM 8 mrn links m 300 mm centre!> ~hould hi:
provided.

7.4 Flanged beams

Figure_ 7.10 sections through a T-benm and an L-hcam \\hich form part ol a
~how~
concrete~enm and slab tloor with the slab spanning between the beam~ and the area~
the :-.lnb n~ting as the llnngcs of the beams ns f,hown in figure 7.1 1. When the heams ..,
rc~i!.llng ),agging moments. the slab acts a~ a compn.:ssion llonge and the members rn
he de~igned as T- or L heams. With hogging moment' the slab will he in tensiOn a
a~o,umed to he cracked. therefore the beam must then be des1gncd a!-. J rectangu
\CCII on of \\ itlth b,. and overall depth h.
At in tel mediate supports of conunuous hcums where hogging moments occur t
1owl area or
ten~Jon reinforcement ~hould be spread over the effective width of tr
flnngc as shown in ligurc 7.10. Part of the reinforcement mny be conccntrnted over the
weh \\idth.
I he eltccttve flange '' idth bcu i-. specified by the following equation:
b d1 b.,. - L b~n 1

\\here
1><'1 1 1 0.2b, I 0.1/o < 0.2/o tllld also b~rr 1 b1
2h1 is the clear distanec between the webs of adjacent beams
/0 i., the diswncc hetween the point~ of contranexure along the beam as sho\\
111 tigure 7.11.

Figure 7.10
T·beam and L br<~m

d I,
..!!!!:.• _ bv.+b"'2 1- b.. _
Section Section
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 183
lz _ _ _ _ _ _l_, :_
Figure 7.11
Dimensions to be used in
the calculation or effective
zs: nange widths

lo= 0.851, 0.1 5(1, ... 12) 10 = 0.70/z lo = 0.1511 +I,

Note: (i) the length ol the cantilever should be less than hall the length or the adJacent span
(ii) tht rat•o of ad1acent span lengths should be between 0.67 and 1 .50

b.,
b•• ,

b_l __ _

So that for the intenor ~pan of a ~ymmetncal T-heam "-ith h 1 lh 1/ and /0 =0.7/
brrr h.,., +2 0.2b' -1 0.071J b" + 1 O.l -'1
For ~ugging moments the flange), uct a~ a large compre~'ive areu rherefore the \Ires~
bh:k for the Hanged hearn \Cction U\ually fall!> within the tlange tlucknc~'· l·or tht!>
po~ition of the \trc'' hlod... the \Cction may be designed as an cqutvulent rectangular
\Cclion of breadth h1 •
Tran~ver11e retnfon:cmcnt .'lhould he placed aero~' the full width of the flange to re.,t\1
the 11hear developed hetween the web and the flange. a., dcscnbed 111 l>Cctton 5.1.4. Qutte
often thi\ reinforcement is adequately provided for hy the top !lteel of the hcnding
reinforcemen t tn the \lah supported by the beam.

Design procedure for a flanged beam subject to a sagging moment

1. Cu leulatc
hrd :fck
~ and determine lu !'rom the lever-ann cttrvc of figure 7.5 or from
equm ion 7.I
lever arm ~ /Jd and the depth of the stres~ block ~ = 2(d - ~)
rr ~ <' h the strc~s block falls within the flange depth. and the design mny proceed a~
for a rectongu lar 1.ection. breadth h1• On the very few occasion~ that the ncutrnl axi~.
doc:-. fall bclov. the flange, reference should be made to the methOlh dcscnbed in
\Cction 4.6.2 for u full analysi),.

2. De!.t£!n tranwcro;e \teel in the top of the flange to rcsi~t the longitudmal \hear
Mre,se~ at the flange- \\Cb interface (see section 5.1.-J).
These longitudinal shear Mre,,es are a maximum where the 'lopes dM / d\ ol the
hcnding moment envelope arc the greatest. That i~ (a) in the regton of tcro moment
for the span .'lagging moments, and (b) the region of the maximum momenh for the
hogging moment~ at the :,uppon....
184 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 7.5

Design of bending and transverse reinforcement for aT-section

A simply supported beam has <l span /, = 6.0 m and has the nangcd c ros~-section sho\\ ,
in figure 7. 12. The charactcrbtic material strengths arc f~k = 25 N/mm 2 an I
f~L - 500 N/mm:! and the ultimate design uniformly distributed toad W11 is 44 kN p.:
metre.

Figure 7.12
T-beam

,.
v•a\lmum ....a.en
T
.. d'mg moment at mlu-,pan
..I •
t!t
.w X-6~
M =- I90o kNm
8

(1) Longttudinal reinforcement

M 19X X 106
0.047
/1r rf2./~k 600 x 5301 x 25
From the lever-arm curve. ligurc 7.5. Ia = 0.95, therefore
h:vcr arm ;: = l,,d 0.95 x 530 503 mm
depth of strcsl. block v '2(d ~) 2(530 - 503 )- 54 mm ( < lrr)
Thu' the qres-; block hcs "11lun the Oangc
M 19R )( 101'
1\ ,
0.87/yl;: 0.87 X 5()() X 5()3
905 mm ~
Provide 1wo H25 bar~. area 982 mm 2• For these bars
IOOA, 100 x 982
b.,d = 250 X 53() 0.74 per cent > 0. 13

Thus the ~ted percentage " grcutcr than the minimum specified b) the Code of Pmctice.

(2) Transverse steel in the flange

The design foliOWl> the procedure~ anti equations set out in ~>CCtion 5. 1.4

(i) Calculate the design longitudinal shear vEd at the web-flange interface
For a 'lagging moment the longitudinal ~)hear stre.~ses arc the greatest over a distance of
~x mcu.~urcd from the point of :t.ero moment and .6..\ i:. tal...cn tl'> half the diswnce to the
maximum moment at mid-:,pan. or~'= 0.5 x L/ '2. = L/ 4 = 1500mm.
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 185

TI1en.:forl.! the change in moment :::C.M over distance 6x =L/ 4 from the tero
moment i~
ll 'u XL L ll'u X I. L 3wuL2 3 X 44 X 6~
-->(- - - X -= - - = 1491-.:--!m
2 4 4 8 32 32
The change in longttudtnal force .J.F at the Hange- web interface ''

~Fd = .J.Af >< bto

(d - hr/2) b,
where b1., is the breadth of Hange outstanding from the web.
Thus

~M (b1 b" )/2 .

.J.Fcl (t - ,, / "_) x - --. a:, gtven on page 11 0
1 1 1,,
=_ 14() X~ X (600 ~ 250)/ 2 kN
96
(530 150/2) I 600
The longitudinal shear l>tre),s ~~~ i nducud is
D.Fd 96 X 10'
0.43 N/mm~
(It, ) U.l )- 150 )< 1500

(ii) Check the strength of the concrete strut

From equation 5.17. to prevent cru~hing of the compres~ive ~trut in the !lange
0 6( I j~lf''!.50 )J.~
l' t d <
- I 5(cot 01 tan fl1)

fhc moment... arc 'aggmg 'o the nange i,} in compre,~ton and the lun11' tor 81 an:
26.5 o, 45
with Or th~.: mimmum value of 26.5

.'. l'ftll mto\1 - 0.6( I 25/ 250) x 25 = 5.4 ( > O.•H N/mm1)
(2.0 0.5)
and the concrete ~ trut has ~ufh cient ' trength with () 26.5 (lor a nungc in ten&it1n the
limit~ on{) arc 45' > 0 > 38.6 · or 1.0 cot (J :S 1.25).

(Iii) Design transverse steel reinforcement

Transver~e shcllr reinforcement is rcquirl.!d if ,., d ;> 0.27fc 1 ~ where ./~ 11, i!. the
charac1eriM ic axial tensile Mrength of concrete.! (= l.XN/mm1 for clu~>s 25 concrete).
The maximum allowable va lue of ''Ed - 0.271_.~ = 0.27 o< I.H 0.49 N/mm2
( • 0.43) and transvur!.c ~hear reinforcement i~ therefore not reqlllrctl.
A minimum area of 0.13t:f, of tranwerse steel should he provided :h given in table 6.8
or in tahle A3 1n the Appendix.
lienee

A,1 = 0 13bh 1 100 1 0. 13 1000 x 150j 100 195 mm1/m

=
Pro' ide 1110 har' at 300 mm centre' 262 mm 2/m (see table A.3 111 the Appendix ).
Longitudinal remforcemem :.hould also be provided in the flange a\ !>ho'' n in
figure 7.12.
186 Reinforced concrete design

7.5 One-span beams

The following example <.bcribe~ the calculations for designing the bending
reinforcement for a simply supported beam. II b1ings together many of the items from
the prcvioul> sections. The :,hear rcinfon.:cmcnt for this beam is de:;igned later in
example 7. 7.

( EXAMPLE 7.6
Design of a beam - bending reinforcement
The beam shO\\n in tigure 7. 13 :-.upports the foliO\\ing uniform!) di~tributed loads
pennllncnt ;oad Kl ()0 1-N/m. including self-weight
v:1r1ahl ~ load lfk = I RkN/m
The eharact~-istic
\lrengrhs of the concrete and :.tcel arc ./:k 30 N/mrn2 ami
/~1 500 N/mm". Effective tkpth. d 540 rnm anti breadth, /1 ~()0 mm.

Figure 7.13
One·span beam-bendmg
-480
2Ht6

2H32 + lHlS

6.0m

(a) Ultimate loading and maximum moment

Ultunatc load Hu = (1.35g, 1.5q,) kN/m
= (I Vi 60 -+ I 5 I H)
X I 08 k.N/tn

thcrdure
108 ' 6.01
max1mum tlc~.,1gn moment M ~86 kN 111
8 8

(b) Bending reinforcement

M 486 X 1011
K
lui'f.:k = 300 x 5-J.O"W
0.185 , KbJ.l = 0.167
1 herdore enmprc~-.ion re10forccment. A~ 1~ reqUJred.
ct 1d 50 5-tO 0.09::! 0.171 111 table 7.1. therefore/..:= 0.87/>l
I (A At.llklbd~
Cornpn:~~ion ~teel
A, = f ... (t! d')
(O.IK5 0.167) X 3U X 300 >( 5402
=- 0.!:!7 X 500(540- 50)
Provide two H 16 bar:., A~ = ~02 mm 2
2
Tcn~ion ..tccl. A, =0.167[.du/
0.87{~1~
- A~
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 187

50% 100% 50% Figure 7.14

Simplified rules for curtailment
of bars in beams
lin; 0.08l_
rom
r m Simply supported

where. from the lever arm curve of figure 7.5 /3 - 0.82. Thus
0.167 X '\() X 30() ~ 5~0~
A~ =-- + 2')'l
__
0.87 X 500 X (0.82 ~ 54())
2275 + 222 2497 mm 2
Provide two 1132 har~ and two H25 bar:.. area 2592 mm 2 , IOOA,/bd 1.6 > 0. 15.
(c) Curtailment at support
The rension reinf'on:cment shnuh.l he anchored over the supportll with a hend as shown in
figure 7. 14 which i1. ba~cd on past UK practice. Two b:m, may he curtai led ncnr to the
su pport~>.

(d) Span- effective depth ra tio

f1 100. 1, ......41 /bd ( 100 x 2~97)/(300 540) U4 per cent
From tuhle 6 10 or figure 6.3 ba~ic span-effective depth ratio l..f
Modification fur !'ltccl area prov1ded:
2592
Modified ratio 1-Ul x
2497
= 14 5
Span cffcctin: depth rauo provided = 6000
540
= 11 .1
which Ill lcl-\ than the allowable upper limit. thu). deflection rcqturement-, arc likely to he
sati.,licd.

7.6 Design for shear

Th~; theory and design requirements for :.hc(ll' were covered in chapter 5 and the relevam
design equation!> were derived bused on the requirements of EC2 u~ ing the Variable
Strut Inclination MetJ10u.
The ~ heur reinforcement wi ll usually take the form of vertical lin~~ nr a combination
of l i n~ s and bent-up bars. Shear reinforcement may not he required in very min<ll' hcam~
~uch a~ door or window lintel~ with short ~pan~ of le-,:-. than say 1.5 mctn:1> uno light
loads.
The following notation ~~ U!>ed in the equation~ for the \hear de,ign
A\,. the cro,:.-~ectionul area of the two legs of the slirrup
,\ the -,pacing of the \tirrups
:: the lever arm between the upper and lower chord member~ or the
analogou-; tn1ss
f~.., 0 the design yteld ~trength of the stirrup reinforcement
188 Reinforced concrete design

f.11 the cbaractcri),tic strength of the stirrup reinforcement

VEd - the !>hear force due to the action!> at the ult1mate limit state
v\\J = the shear force in the stirrup
VRtl , = the shear resistance of the stirrups
VRd.ma\ the maximum design value of' the shear which can be resisted by th~
concrete strut
\I
7.6.1 Vertical stirrups or links
The procedure for dc~igning the shear links i~ as follows

1. Calculate the ultimate de~ign shear force' Vw along the beam ·s span.
2. Check the crushing .,trength VR11. m:u of the concrete diagonal 'itntt at the ~ection l
maximum shear, usually at the face of the heum support.
For most c;.u;cs the angle of inclination of the strut is () 22°, with col() = 2.3
and tan 0 0.4 so that from equation 5.6:
~I!J 111 , = 0.124/>.. d( l - / ck/ 250)/ck (7.9 •
and if VRJ , m11 , 2: Vr'd then go to Mcp (3) with fJ 22 nnd cot 0 - 2.5
but if VKJ mnx < V1" then () > 22 and 8 mu~t be calculated from equation 7.10 ..

fJ () 5 ,in 1 { - V&~ } < 45

O. !Mb.. tlj,d l - .f, k/ '250) -
(7.10 •

3. The shear links required can be C<th.:ulutcd from equation 7.11

Aw Vtu
(7. 11 •
0.7Hdf~k cot 0

\\here A"' 1' the cro~l>-ilecuonul area of the leg!. of the surrup' (2 x 7HJ 2/4 for ~ing
stirrups)
ror a predominately uniformly distributed loatlthc shear vl(d should be tuken at "
distanced from the face of the support and the shear remforccment ~hould continu~
w the lace of the supp<.>rt.
4. Culculate the minimum ltnJ.. ... requtred by EC2 from

A," mlu O.O~fc~· 5 b.,.. (7. 12 •

- .\' ;--}~k

nnd the ~hear resistance for the !Jnks actually specifred

\1111111
A," o · n
- X 0 . 7od/v~ COtv (7. 13 .
.$ •'

Thi~ value 'hould he marked on the shear force envelope to show the extent of the~
link!:. a' 'hov.n in figure 7.16 of example 7.7.
5. Calculate the additional longitudtnul ten~ile force cuusetl by the shear force
6F1<1 = 0.5\IE.JCOtB (7.14)•
This additional tensile force increases the curtailment length of the tension bars a'
shown in section 7.9.
 Design of reinforced concrete beams

Figure 7.15
Types of shear link

Open hnk Closed link / Multiple lonk

~by the

The minimum spacing of the links is governed by the requirements of placing and
compacting 1he concrete and should not normally be less than about 80 mm. EC2
gives the following guidance on the maximum link spacmg:

(a) Maximum longitudinal ~pacing berween shear lin~s in a serie' of link~

S1 mox = 0.75d(l I cot a)
~ction of
where (t is the inclination of the shear reinforcement to the longitudinal axis of
the beam.
ote = 2.5
(h) Mnximum transverse spacing between legs in a serie1. of shenr links
.111 mu~ 0.75d ( ::; 600mm)
(7 .9)*

Types ol links or &tirrups arc shown in figure 7. 15. t he open link" an.: u"ually u~ed
m 7.10 a!> in the span of the beam with longitudinal '\teet wn~i~ung of top hanger hars and
hotlom tensile remforcemcnt. The do~ed links arc u'ed to enclo'e top and bottom
(7.10)* reinforcement such as lhal ncar to the -;upports. Multiple linh nrc u!-.ed when there
arc high shear forces to be re~isted.

(7. 11 )*
( EXAMP LE 7.7

· 1r 'iingle Design of shear reinforcement for a beam

ai.;en at n Shear reinforcement b to be designed for the one-span hearn of example 7.6 as 'hown in
I ~ont inue figures 7.11 nnd 7.16. The total ultimate load i1> 10~ kN/metrc und the characteristic
~ Lrcngths of the concrete and Mcel arc ./~l =
30 ~lmm~ und ./y< 500 N/mm'.

1.45m
~I Figure 7.16
p. l2)* ~ 308kN Non·contlnuous beam-she
~ SR nofllln~t lmks .-

151kN ..,..- ~ relnforcement

I 1 ~51kN
(7. 13)* 308 kN [ - ~ I
SF d1agram

1 of these 9 H8 It 200 HS links@ 350 9- H8 Cill 200

7. 14)*
m bars a:.
190 Reinforced concrete design

(a) Check maximum shear at face of support

Maximum design l>hear = '''u x effective span/ 2 - 108 x 6.0/ 2 = 324 k.N
Design shear at face of ~upport \'Ed= 324 - 108 x 0.15 = 3081-.N
Crushing ~trergth VRd rna' of diagonal strut, assuming angle (J = 22 . COl B= 2.5 is
VRd. max OJ?4b"'d{1 - f..l /250}(r~
= 0 124 x 300 ) 5-tO(I - 30/ 250) X 30 x 10--'
530 kl'\ ( > \'F.t 308 kN)
Therefore angle B = 22' and cot B = 2.5 as n'sumcd.

(b) Shear links

At distance d from face of support the de~ign ~hear i~ \'F..s 308 - '''ud =
308 - 108 x 0.54 =- 250 kN
A,w ll~,;o
.1 0.7Rd(,~ cot()
250 10 1
0.475
0.7!\ 540 x 500 2.5
Using table !\.4 tn thl! Appendix
Provide 8 mm links at 200 mm l:Cntres. A "/ 1 = 0.503.

(c) Minimum links

0.0~(1t 5 hw
- ,,k-
0 ()!{ X 3()0 < X 100
0.26
500
Provide 8mm links at350mm centres. A,w/ 1 0.287.
The shear rc~istance of the links actually specified i~

\fm•n - ' '"

~
v 0.78t/J;. k cot lJ
= 0.287 x 0.78 x 540 500 x 2.5 Ill' = 1511-.N

(d) Extent of shear links

Shear link\ are required at each end of the hcam from the face of the support to the point
11here the de~tgn ~hear force '" 1'm m = 1511..'1 as shown on the \hear force diagram of
figure 7.16.
From the face of the support

dt~tance 1
ll'u
308 LSI
1.45 metre~
108
Therefore the number of H8 links at 200 mm centres required at each end of the beam is
1 -t( \ 1) 1+ ( 1450/ 200) =9
!>paced over a dbtance of (9 - 1)200 = 1600mm.
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 19

(e) Additional longitudinal tensile force

.J.F,d = 0.5\lld COl 0

0.54'308 J( 2.5
=385kN
This additional longitudinal ten~ile force is provided for by extending the curtailment
l pomt of the mid-1.pan longitudinal reinforcement a~ di,cu!.sed in ).ection 7. 9.

7.6.2 Bent-up bars to resist shear

= In regions of high ~>hear forces it may be found that the usc of links to carry the full force
wil l e<wsc steel congestion and lead to constructional prohlems. In these situutions.
consideration should he gi ven to 'beuding up· main reinforcement which is no longer
required to re~>ist bending forces but can be so used to re!.ist part of the ~>hear.
The eq uation~ for dc11igning this type of shear reinforccml.!nt and thi.! additional
longitudinol tension fore!.! were derived in chapter 5 and arc given below

A,,. ~~~~~
0.78tif..,dcot o + cot 0) sin n
~Fu1 0 5 V&~ ( COl 0 - cot ll )

"hl.!rc o 1s the angle ol tnclinallon "ith the horitontal olthe belli up har.
Bent up har-; muM be fully anchored paM the point at'' hich they arc acttng a' ten-.ion
mcmhcrs. a'> W<L<; indicated 111 figure 5.5.
EC2 al-.o require., that the maXJmum longtLUdinalllpacmg of bent-up har' i' limited to
0.6d( I cm o ) and at leaq 50 per cent of the required shear retnlorcement \lwuld he tn
thi.! form of \hear links.

7.7 Continuous beams

Beams. ~ labs and columns of :1 ca~t in .1i1U structure nil m:t together to fnrm a Cl>ntinuou~
lond·bcaring strtH.:turc. The rein forccment in a conti 11t1ous beam mu~t be de:-.igned and
derailed to maintain lhi~ continuity by connecting adjacent sp11ns and tying together the
1"101111 benm nnd its supporting column!>. There must al:-.o be trnnsvcr'c rcinf'orcement to unite
_ ~ of
the ~ lnb nnd the benm.
The bending-moment envelope is generally a 'cries of sagging moment). in the spans
and hogging moments at the supports as in figure 7.17, hut occasionally the hogging
moments may extend completely 0\·Cr the ).pan. Where the snggmg moments occur the
hcam and -;lab act together. and the beam can he des1gned a~ a T-scdion. At the
supports. the heam must be designed a.s a rectangular ~ec11on because the hogging
moment~ cuu-;e ten~ton 111 the slab.
The moment of reo;1stance of the concrete T-bcam 'ection 1s l>Ome\\hat greater than
-mts that of the rectangular concrete section at the support\. Hence it I') often advantageous
to rcdbtrihu tl.! the support moments as described in chapter 3. B) this means the
de~ign !>upport moment). can be reduced and the de-.ign -.pan moments possibly
increased.
192 Reinforced concrete design

Design of the beam follows the procedures and rule~ set out in the previous section,
,--- -o~erfactors v. hich have to be con),idered in the detailed design are as follow\:
1. At an exterior column the beam reinforcing bars which resist the design moment'
must ha\e an anchorage bond length within the column.
2. In monolithic construction where a l-imple ~upport has been lll.!>umed in the
structural analysis. partial fix.iry of atlcast 25 per cent of the ~pan moment should be
allowed for in the design.
3. Reinforcement in the top of the \lao must pa<;\ over the beam steel and still have the
necessary coYer. Th1' must be con\idered \\hen detailing the beam reinforcement
and when deciding the effective depth of the heum at the :-.upport sections.
4. rhe column and beam reinforcement must be carefully detnilcd so that the bars can
pa.\s through the junction' without interference.
Figure 7.17 illustrate!:> n typical armngement of the bending rcmforcement torn two-
~>pnncontinuous beam. The rcinl'orcemcm hal> been arranged with reference to the
bending-moment envelope and in accordance with the rules for anchorage ru1d

Figure 7.17
Continuous beam
B.M Envelop!!
arrangement or bending
remforcement
 Design of reinforced concrete beams

curtailment dc....cnbed in section 7.9. The application of these rule!'. establishes the cut-
off point~ beyond wblch the bars must extent! at leal>t a curtailment anchorage length. It
should be noted that at the external columns the reinforcement ha-. been bent to gi\'e a
ful l anchorage hond length.
The shear-force envelope and the arrangement of the !.hear reinforcement for the
10 the same continuou~ beam are shown is figun.: 7.18. On the shear-force envelope the
uld be resistance of the minimum stirrups has heen marked and this show~ the length~ of the
beam which need shear reinforcement. When de~igning the shear reinforcement.
reference should be made l<l the arrangement of bending re1nforcement to ensure that
cment the longitudinal tcn:-.ion bar:-. used to establi:-.h \'R 11 , extend at least d -lbd beyond the
section being considered.
·..,can

( EXAMPLE 7. 8

Design of a continuous beam

and
=
The be41m hal> a Width, bw 300 mrn and an overall depth, /1 660 mm with three equnl
. . pans. L 5.0. In the tranwcr'c direction the beam'i ~pacing'> arc 8 4.0 m centre' =
\\Jlh a slah th1ckness. lrr = 180 mm. a!> :.hown in ligures 7.19 and 7.20. The ~uppm1~>
have a width of 300 mm.
The unifonnl} distributed ulttmutc dl.!~ig.n load. 11" = 190 kN/m. The ultirnatl.! design
mome nt~> and ),hcurs near mid-~ pan und the support~ nrc shown in 1igurc 7.19.
The characterbtic 'trcngth~ of the concrete and ~ted arc ./,k = 'O '-'/mm' and
fy~ 500 N/mm,.

0 523 523 0
Moment M (kNm) Figure 7.19
I 428 333 428 Continuous beam wtth
ultimate de~ign bendtng
Shear V(kN) 427 570 522 522 570 427 1
moments and shear rorces
ol
At
1. s.om
8
t S.Om C
l L 5.0m I
shown

F• 1.3SG, ~ 1 SOQ,

Total ultimate loud em each ),pnn b

r 190 x5.0 950kN

Design for bendmg

(a) Mid-span of 1sl and 3rd end spans - design as a T-seclion
Moment .[!8 k.N m sngging
Lffectivc width of Hange
ben hw + 2t0.2b' + 0. 1 x 0.851.1 ( :5 ""' + 2[0.2 x O.X5Lj) (see fi gure 7. 11 )
= 300 :! 1(0.2 > (2000- 300, 2)) t (0.085 x 5000)J - 1890 mm
bw + 2[0.2 X 0.85/.l = 300 + 2[0.2 X 0.85 X 5000] = 2{)()0 mm
Therefore br - btu = 1890 mm.
194 Reinforced concrete design

428 X 1011
1890 X 600~ X 30 - (}.():!2

From the le' er-ann cur"e of figure 7.5. 1. =0.95. therefore

~ = 0.95 x 600 = 570mm
and
d ;: 600 - 570 = 30 ( < ,, ( 1)
so that the ~tress block mu~t lie within the 180 mm thick flange and the eel ion i
designed as a rectangular section with b = b1•
M
A, = 0.87}~k;:
X J0
6
= 0.!!7428
X 50() X 570
- l?Jomm·
,

Provide lhn:c TI25 bars and two Hl 6 hnr~. area = IH72mm2 (hotlom ~teel).

(b) Interior supports - design as a rectangular section

M 523 ~ m hogging
A/ 523 X (()(I
0.173 > 0.167
btf]}, k 3()() !\ 5802 X 30
Therefore. compres<;ton steel i' required.
(K K'lf-~btl'
0.87j;dcl - d')
(0.173 - 0.167) '< 10 100 x sxo'
=- -O.H7 X 500(580 50)
Thb :.mall area of reinforcement can be prt)\ tdcd h) e\tcnding the bottom :.pan bar~
bcyoml the i merna I supports.
From the le\er arm curve (Jf figure 7.5 1., 0.82. therefore:
0.167fckbtf1 1
--::-~:--- +A
0.87/y~~ •
0. 167 X 3() X ]()() X 580~ +
79
O.X7 X 500 x (0.82 x 580)
24-l4 I 79 - 2523 mmz

Provide four H25 bars plu~ two IT20 bar~. :1rea 2588 mm 2 (top !>ICe(). The arrangement
or the reinforcement is shown in figure 7.20. At end support A two 1125 har~ have been
provided a' top continuity ~ted to meet the requirement ol item (2) in section 7.7.

(c) Mid-span of interior 2nd span BC - design as aT-section

M = 333 kN m. sagging
From figure 7 . II. cffccti\'c flange \\ idlh
bttr =- b.., +2[0.:!b' + 0.1 x 0.70L]( < bv. + 2[0 2 v 0.70/, )
=- 300-:! (0.2 x (2000 300/ 2)) (0.07 x 5000)1 1740 mm
h.., I :![0.2 x 0.7L] = 300 + 2[0.:! > 0.7 ) 5000] = 1700mm
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 19~

H8 @ 200 !.-- H8 @ 300 H10@ 200

Figure 7.20
2-H25 4-H25 2· H20 End-span remforcement
details
>

II
3-H25
... II
2-H16

ls5.0m_ __

2525 25
..
1~ 300
252525

Sections rn1dspan near the interior support

Calculating M /( brcPf<d and u~ing the lever-ann curve. it i-. found that 1. 0.95
M 333 X 106
A,=--.- 13-B mm'
0 87})~ ~ 0.87 X 500(0.95 >. 600)
Provtde three 112'5 har.... area = 1470 mm2 (hottom ~tccl ).
Design for shear
(a) Check for crushmg of the concrete strut at the maximum shear force
N'laxtmum !>hear i\ 111 spans AB and CD at supports D and (',
At the face ot the support~
V~.J 570 ll'u X support Width/ 2
570 190 x 0.15 = 542 kN
Cru ~hi 11g ~trenglh of diagonal ~t1111 i~

IlK~. "~"~ - 0. 124bwd( I .kk/ 250Kk assuming angle {) 22' , cot() 2.5
= 0.124 x 300 x 600( I - 30/ 250) x 30 = 589 ~N ( > Vm 542 kN)
nt
Therefore angle () 22 and cot fJ ::.?..5 for all the ~hear calculation ~.
been
(b) Design of shear links
(i) Shear li11k.l in end rpan.s at ~ upporrs A and D
Shear distanced from face of suppon b Vl:d = 427 - 190 x (0.1 5 + 0.6) 285 kN
A,,. VF..s
...,.:.:..:~~
~ 0.78df,l cotO

= 0.78 X 2R5 > 10'

- -,-=0.49
600 X 5()() X -·5
Provide 118 linb at 200 mm centres. Aw. j s 0.50 (Table A4 in Appendix)
196 Reinforced concrete design

Additional longitudinaJ tensile force is

~/·,d =0.5VEdcot B
- 0.5 X 285 X 2.5
=3561-.N
This additional longttudinal tcn~ile force is prO\ ided for by extending the curtailment
point of the longitudinal reinforcement, as discus~ed in !.CCtion 7.9
(ii) Shear lin/.. f in end 1pans at 1'11pports 8 and C
Shear Vhu distance d fmm face of support is
VEd 570 190(0.15 - 0.58)
= 431 kN
Therefore:
I\"' Vtu
0. 78t(fv~ col 0
43 1 X [() -'
-- - - - -2.5
-
0.78 < 580 ')()() I(

0.762
Provide 1110 link~ a1 200 mm ccmrc~. A .,. /s =0 762 (Table A4 in Appendix)
Additional longitudinal ten~1lc force 1s
~~ ~~~ 0.5 \'1.1 cot U
0.5 ~ 431 "2.5
539 ~N
I hb additional longiludinal tcn~de force is provided for by extending the curnulment
point of the longitudinal reinforcement. a~ di~cus\ed in section 7.9.
(iii) Shear fink.1 in middle span IJC til mpport.\ B and C
Shear d"tance d from the face of ~uppurt = 522- 190(0. 15 I 0.6) 380kN.
The calculatiOnS for the shear links \o\OUid be ~imilar 10 thol>c for the other supports in
sections (i) and (ii) giving IOmm link'> at 225mm centres.
fhe :~ddition:~l longitudinal ten,de force. F1.t 0.5 3RO 2 5 475 kK
(i1•) Minimum 1/tear lin/.. v

O.O~f:~ ~ h""
A,.,., mm
--=-y;:-
o.ox 30°5 300
---
500
= 0.:!63
Provitle HR link~ m 300 mm spadng. A,w Is = 0.335 (Table A4 in Appendix).
Shear resi~tancc of links prm ided
Asw
Vmon =-X
s 0.78d/~1
. ' cotB
=0.335 X 0.78 X 600 X 500 X 2.5 X )()

l96k~
 "\\
I

Design of reinforced concrete beams 197

( 1') £trem of vhear links

Links to re:.i't ~hear are required over a dist<mce x, from the face of the supports to the
point on the shear force diagram where the shear can be re!>isted by Vn1m 196 k~. a.., =
provided by the mimmum linl.s.
For the face of the end supports A and D the distance r 1 i!>
VF.1-V
~ ~-0.15
ll'u
427 196
= -0.15=l.07m
190
For the interior ~upports B and C of the I st and 3rd spans
570 196
.r2 0. 15 = I.S2m
190
For rhe links nL ~upporti> 8 and C in the middle spun
522 196
.\~ - 0.15- 1.57m
190
Based on these dimcm.ions the link!. are arranged as shown in figure 7.20.
l ------------------------------------------~)
--

7.8 Cantilever beams and corbels

The effective .,pan of a cantilever JS e1ther Ca) the length to the face of the -;upport plm,
half the O..:am's overall depth, h or (b) the distance to the centre of the ~uppon 1f the
beam " contlnuou....
The moment-., 'hear:. and deflections for a cantilever beam arc l>Uh'ltanually grcatc1
than tho~c for a beam that 1s l>Upponed at both ends \\.ith an equivalent load. Aho the
moment:-. in a canlllcvcr can ne\'er be red1'ilributed to other part\ of the 'ltructurc the
beam mullt alway!. he capable of resisting the full static moment. Occausc of these
factor~. and the pmhlcms thut often occur with increased detlections due to creep, the
design and detailing of a cuntilcvcr Ileum !.hould be done with cnre.
Particular aucntion ~hnu ld he paid to the anchorage into the support of the top tcn~ion
reinforcement. The steel should he anchored ut rhe support by. nt the very leust, a full
maximum anchorage length hcyond the end of its effective spnn. Some de~ooign orli<.:cs
11pecify nn anchorage length equal LO the length of the <.:anlilcver, mostly to avoid !>lecl
lixing error) on site.
Load~ on n cantilever can cause the adj<lCCnl interior span w I)C stlhjectcd to a
hoggi ng moment over all or mo~t of its span. The critical loading pattern for this
condition ~hould be as shown in figure 7.21 where the maximum load on the cantilever
together with minimum load on the interior span could cau!.c a hogging moment to
occur in 1he interior span.

1 35C + 1 SQ,
1.0G, Figure 7.21
Cantilever loadtng pattern

~endtng moments
198 Reinforced concrete design

7.8.1 Design of corbels

A corbel. as shown in figure 7.22 is cons1dered to be a ~hort cantilever when
OAI!, :::; a, :::; he where h, is the depth of the corbel at it\ junction with the column and
a" b tile distance from the face of the column to the hearing of the vertical force. F bJ·
When the \·ertical load has a stijj' bearing a, may he measured to the edge of the
bearing but where a flexible beanng 1<; u~ed a, i' mea,urcd to the vertical force.
Corbels can be de~igned as a stnll-and-ue 'Y'tem <L'> illu!ttrated tn figure 7.'22. In the
figure the \'erticalload FEd at point B 1s resi!.ted by the force Fed in the inclined concrete
stnlt CB and the force F1d Ill the horilllntal steel tie AB.
The design and de1ailing of a cnrhel has the following requirements:

1. The bearing stress of the load on the corhel directly under U1e lond should nut
exceed 0.*8( I - j~~ /250)/~~.
2. A horizontal force H~:.d 0.2Fr J must nlso be re:-isted. Thii. force acts at rhe level ol
the Wp of the bearing, a diMance ar r nbove the horitonlul tic.
3. The main tension steel. A, "'''1" must be fully :111chored into the column and the other
end of these bars must he welded to an anchorage device or loopfl of reinforcing
hars.
4. The ungle of inclination, (J of the compression \trut must he within the limn,
22 ~ 0 :::; 45°. or 2.5 ~ cotiJ ~ 1.0.
5. The dc-,ign ~tress.f~d of the c.:oncrctc strut mu~t not exceed (nu.kkhc)l•r where:
''r - 0.6( I - /..1../'250)
o,.. = 0.85
-., = 1.5. the part1al factor ol ~al ety for concrete in compression.
Therefore f~<~ mu~t not exceed 0 1-lf,d I ./,L/'150)
6. llorizontal linf.s of total area A hnk ~hould he prm idcd to confine the concrete in the
compres'>ion strut and I: A, ltn~ 0.5/\, mJ"' .

The strut and tie system of design

Tht.: forces on a corhcl produce n complex comhinutinn or stre~ses due to bearing. shcnr.
direct compression, direct tension nnd hending concentrated into a small urea. The strut
and tie system combined with good detailing i:-. able to simplify the design 10 produce a
workable and safe design.
Figure 7.22 shows the corbel with the inclined strut RC at un angle fJ to the horizontal
tie AB. The force in the strut is Feu and F,d in the horizontal tic respectively. Point B i'
distance a' (ac -r 0.2aH ) from the face of the column because of the effect of 1hc
honzontal force. HEd ( = 0.2,..,~).
From the geometry of the triangle ABC. the lever ann depth is given b)
;; = (a, -t 0.2an) tan 0.

(a) Force in the concrete strut, F,d

The dc~1gn stress for the concrete strut IS/.:.r 0 . 34/..~ ( I f,~ /250 ) . From the gcometl)
of figure 7.22 the width of the concrete strut mca.,urcd vertically is 2(d ;;). Hence. the
width uf the strut measured at right angles to ih axis b given by '''wu1 2(d- ;;) cos (J
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 199

a'

-v·· Figure 7.22

Strut and tie system in a corbel

l
2(d

2(d- L)cosO '

'
,,
v

Thus the force Fn1 ill the concrete strut is

/·~~~ = }~d X ~1 \uul X bw

(7. 15)
= }~d x 2{d ;:) x bwcosO

where b" is the width of the corbel.

(b) Angle of inclination, £1 of the concrete strut

Rc~oh ing vertically at point B:
/~oJ \in 0 - /cd )( 2(d z) x b.. > cosO x -.inO
.: kiJ X (t/ a' tan O)b,. Stn 20

Re:urangtng

I· F..t
(7. 16)
f~udbv.

Thi!- equation cannot be solved directly for f) but table 7.2 (overleaf), which has been
developed directly !'rom equation 7.16, can be used.

(c) Main tension steel, As,maln

Re~o lving horiwntally at B. the force F,J in the steel tie is given hy
F,d I· c1t cos 0 Fc.J ~;os ()/ ~in 0 FFJ cot B

The towf force F~ in the steel tie. including the effect of the hori1ontal force of0.2Ft.d•
io; given by

F;d FEdcot8 t 0.2fht

(7. 17)
= FEd(COl 0 t 0.2)

The area of main tension steel, A, m.un• i~ given by

A,. maon = F;d /O.R~f)l (7.18)

200 Reinforced concrete design

Table 7.2 Values of 0 to satisfy equation 7.16

H f[d
(degs) f,ddbw
d d= 1 d d~ . 9 d d- .8 d id - 7 d d - .6 d d- 5 d ld- .4
22 0.429 0.458 0.487 0.516 0.545 0.574 0.603
23 0.400 0.429 0.459 0.488 0 .518 0.547 0.577
24 0.371 0.401 0.431 0.461 0.490 0.520 0.550
25 0.343 0.373 0.403 0.433 0.463 0.493 0.523
26 0.315 0.345 0.375 0.405 0.435 0.466 0.496
27 0.288 0.318 0.348 0.378 0.408 0.438 0.468
28 0.262 0.292 0.321 0.351 0.381 0.411 0.440
29 0.236 0.266 0.295 0.324 0.354 0.383 0.412
30 0.211 0.240 0.269 0.298 0.327 0.356 0.385
31 0.187 0.216 0.244 0.272 0.300 0.328 0.357
32 0.164 0.192 0.219 0.247 0.274 0.301 0.329
33 0.143 0.169 0.195 0.222 0.248 0.275 0.301
34 0.122 0.147 0.172 0.198 0.223 0 248 0.274
35 0.103 0.126 0.150 0.174 0.198 0.222 0.246
36 0.085 0.107 0.129 0.152 0.174 0.197 0.219
37 0.068 0.089 0.109 0.130 0.151 0.172 0.193
38 0.053 0.072 0.091 0.110 0.129 0.147 0.166
39 0.040 0.056 0.073 0.090 0.107 0 124 0.141
40 0.028 0.043 0.057 0.072 0.086 0.101 0.115
41 O.Q18 0.030 0.042 0 054 0.067 0.079 0.091
42 0 010 0.020 0.029 0.039 0.048 0.057 0.067
43 0.005 0.011 0.018 0 024 0 031 0.037 0.044
44 0.001 0.005 0.008 O.Q11 0 015 0.018 0.021
45 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

( EXAMPLE 7.9

Design of a corbel

l)esign the reinforcement for the corbel ~hown in figure 7.23. The cor·hcl ha~ u breadth
h 350 mm and supports an ultimate load of Vhl 400 1--N at a tli!.lancc ac - 200 mm
from the face of the column. The bearing is ncxihlc and at u di~>I<Ulce a11 75 mm above
the tension tic. The bearing is 350 111111 by 120 111111.
The characteristic material strength:. arc f~k 30 N/mm2•/)·k 500 N/mm2.
Check the bearing stress
Safe bearing Mrcss 0.48( I - !d/250)/.;k 0.48( I 30/ 250) 30 = 12.7 N/mm 2
Actual bearing wess = 400 x I0'/(350 120) 9.6 ~/mm 2 12.7 N/J11Jn 2
Concrete strut
The effecti \'e depth of the corbel b d 550 111111
Di:.tance. u' = (200 + 0.2 x 75 ) 215mm
Therefore a'/d 215/ 550 = 0.40
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 201

Figure 7.23

I
Corbel example

.fed OJ4,t;.~ (I .f,;k/250) 0.34 x 30 x ( I 30/250) 8.98 N/mm 2

Fr.d 400 x 1000 = O132
./~ddllw 8.98 X 55() X 35() ·-·
lienee, from table 7.2. 0 35.5 .
Main tension steel
The force 1n the ma111 tcnc,10n steeiJS
400(cot 35.5 + 0.2) = 400( 1.40 + 0.2) = 6-tO kN
MO >< to'
1471 mm 2
0.87 500
Pro\ltlc two II 12 hal".. area 1610 mm 2•
Horizontal/inks
A, hnb • 0 5A, """" 735 mm,
Pro\itlc four 1116 linb. A, 11 11 ~, 804mm~.
Figure 7.2-1 :-,how' the detailing of the reinforcement in the corbel.

Figure 7.24
Reinforcement in corbel

2H32
202 Reinforced concrete design

7.9 Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcing bars

As the magnitude of the bendtng moment on a ~am decreases along its length so rna~
the area of bending reinforcement be reduced by curtailing the bars since they are no
longer required. as shown in figure 7.25. It should he recognised though that because oi
the approximations and assumption<, made for the loading. the qrucrural analyst:. and
the behaviour of the reinforced concrete, the curtailment cannOt be a particularly precise
procedure. In addition the curtailment length\ are in man} case11 supe!'lleded by the
requirements for ser\'iccability, durability and detailing. such n~ maximum bar l>pacing
minimum bar numbers and curtailment beyond the critical sections for shear.
Each curtailed bar should extend a full anchorage length beyond the point at which 1
is no longer needed. The equations for an anchorage length were derived in !>ection 5.2
The equation for the design anchorage length, /h<J, IS
/yk
fbd = - - ¢ X rtn
4Ni,d
where
<fn is a series of coefficients depending on the unchoruge conditions
r/1 is the bar diameter
.fbd is the design bond strength which, for a beam. depends on the concrete >trer:
and the bar size and whether the bar is in the top or hot tom of the beam. The
honds better wnh the compacted concrete in the hottom of the beam.
For a straight bar with o _ 32 mm. the order of anchorage lengths are /bd = 52c 1 r
top bar and /bd = 36¢ for a bonom bar \'wllh cla'~ C30 concrete.
The curtailment of the tens1on reinforcement i' ha,ed upon the envelope of ten
force~. F\. derived from the bending moment envelope a~ 'hown 1n figure 7.25 such tmr
at any location along the -;pan
F,- Mf.1/:. + 6.F1o
where
MEd il> the design bending moment from the moment envelope
z i~ the lever arm
!:J.F1d i~ the additional tensile force obtuined from the design for ~hear

Figure 7.25 1ot: full anchorage length 1

'"'"'~'' .-J
. tM., "'"'""'' ' ' "''"m (hogglog "''")
CurtallmenLof rclnforcemenl
envelope of tensile forces
c""'"m'"'
~ 5
4
71
- I

'·'~ s~m 4 \ \~·

0~~' M,.J z

6~ 2 2
y M,.J l envl'lope dtagram (saggtng region)

1~1
Curtatlment anchorage
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 203

~F1d is a maximum where the shear force is a maximum at sections of zero moment,
and ~Ftd b zero at the maximum moment near to mid-span and the interior ~upp011.
For members where shear reinforcement is not required the tenc;ile force envelope
may be estimated by snnply 'shifting· the bending moment envelope diagram
honzontally by a dt!>tance a1 (=d) as shown in figure 7.15.
To determme the cunailmenr positions of e~ch reinforcing bar the ten\ile force
em·elope i" di-.ided into secuons as shown. in proponion to the area or each har. In
figure 7.25 the three haro; provided for the sagging envelope and the four for the hogging
cm·clopc arc <.:onsidcrcd to be of equal area so the em elope i" div1ded 11110 three equal
~CCtions for the sagging part of the Cll\•clope and four for the hogging pan.
When considering the curtailment the following rules must abo he applied:
1. At lea~ t one-quarter of the bottom reinforcement should extend to the \Upports
2. The hollom reinforcement at an end support should he anchored into the ~up pon n~
:-.hnwn in ligun; 7.26.
3. At un end ~upport where there i:, little or no fi xity the holtom steel should be
designed to rc1.ist a lcn~i l e l'o rce of 0.5V~:c~ to allow for the tension induced by the
l>hcur with a minimum requirement of 25% or the reinfon:emcnl rrovided in the
~pa n.

4. /\tan end :-.upporl when: there is f'ixity but it has been analysed a\ a ~imp l e ~upport.
top steel 1>hould he tle~igncd and anchored lo resist at leu't 25 per cent of the
maximum :-.pnn moment.
5. At internal ~upporh the houom ~tcel !.hould extend at lca~t 10 har diumcter:-. ~~
beyond the face of the \upport. To achieve continuity and re~i,tuncc to '>uch factor\
a:-. acctdcntal uamage or '>ei-.mic force!>. plice bar~ 1>hould be pm\tdcd acrm., the
'>Uppon with a lull anchorage tap on each stde as shO\\Iltn ligure 7.27.
6. Where the load~ on a heam are $Ubstamially uniformly ut'-.tributed, 'implified rules
for curtailment rna) he used. These rules only apply to contmuou:-. hcam" if the
chnrncteri~tic variable load does not exceed the charncteristic permanent load and
the l>ran'> arc approxi'lnntely equal. Figure 7.28 show~ the rule'> in diagrammatil.:
form. llowcvcr 11 -.houlcl be noted that these rule:) do not appear in EC2 and arc
based on previou& eMablished UK practice.

Figure 7.26
Anchorage of bottom
remforcement at end supports

( 1) Beam supported (2) Beam mtcrsecting

on wall or column another supporting beam

Figure 7.27
Anchorage ill intermediate
supports
204 Reinforced concrete design

!'~
Figure 7.28 100%
Simplified rules for curtailment
of bars in beams
0.08L
;I
',
'
I
~008L
Simply supported
c .. 0.25~
c = 0 1St

20% 60, ;;
30% 100%

Continuous beam

7.10 Design for torsion

The theory and design requirement~ for torsion were covered in section 5.4. The design
procedure consiw. of calculations to determme addit1onal arcus of lin~s and longiiUdinal
reinforcement to re&ist the torsional moment. u~ing an equivalent hollow box section
U),uully 1t is not necessary to design for tor!-.ion m \latically indetcnninate sLructure'
\\here the tor<.ional forces are often only a 'econdary effect and the mucture can be m
cquilihrium even if the tor,ion i' neglected. When the equilibrium depend~ on thl
toNtmal re<,t~tance the effect\ ol tor... ,on nlll\t he cnn~tdered.

7.2.1 Design procedure for torsion combined with shear

Notation
71,J Design torsion moment
I'Ku nw• Maximum torsional moment of re'iistance
v,,,, Design shear force
VRd ,m.. ~ Maximum shear resistance based on crushing of the concrete

The following section outline~ the procedure for de~tgning for tor~ion and explains ho\\
torsional de~ign must he considered together wtth the de~ign for shear.

(1) Design for shear using the Variable Strut Inclination Method
The procedure for thts is descrihed in 'cctiom. 5.1.2 and 7.6 and illu-.tratcd with
examples 7.7 and 7.8.
Usc the procedures previou~ly dc~cnbcd to determme the angle of inclination 0 of t11e
concrete compressive strut and the stirrup remforcement to resi).t the shear forces. Also
required is Lhe additional horiLOntal tensile force .:lf1.1.
The angle 8 should range between 22 and 45 so that cot 0 i'> between 2.5 and 1.0.
The \alue determined for 8 should be used throughout the \uhsequent sections of the
design.
 Design of reinforced concrete beams 205

(2) Convert the section into an equivalent hollow box section of thickness t
!See figure 7.29b.)
Area of the section A
Perimeter of the section 11

~o that for a rectangular section b x lz

bll
2(/h- /r)
Calculnte the nrea AL within the centreline of the equivalent hollow box section. For u
rectangular section
A~ = (b- t)(h t)
and the peri meter of the centreline is
IlL 2(b ~ lz - 2t)

(3) Check that the concrete section is adequate to resist the combined shear and
torsion using the Interaction condition

, , ...d -+~ < 1.0

7Rd . mu VRd ma~ -
where

Ill:
and
l't 0.6( I }~L/250)

(4) Calculate the additional stirrup reinforcement required to resist torsion

A,w Tt:.u
~ 21\kO.R?{y~ col()
The ).pacing s of the lltin·ups should not exceed the bser of (a) llk/8, (b) 0.75d or (c) the
leust dimension of the beam's cross-section. The stirrups should be of the closed type
fully anchored by means of laps.

(5) Calculate the total amount of stirrup rein(orcement Asw/s

This is the sum of the &I irrup reinforcement for shear and tor!.ion from ~teps ( I )
and (4).

(6) Calculate the area As1 of the additional longitudinal reinforcement

Trc<~ llk cot 0

2Ak0.87/ytL
Thts reinforcement should be arranged so that there is ar least one bar at each corner
with the other bar~ dic;tributed equally around the inner penphery of the link'> ,.,paced at
not more than 350 mm centres.
206 Reinforced concrete design

( EX AMPLE 7.9 '

Desig n of torsional reinforcement
Tor~ional reinforcement i~ to be des1gned for the beam of examples 7.6 and 7.7 which 1
also ::.ubjecr to an ultimate torsional moment of T~e..t 14.0 kNm in addition to th.
uniformly distributed loading of 108 kN/mctrc already considered in the previou
example'>.
The beam ~.:ros~-::.ection i.-. ~hown in figure 7.29a. The step<, in the ca lculation~ an
numbered a~ outlined in the pre\ iou::. descriptioo of the dc.,ign procedure. Th. .
charactcrh.tic strength-. of the concrete and steel arc .f..~ 30 '/mm~ and
}}~ 500 N/mm~.

1. l)e.,ign for 'hear u~ing the Variable Stntt Inclination Method (~ee the de'i1g·
calculations of example 7 7>
From example 7.7:
\'hi = 308 kN and Vku. 111 a~ 530 kN
The angle of inclinntion of the concrclc strut i.-. 0 = 2:! with cot 0 1.5 a!ld
tanH 0 4

For the 'hear link~

A" 0.475 (required)
I

The additional longitudinal ten.-.de force ~F1u 3!-!5 J..N

2. Con\crt the rectangular M!Ction to an equivalent hollow hox !.ection 1~--e
figure 7.29h)
A 600 X 30()
·n,i cknes~ of box section
/(
= 2(600 + 300)
lOOmm
Area w1th111 centreline A~ (I> t)(h I)
200 500
100 10' mm~
Perimeter of centreline u~ 2(h I h -1t )
1400 mm

Figure 7.29
Torsion example 1- . - - - - - - ,
H16 H16
H8 lit 12S

H16 H16 TI

•••• Hl6 Hl6

... b = 300 ...J

(a) Cross·section (b) Equivalent box section (c) Reinforcement details

 Design of reinforced concrete beams 207

3. Check if concrete section i~ adequate

Tt:.u vlid
- - + - - < 1.0
TRd."'"' \'Rd. m;a~ -

where
. 1.331'dc~lcrAl
[ Rd.m•~ = (cot 0 ~ tan B) (~ee equation 5.31)

with
r1 0.6( 1 - f<~ /'250) = 0.6( I - 30 t250) = 0.528
Therefore
1.33 X 0.5'28 X 30 X 100 X 100 X 1()- l
TRd rna'- (2.5 + 4.0)
72.6 kN ( > Tt:d 24.0 kN)
and

24.~ 308 = 0.•.3~ + ()·58

72.6 I 530
= 0.91 10
Therefore tlu: concrete 1>~c.:tion is adequate.
4. Calculate the additional link r·einforc.:emcnt required to resist tor~ion . (Note that A__.
is for one leg onl})
A~,. r,,d
.1 2/\l O.!l7}yk cot 0
24.o x to<>
2 100 X 10' X O.!l7 X 500 X 2.5 = o. I(()
5. Therefore for shear plus tor~ion and ba~cd on the area ot two legs

0.475 I 2 X(), ll O 0.695

!·or 8 rnm '>tirrup., at I '25 mm cemrcl> A... .1 =0.805 (!>ee Appendix table A4)
Spacing v 125mm ( .. u~ /8 175mm)
6. ('olculate the area A, 1 of' the udditional longitudinal reinforcement required for
torsion
JJ;<JIII. COl 0
2Ak0.87}~ r ~

= (24 x 10
11
1400) " 2.5 =
966
mm 2
2 X 100 X 10' X 0.87 x 500

Thi~ additional longitudinal Meet can be pro\ ided for by ~ix H 16 bars. one in each corner
and one in each of the side faces as 'hown in tigure 7.29(c). llte addttionallongrrudinal
tensile force of 385 k.N rc:-.ulting from the design for shear will he catered for by
appropriate curtailment Of the main tensile rcinforccmcnr as previously disCUS),Cd in
section 7.9.
 (
208 Reinforced concrete design

7.11 Serviceability and durability requirements

The requirements for the ser\'iceability and durability limit \Late~ have been co, em:_
cxtcru.ively in Chapter 6 -.o thi' section i' a 'hort review of the factors lhat appl} t
de\ign and detailing of beam'>. Ahhm1!!h thh \CCllon " a :-.hort rc\ icw at the end <:..
chapter it sbould be empha\ISed that the de~ign for the :-.cniceabilit) and durabilit) I
~tates if> JUSt as important a-. the design for the ultimate limit '>Late. Failures of stru~ ...
at the ULS are fortunately quite rare hut can get a lot of publicity. \\hereas failure-.
to durabiliry and 'crviccability an; much more common during the life of a structure
they can quite ea-,ily lead eventually to a :-.tructural failure or be one of the pn ~
causes of a fa.ilurc. Also poor detnal1ng and con\tructaon can be the cause of '
prob l em~ as lcaldng roofs nnd basements and dasfigurement of the structure 1\
const:qucnt high maintenance col!ts and reduced working life.
Adequate concrete cover to nil the reinforcement bar.\ is all-important to pre
ingress of moisture and corrosion of the steel hnr:- with resu ltant staining and spallin:
the concrete. Cover of the concrete is u l ~o required for fire rcsi~>t<lncc. The detailing.
siting of the reinJorcin!! bur~ und !'.tirrups should take account of the dimensJ•
tolerances during bending und f~1b ricat ion of the qed cages in order to maintain
required concrete cover.
The maximum and minimum <,p:tcing of the stccllnm should meet the requirem~:
of EC2 c;o th:ll there i'l ample room for the now and compaction of the concrete, bu
he so large a gap that there 1s ,, lack of rcsJ\tance to cracking of the concrete due
shrinkage, thermal m<l\ement and ...ettlcmcnt.
For similar rca.,ons the requirement:. for maxunum and minimum percentage'
reanforcemcnt m com:rctc mcml"ll:r' mu't be al\\ays be checked.
The beam' ~hould he ,ufhc1entl~ \Lilt to pre\l!nt e\ceo.;"ve deflection' that I.\
cau~e cracking of 'uch feature' a' flour Jina.,he,, gl:171ng and partition ... This '' mort
lakely with long o.;pan beams or cantilevers. For mo\t heaam it i' not ncee-;sary to cam
out detailed dcnection calculations. EC2 prO\ 1des equulions and ha,ie span-to-ue-
ratio~ to meet this requirement. Compression ~teel 111 the compres~ion wnes ol I
'pan beams und cantilevers help\ to resa.\t the long term deOcctions due to creep.
Muny of the more commonly used cqlwtions und tables from EC2 to meet all
above requirements are mnre fully dcscrih~.:d in ('huptcr 6 and are outlined in the
Appendix at the end of the hook for ~.:usy rcfcn.:ncc.
Good working practit:cs und tlual ity wntml on the construction site an: u
important ro ensure such features a~ correctly dc!>igned concrete mixes. ~ccurc fixing
the formwork and reinforcing stc~.: l with adi.!4U11tc placement, compaction and curing
the concrete.
 CHAPTER 8
Design of
reinforced
concrete slabs
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

Remforced concrete slabs are used in floors, roofs and walls of buildings and as the
deck of bridges. The floor system of a structure can take many forms such as m situ
solid slabs, ribbed slabs or precast units. Slabs may span in one direction or in two
directions and they may be supported on monolithic concrete beams, steel beams,
walls or d1rectly by the structure's columns.
Continuous slabs should in principle be designed to Withstand the most
unfavoLJrable arrangements of loads, in the same manner as beams. As for beams,
bcnd1ng moment coefficients, as given in table 8.1, may be used for one-way
spanning slabs. These coefficients are comparable to those 111 ngure 3.9 for
con tinuous beams and are based on UK experience. If these coefficients are used
Lhe reinforcement must be of ducti-
lity class B or C and the neutral-axis
depth, x, should be no greater than
0.25 of the effective depth such that
the lever arm, z ( d O.Sx/2), is
not less than 0.9d to allow for
moment redistribution Incorporated
in the values given (which may be
up to 20 per cent). In addition, as
for beams, table 8.1 should only be
used when there are at least three
spans that do not differ in length by
more than 15 per cen t , and
Q. should be less than or equal to
1.25Gk and also less than 5 kN/m 2 .
--+-
209
21 0 Reinforced concrete design

The moments in slabs spanning in two directions can also be determined using
tabulated coefficients. Slabs which are not rectangular in plan or which support
an irregular loading arrangement may be analysed by techniques such as the
yield line method or the Hilleborg strip method, as described rn section 8. 9.
Concrete slabs are defined as members where the breadth is not less than 5
times the overall depth and behave primarily as flexural members with the design
similar to that for beams, although in general tl is somewhat simpler because:

1. the breadth of the slab is already fixed and a unit breadth of 1 m is used tn the
calculations;
2. the shear stresses are usually low in a slab except when there are heavy
concentrated loads; and
3. compression reinforcement is seldom required.

Minimum thicknesses and axis d istances for fire resistance are given in table 6.5
but derleclion requirements will usually dominate.

Table 8.1 Ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients in one-way
spanning slabs

End support conditiOn

Pmned Continuous
Outer Near End End span At first At mrddle At mterior
support middle of St.Jpport interior of interior Sl.lpports
end span st.Jpport spans
Moment 0 0.086FI 0.075FI 0.063F/
0 04FI 0.086F/ 0.063Ff
Shear 0 4F
0.46F 0 6F O.SF

I crrcct•ve spdn.
Area or each b<~y ,:: 30 m1 • (A bay I$ a strip or sl,lb ocross thl! 1tructurl' bl'lween adjacent rows of
column$.)
F total ultimate load 1.35Gf + l .SOQ, ,

8.1 Shear in slabs

The ~hear rc~iMance of a bOiid :.lab may he calculated hy the procedure~ given ir>
chapter 5. Experimental work ha~ indicated that. compared wtlh beam\, shallow slat.'
fall at slightly higher shear stresses and thb 1~ incorporated into the values of th~
ultimate concrete shear resistance. VRd , • as given by equation~ 5.1 and 5.2. Calculation'
arc usually based on a strip of slab I m wtde.
Stnce shear stresses in slabs subJeCt to umtormly dt~tributed loads are general!)
-.mall. shear reinforcement will seldom be requtred and 11 would be usual to design tbe
slab such that the design ultimate shear force. \'Ed· ic; leo;s than the shear strength of tbe
unreinforced ection. \'Rd..:· In thic; ca'e it " not neces<;ary to provide any shear
reanforcement. This can conveniently he checked us1ng Table !!.2 which has been
 Design of re inforced concrete slabs 21

Table 8.2 Shear resistance of slabs without shear reinfo rcement vRd,c N/mm 2 (Class C30/35 concrete)

I using fll A, j bd Effective depth, d (mm)

ppo:t s 200 225 250 300 350 400 500 600 750
iiS~
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36
Q
0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.48 0.47 0.45
L~n 5 0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.51
rdeSI<Jn 1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57
1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.61
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65
2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.85 0 .82 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71

avy k 2.000 1.943 1.894 1.816 1.756 1.707 1.632 1.577 1.516

Table 8.3 Concrete strength modiiicalion !actor

f,~ (N/mm1 ) 25 30 35 40 45 50
one-way Modification factor 0.94 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19

derived from Equation!-. 5.1 and 5.2 for cia~~ C30 concrete on the basi~ that the
allowable ~hear ~tress in the unreinforccd 1-lah i-; given hy
~ nterior
\'RtJ <
supports l'fld.<
hd
In this cr"e, the applied ulttmntc ~hear Mres~
0 063FI vhll
I'J·.d -
bd<- ~·R·'
uU
0 .5F
Tuhlc 8.2 also clearly illu!-.trute~ rhe cf'f'cct of increasing :-.lah ttllcknc!'l~ on the depth
related factor k. as noted abo\oc. Where different concrete strength' are U\Cd. the values
rows of
in table 8.2 may he modtfied hy the factors 111 tahlc lU provided fit 0.4~.
As for beam~. the secuon should also he checked tn ensure that Vt'.d docs not exceed
lhe maximum permissible shear force. Vlht, 111,,\· If 1ohcar reinfor~cmenl is required then
the methods given in char>ter 5 can he u~cd , nlthough practical dif'lit:ulties conccmed
with hending and fixing shear reinforcement make it unlikely thm ~hear reinforcement
could he provtdcd in 'lah' le'\:. than 200 mm tluck.
Localised 'punching' actions due to hca\ y concentrated loads ma). hO\\ever, cau~c
..!1\Cn Ill more critical condition!\ as -,hown tn the following <;ections .
w 'lahs
., of the 8.1.1 Punching shear - analysis
.ulation~
A concentrated load on a slah causes shearing \tres~es on a section around the load: this
generally effect ill n:ferred to as punching :-.hear. The critical \urface for chccktng punching '>hear
k:.tgn the ts shown ao; the perimeter in ligure 8.1 which i' located at 'l.Od from the loaded area.
='h or the The maximum force that can be carried by the slah wtthout shear reinforcement (VK11,")
} shear can be obtained using the values of ''Rd , c given in table 8.2 based on equations 5.1
..as been and 5.2 for normal shear in beams and &labs. where Pt J{pyfJ1 ) where /Jy and p, arc
212 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 8.1
Punching shear
Critical
Section Loaded
- area
I
I
/
Plan

JJ, JJ Load
~1~r~===·===~·===~·~::J,·t ~!-~t
Elevation

the reinforcement ratio~. A,/bd in the two mutually perpendicular directions (see
table A.3 in the Appendtx for A,) then
\/Rd c = I'RJ.~ dll (R.I )
where
d = ciTecuve depth of sectton !average or the two 11teel layer1- in perpcndicu..;

directions (d)~-, d,)l

u = length of the punching shear perimeter.
If there are axial loads in the plane ot the slah an addiuonalterm is added to VRd c to
allow for the effect of these axial loads. This term is ..,.0.111er where 11cp is the nverage of
the normal compre)\~ive :-.tre~~.es acting in the y and :- direction!> (from prestre!l~> or
external forces). Such compre"ive \tresse:. thus increa~e the punching shear resistance
whilst conversely tcn!>ilc stresses reduce the ~hear capacity.
Checl>.~ must alsu be undertuken to ensure that the maximum permissible shear force
( VR,t max) i~ nnt exceeded at the race of the loaded nrca. The mnximum permissible shear
for~.:c is given by VRu, mu• = 0.51'tf.:t~ud 0.51'tlf.~ / 1.5 )ud where 11 ill the pertmeter of
the loaded area and v1 , the strength reduction factor = 0.6( I )~1../250).

( EXAMPLE 8 .1

Punching shear
A ~lab. l75 mm lhick. uverage effcctivc depth 145 mm is constructed with C25/30
concrete <lnd reinforced with 12 mm bar' at 150 mm centre:. one wa} (75~ mm 2/m) and
10 mm bat'l at 200 mm centres in the other direction (393 mm 2/m). Determine the
maximum ultimate load that can be carried on nn area 300 x 400 mm.
For the unremforced ~ection. the first critical perirnetct
It 1 :: (2a + 2/J -'- 2;r X 2d)
= 2(a -1- b) -1 4r.d
= 2(300 ~00 ) + 47i X 145
=- 3222mm
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 21

hence from equation 8. J

\!Kd c = ~"Rd .c X 3222 X J45

= 467 190vRd. c
Average steel ratio

fit VPy X p,

where

P> 754/( 1000 X 145) = 0.0052

{11 393/( 1000 X 145) = 0.0027

hence
"n~ (see
/It - )(0.0052 X 0.0027) 0.0038 = OJRl;f,
(8. J) Thus from Iable 8.2. for a 175 mm slab, ~'Rd, c = 0.56 N/mm" for a cl:m C30 concrete
and from table 8.3 for cia!>~ C25 concrete, a~ used ht:rc, modification factor O.<J4.
lienee. maximum ultimate load
r~ndicu lar
\!Rd ,r 0.94 >< 0.56 X 467 Jl)() > 10 J
246lN

The maximum permi~~iblc 11hcar force ba~ed on the lace of the lnadcd arl'a i~ gf\ en b)
itO\ Rd t tO the maximum !>hear re' t ~tancc
erage of
re'tress or
-e,tstance
\ ' Rd ""'' 0.5ud[o.6(1 {;~,))f~
0.5 2(_1()() ..,.. 400) 145 [0.6 (I 25 )] 25 1
car force
X X
250 T5 ) 10
'ble shear 914kN
"!leter of
v.hkh clearly exceeds the value VRd r based on the first critical perimeter. I fence the
lmaximum load thar the ~l ub can carry is 246 kN.
;

8.1.2 Punching shear - reinforcement design

C25/30 If reinforcement i~ required to resist shear around the contrnl perimeter indicatcd in
m) and Figure 8.1, il ~hould he placed between not more thnn 0.5d from the loaded area and a
mtne the distance 1.5d inside the outer control perimeter m \Vhich shear reinforcement i~ no
longer required. The length of this is given hy u0111 tr = II,.J/( ' 'Rd. eel) from wh1ch the
nece~sary dio;tance from the loaded area can he calculated. If thi~ i' Je~, than .1d from the
face of the loaded area. then reinforcement should be placed in the zone hetween 0.3d
and l .5d from this face.
Vertical link\ wtll nonnally be used and provtdcd around m lcao;t two perimeter<; not
more than 075d apart. Link spacing around a perimeter wuhin 2d of the face of rhe
loaded area ~hould not be greater than l.5d. incrcuo;ing to a limit of 1.0d at greater
214 Reinforced concrete design

perimeter-.. Provided that the slab is greater than 200 mm thick overaiJ then the amou
of reinforcement reqlllred is given by:

• IRd c' - 0. 751'Rd.l"

A ~w SJI1 0' ~ d X r
1.5 J)'l'd.cf
.lr X 111d

where
A," 1s the total area of shear reinJorccment in one perimeter (mm 2)
1·, is the radial spacing of perimeters of shear reinforeemenl
.f)wd,cr is the effective de~ign ~trenglh of the :.hear reinforcement and i:. gl\·en
f,"cJ <I 250 ..1.. () 25d ~ J;. . ,j.
l'l(d.,., is the punching 'hear reststance or the reinforced slah nnd n is the an~,
between :.hear relllforcement and the plane of the -.lab. ~o that sin n = I
vertical rcinforecmem.

This expre~sion cl'fectively allow~ for a 75 per cent contribution from the unreinforcc:
concrete !>lab. and for vertical links can be e\prcssed a\:

l'l(cJ _.
/\.-, ~-l.5 ./y"u d (.--)
0.751'Rd.c

.I rill

where the requircu l'lhl,c' would be given hy v~..,.

llj (

A ched, mu"t al:.o be made th<~l the calculated reinforcement sausfie-. the minimu
requirement that:

0.053.j1,7(sr. v,)
i>~
where ·'l I)> the spncing of link'i around the perimeter and A,11 mrn i~> the area of m
indil'idt/(/1 fin/... h•g.
Similar procedure:- must be applied to the regums of Om 'ilab' which arc close t<1
!.upponing. columns, hut allowances must he macte for reduced criw.:al perimeter~ near
sinh edge' and the effect of moment tran~fer from the column11 a~ described 1n
-.cction 8.6.

( EXAMPLE 8 .2
Design of punching shear reinforcement
A 260 mm thid. slah ol class C25/30 concrete i~ reinforced by 12 mm high yield har~ m
125 mm centre!> in each direction. n1e 'lab is "UbJCCL to a dry environment and must be
able to corry a localised concentrated ultimate load of 650 J..N over a square area of
100 mm :,Ide. Detcm1ine the -.hear reinforcement required for f>l = 500 N/mm 2•
For exposure class XC-I, cover required for a C25/30 concrete is 25 mm. thu:. average
cffecti\e depth for the two layer' of steel and allowing for 8 mm links i!. equal to
260- (25 +X+ 12 ) = 215mm
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 215

(i) Check maximum permissible force at face of loaded area

\11aximum shear resistance:

\'Rd. ~t =- 0.5ud [0.6 (I - {;~)] ~~

- 0.5(4" 300) 215 25 )] 1.
25 .
X X
[ 0.6 ( 1 - ::?SQ 5
X 1()_,

= 1161 kJ\ ( > Vut =- 650 kN>

(ii) Check control perimeter 2d from loaded face

Perimeter 11 1 - 2(a f b) t 4rrd
2(300 -1- 300) + 4r. x '215 = 3902 mm
an.::
I for hence for concrete without ~hc~u· reinforcement the ~hear capacity is given hy:
Vnct,c l'fttt ,r X 3902 X '215 = 838 930vRd .c
bending stc~·l ratio
orced
A,
-btl = I 000905:.. .,~1.5 = 0.0042 (
( > 1.40 per cent}

hence from tahlc 8.2. I'Rd , 0.5n fnr eta~~ C30 concrete and. Irom tahlc !U,
modification factor for da-.s C25 concrete O.lJ-1 then
\ 1Rd .,· !OX 930 X 0.56 0.94 x 10-'
= 442 kN << I'&~ - 650 k:-.l)

1murn and punching :.hear rc111forcemcnt 1:. required.

(iii) Check outer perimeter at which reinforcement is not required

llt~ut,tl
Vr:d 650 " 10' = 57 ,3 mm
"t
I' Rtl,d 0.56 > 0.94 X 215
This wtll occur at n diMance .rd from the face of the lmtdcd area. such thlll
01 (/fl
5743 2( \()() I 300) I 2;; X 215 X .I
fo,e w and 1 .1.36 ( 3.0)
terS ncar
1bed in (iv) Provision or reinforcement
Shear n:in l'orccment should thus he provided within thi.! tnnc extending from a di~t:111cc
=
not gretttcr thnn 0.'id and less than (3.36 - I .5 )d 1.86d from the loaded l'ncc
l·ot peritm:ters < 0.75d apar1. 3 perimerers of steel will thus h.: adequate located at
0.4d, 1.15d and 1.9d. i.e. l\5. 245 and ~00 111111 from the fucc of the loaded area
(i.e ..11 ~0.75d loOmm apurt).
Since all perimeter' lie within 2d (=- 430 mm) of the lnad and maximum lin I. spacing,
(~ 1 ). is limited to 1.5d ( 323 mm).
The minimum link leg area i), therefore given hy:
0.05 3..j]d ( ~,. \1 ) 0.053 /3( 16() X 323)
A,w,rnm = r
J)l 500
\erage
- 27.3 mm= \lhich tl> l>atil>ficd by a 6 mm diameter har (28.3mm'>
Hence the as~umed Hmm lin"-' ''ill be adequate.
216 Reinforced concrete design

The area oJ steel required/perimeter is thus given by:

A > I'Rd ,, - 0.751'Rd.•
~~~ - (f )
1.5 /y..,d.tl
Sr X IIJ

where. for the outer perimeter

VF,t 650 X 103 ,
\'Rd" = -lltl1 - 3,.,)_
•v., ~
_l)
= 0.77511.1/mm-
l'l{d ~ = 0.94 x 0.56 0.526 N/mm2 (u~> above)
!.v.d d = 250 1- 0.25 x 215 = 103 N/mm' ( ~ 500)
UIIU Vr - 160111111
thu~

(0.775 - 0.75 X 0.526) X 160 X J9()2

A"
' >
- -- --
1.5 X-
303- - -
= 523mm2
(v) Number of links
The nre:1 of one leg of nn Xmm link i~ 50.3 mm 2 . lienee the number of II nk-lcgs required
523/50.3 11 on the outer pcrimeler. Thl: same number of link::. cnn conveniently be
pro\ tded around each of the 3 proposed perimeter' as 'ummarised in the table hclo\\
The table tndicate' the numhct of ~tng l c-leg g mm diameter link~'. (urea = 50.3 mm~ J
proposed for each or lhc three n:inforcemcnt perimeter' taking account of the maximum
requm:d spacing and practical h\ing cnn,idcrauon,. Bendtng retnforccment i' 'paced at
I25 mm centres in hoth directions: hence link spacing is ~ct at multiple!> or thb value.
---
Dl5tance from Length of Reqtlired ltnk Proposed link Propo5ed
load face (mm) perimeter spacing (mm) spacing (mm) number of finks
(mm)
85 1734 158 125 14
245 2739 249 250 11
400 3713 323• 250 15
• muxir'num allowed

8.2 Span-effective depth ratios

Excc~sivc <.lellection' of slabs will cause damage to lhe ceiling, 11om finishes or other
archttccrural hni-.hc~. To a\Oid thi!>. hmil'> arc set on the -.pan-depth ratio. These limit~
arc exactly the ~arne ns those for hcarns a~ described in section 6.2. As n slab i'> usually a
!.lender member. the restrictiom; on the ~pan-deplh ratio hecomc more important and
this can often comrol the depth of slah required. ln tenm of the 'pan- effective depth
nlliO. the depth Of slah IS gtVCI1 by
. span
mtnimum effective depth = -.--. -.--.- -
baste rauo x correcuon Iactor:-
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 2

The correction factors account for slab type and ~upport conditions a~ well as cases of
span!> greater than 7 metre~ and for flat slabl> greater than R.5 metres. The ba:-.ic ratio may
also be corrected to account for grades of sreel other than grade 500 and for" hen more
reinforcement 1\ provided than that requlfed for de~ign at the ult1mate limit -.tate. Initial
values of ba~ic ratio may be obtained from tables (e.g. table 6. 10) but thc-.e arc concrete
strength dcj)l.!ndcnt.
It may normally be a:.~umed that in usUlg such table-., ,Jab., are hghtl) Mres\ed
although a more exact determination can he made from ligurc 6.3 when the percentage
of tcnllion reinforcement is known. It can he seen 1hat the ba,ic ratio can he mcrcased
hy reducing the stress condition in the concrete. The concrete \trel>' may be reduced by
providing an area of tension reinforcement grcall.:r than that required to rc1>i1-.t the design
moment up (() a maximum of 1.5 x lhm required.
In the case of two-way spanning slabs, the check on the span effective depth ratio
r.hould be hased on the sltorler span length. This doc!' not apply to llat slabs where the
longer span should be checked.

8.3 Reinforcement details

To resist cracking of the concrete. codes of practice ~pccify dct:ul~ ~uch as the minimum
re'luircd area oJ reinforcement required in a ~ection and limit~ to the maxnnum anu min1mum
~tly be spacmg oJ bar\. Some of thc\e rules are a~ follow~.
: bcJO\\.
(a) M111imum area\ of rdnforcemenr
.3 mm1 )
imum minimum area 0.26f.:1mb1d/f)1. "> 0 0013b1d
I!P3CCd at in hmh direcuons. where b is the mean '' idth of the terNie tone or scct1on. The
\Ulue. m1nimum remforcement provision for crack control. a' spec1hed 111 'cction 6.1.5
may also huve to t>e cons1dered ''here the ,Jut> depth exceeds 200 mm. Secondary
bsed
tran!>vcrsc re1nforcement should not be less than 20 per cent olthe minimum mam
' of links rcinfon.:cment requirement in one way <.lahll.
(b) Maximum areas of longtnldinal and trun!>verse reinforcement
muximum urea - 0.04A,

__
where A, il' the gross cross-sectional area. This limit applic1-. to sections away from
arcus of bnr lapping.
(c) Maximum spacing of bar!i
) For slabs not exct:eding 200 mm thicknc~s. hur spacing shou ld not exceed three
timet- the overall depth of slab or -100 mm whichever i:-. the l es~er for main
reinforcement, and 3.511 or 450 mm for secondary rellllmceml'nt. In areas of
concentrated load or maximum moment, thc1-c value~ arc reduced to 211 < 250 mm
and 111 <.. 400mm respectively.
(d) Reinforcement in the flange of aT- or L-beam
. or other
'I his i' described in deuul in section 5.1.4.
:e'e limitt-
u,ually :.1 (c) Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcement
1ant and The general rules for curtailment of ban. in nexural members \\ere discus'icd in
1 e depth
section 7.9 Simphtied rules for curtailment in different I} pes of c;lab arc IIJu,trated
in the sub,equent o;ecuons of this chapter. At a \imply \UPI10rted end. at lea!-.t half
thl' span reinforcement should be anchored a~ ~pcc1ficd in figure 7.26 and at an
unsupported edge U bar\ with leg length at leaM 2h llhould t>e provided. anchored
h) top and bottom transverse bars.
218 Reinforced concrete design

8.4 Solid slabs spanning in one direction

The -.labs are de-.igned as if they consist of a serie-. of beams of I m breadth. The ma1
~teel is in the direction of the span and secondary or distribution steel i~ required in tht
transverse direction. The main steel should fonn the oUier layer of reinforcement to giH
it the maximum lever ann.
The cakulations for bending reinforcement foliO\\ a similar procedure to that used ir
hcum design. The lever arm curve ol fi gure 4.5 is used to determine the lever arm (·
and the area of tension reinforcement i~ then gi\cn by
M
A, - --
0 87f.,L:
~·or solid slabs spanning one-way the simplified rules for cwtuiling hars as shown 1
hgure 8.2 may be used pro\ 1ded that the load' are uniformly distributed. With
continuous sluh it i-. also necessary that tht: spans arc approximately equal. The,,
simplihed rule\ arc not gi,en in EC2 but arc recommended on the basis of prO\t
satisfactory performance established in previous codes of practice.

8.4.1 Single-span solid slabs

The ha-;1c span effective depth ratio lor thl\ type of slah i' 20: I on the bal>l'i that it
' lightly stressed' and that grade 500 steel is u~ctl in the design. For a start-point
de~ign a \alue abo\'e thi~ can U\uall} he c),timatcd (uniCl>S the slah ic, known w b-
hcavily loaded) and subsequently checked once the main tcn~ion n.:mforccmcnt h
been designed.
fhe effective 1>pan ol the ~lah may he taf..en ~~s the clear d1stance hctween the face l
lhc supports plus a distance at both ends taf..en a), the le~scr of (a) the di ~t:Jncc from tl,
face of the support 10 11\ centreline and (b) nne-half of the menlll depth of the l!lab.

~
rlgure 8.2
100%
Slmpliht-d rules for curtailment < SO% ~
or ba~ ir1 slab }panning In
one direCtion

O.JJ.

Stmpty Supported

' • 0.3L
25% or m1d-span SLc!!l
c- 0.20L '" 0.1SL
'- ~
100%
50%
100% SO%
<

0.21

_L

Continu ous Slab

 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 21

( EX AMPLE 8 . 3

Design of a simply supported slab

The :-lab \ hown in figure 8.3 ts to be designed lO carry a variable load of 3.0 kN/m' plus
floor fini~hc11 and cetling loads of 1.0 kN/m!. The charactcrhtic matcnnl ~trength<; are
fc1.. = 25 Nlmm 2 nnd J,~ - 500N/mm2 • Baste span effecti,·c depth ratto = 19 for a
lightly strc~~cd i-lab from rigure 6.3 for class C25/.10 concrete and p O.Y'f.
For \implicity. take the effective span to be 4.5 m hetween centreline' of supports.
HlO 300

. , Figure 8.3

I~
Simply supported slab
:. example
HlO - 150
10\\ n
in
lth a
~0~
These ,... 4 .5 m
p m en

(7) First design solution

Eslimate of slab depth
Try a baste span-depth ratio of 27 (approx. ~OIX ahovc value from ligurc 6.1)·
· · f d h ~pan
mnumum c tccuvc ept =- 27 x correction factor~ (C.f.l
4500 167
').7 X c.f. c.f.
• fa~e of A,.,. hi~h ) icld '>tee I t'> lx:ing used and the span •~ le'' than 7 m the correction tactor:. can
m the be taken a' unny. Try an effective depth of 170 nun. For a cia'' XC I cxpm.ure the
r ,Jab. co.,cr 25 mm. Allowing. ~>ay. 5 mm tl" half the har diameter of the rcinlorctng har:
O\erall uepth of \lab 170 f 25 f 5 200 mm
Slab loading
~tel f weight ol slah 200 x 25 x 10- 1 = 5.0 kN/m 2
tolul pcrmancttl load 1.0 1 5.0 - 6.0 kN/m2
Fm a I tn width of slab:
ultimate load ( 1.35Rk I 1.5qk)4.5
= (J.35 X 6.0 + 1.5 X 3.0)4.5 56.H N
M 56.7 x 4.5/R 31.9 kNm
Bending reinforcement
,\.f 31.9 X ~=
bd2}~L I()(X) X 170 2 x 25 0 .()4
4

From the lever-arm curve of ligure -t5. I~ = 0.96. Therefore adopt upper limtt of 0.95
and lever-arm ;: -lad- 0.95 x 170 = 161 mm:
6
A, =- -M -.- = 31.9 X 10 = ..t55 mm '!m
O.l:!7})kZ 0.87 X 500 X 161
Provide HI 0 bar.. at 150 rnm centres. As = 523 mm 2/m (al> shown in tahle A.3 in the
Appendtx}.
220 Reinforced concrete design

Check span-effective depth ratio

I = IOOA, n:q = I()() X 455 - 0.268''~ (>0. 13'* minimum requirement)

I bd 1000 X 170
!-rom figure 6.3. thi~ corre~ponds to a baste span-eftectt\'e depth mtio of 32. The actual
ratio= 45001 170 = 26.5: hence the chosen effecuve depth ts acceptable.
Shear
At the face of the !>uppon
55.5 (2.25 - 0.5 X O.J) .., k
Shear V~::d =T .
2 25
=- 59
. N

I(){) X 523
PI = IOOO x t70=0.J I

VR~ . . - t'Rd,,bd where vR11., from table 8.2 =0.55 (note: no concrete strength
adjustment since fiJ < 0.4%). Thus:
VKu , - 0.55 X I 000 X 170 93.5 kN
as VL:d b less than VRu, then no ~hear reinforcement i~ required.
End anchorage (figure 7.26)
From the tahle of anchorage lengths in the Appendix the tenswn anchorage length
= 40c•, 40 x 10 = 400 mm.
Distribution steel
Pm\ldc minimum 0.00 JJbd - O.O<ll3 x IO<Xl x 170 221 nun 2/m.
Prm ide 1110 at 300 mm centres (262 mm 2/m) \\htch \llll'lhe' ma>:imum bar spacing
It mit,.

(2) Alternative design solution

The 1-.ccond part ot thl' exumple lllu<;tralel> how a ~muller depth of lab is adequate
provided it b reinforced with Mecl in exec:-\ or !hat required for bending thus working at
a lower ~tre5s in service. Try a thid.nc~s of sloh, II 170 mm and d = 140 mm:
or !.lab = 0.17 25
~elf-weight X 4.25 l-.N/m~
Iota! permanent load = I .0 + 4.25 5.25 kN/ml
ultimate load ( l.35gk + 1.5q~ )
=- ( 1.35 X 5.25 1- 1.5 X 3.0)4.5 52. I kN

Bending reinforcement
4.5
M = 52.1 X 8 29.3 kN Ill

!:!..__ = 29.3 )( 106 = 0.060

bd2J'ck 1()0() X 140! X 25
From the le,er-arm curve of figure 4 5. 1. =0.945. Therefore, lever-arm ;: l.,d =
0945 x 140 = 132mm:
M 29.3 10~>
A,= = 510mm2/m
. Q.87f}k: 0.87 ) 5()0 X J32
Provide H 10 han. at 150 mm centre!>. A, 523 mm~/m.
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 221

Check span-effective depth ratio

IOOA, l00 x 510
p bd 1000 )( 140 = 0 '364%
=
f-rom figure 6.3 this correspond~ to a ba~ic span-effective depth rat1o of 24.0.

Acrual Span
45 000 = 32.1
Eff. depth 140
Thi!> is inadequate but can he overcome by increasing the Mccl area.
Span . . A,. p01 ,
Limiting Ef ' d th = b<l!-IC rauo x - -
1. ep Au eq

Try IOmm bar~> at I 00 mm centres, A~ prov = 785 mm 2/m.

£Ience:
;th A,.rrnv 785
1\,, ,'C~
5 10 = 1.54

Upper limit w torrection factor (UK National Annex) I 5.

span
lienee al lowuhle . .
efleetiVC depth
= 24 x 1.5 - 36 which i~> greater than that provided.

Therefore d 140 mm is adequate.

n.., 8.4.2 Continuous solid slab spanning in one direction

f-or a conllnuous slab, bottom reinforcement j., required \\lthlll the 'pan and top
reinforcement over the support~. The effective span i-. the diStance hct\\ecn the
centreline of the ..upport<> and the ba.<.ic l>pan-cffettivc depth ratio of an 1ntcnnr 1-pun i'
10.0 for 'lightly ~tressed' where grade 500 steel and clai-~ C'30/35 concrete arc U\Cd. The
cnrre~>ptmding limit for an end span is 26.0.
If the conditions given on page 209 are met. the bending moment and ~heur Ioree
coefficient~ given in table R.l mt1y he used.

(EXAMPLE 8. 4

Design of a continuo us solid slab

The four-spun slab shown in figure H.4 ~urports a variable load of 3.0 ~N/m 2 plus lloor
fini\hes and a ceiling load of 1.0 kN/m 1. TI1c characteristic material ~trcngths arc
.f.l 25 N/mm2 and f>k 500 N/mm2.
Estimate of slab depth
A~ the end 'pan i-. more critical th<m the interior 'pan~. try a ha\IC ..,pan effecti\e depth
= ratio 30 per cent above the end-:.pan Limit of 26.0 (i.e. 31.0):
span
minimum effective depth = .
33.0 x correcLJon factor
4500 136
33.0 X c.f. c.f.
 222 Reinforced concrete design

figure 8.4
Continuou~ slab I I I I I I
E' 'E' 'E' , E' 'E

- 1~1
:I
co Span
1:1 Span Span
1~1
Span
IQ':
. co
E '""' ' ""'
~,
I I I 1---- 1 ----
I I I I I I
H H H
Pldrl

LJ u u u J
4Sm 4.5m 4.Sm J_ 4.5m
Elevation

A"' high yield \tecl is being u ~cd and th\: span is lcs1. Lhnn 7 m the correction factor can be
ta~en as unity. Try rtn effective depth of 140mm. For a class XC-I exposure U1e
cover 25 111m. AIIO\\ mg. 'ay. 5 mm as half the bar diameter of the reinforcing bar:
overall depth of slab 140 + 25 + 5
170mm

Slab loading
~elf-weight of slab 170 x 25 I0 ' 4 25 kN/m'
totul permanent load I .0 4.25 = 5.25 ~N/m ~
For a I m w1dth of slab
ulumme loud. F = (1 .35,11~ - 1.5q, )4.5
= ( I J5 x 5.25 I 1.5 x 3.0)4.5 52.14 ~N

lhmg the codficiems of lrthle R.I. as~uming the end support i' pinned, the moment at
the m1ddlc of the end ~pan j.., gi\cn by
M 0.086F/ 0.086 x 52.14 x 4.5 = 20. 1XkN m
Bending reinforcement
M 20. 1X X 1011
0 04 12
bd~f~· JO()() X f.tQ1 25
From the lcvcr-rtrrn curve of figure 4.5, /~ 0.96. Therefore. lever-arm •. l.,d
0.95 x 140 133mm:
M 20.18 X 101'1
0.87!~.;:
- --
0.!!7 X 500 X 133
= 349 111111 2/m
Provide nI 0 har)o at 200 mm cemrc:.. A, = 3'>3 mm2/m.
Check span-effective depth ratio
IOOrl,,,.,~ = 100 X 349 = 0.2-19
IJd I 000 x I 40

L
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 223

Hl0-400

. s·;,
HlO- 400 Figure 8.5
HlO 200 Hl0-250
Reinlorcement in a continuous
slab

lfr.·
Hl0-200
•

I
jk

Hl0 - 400
• >
•
9

Hl0 - 250 Hl0-250

f-rom figure 6.3 thb corre1>pond~ to a basic span-effective depth ratio m excess of
12 x 1.3 (for an end ~pan) 41. The acrual ratio 4500/ 140 = 32.1; hence the
chosen effective depth is acceptable.
Similar calculations for the supports and the intelior ~pan give the steel area~ l.hown
in figure 8.5.
At the end ~upports there ill a monolithic connection between rhe slnb nnd the beam,
therefore rop steel should be provided to resist t~ny negative moment. The momcnl w he
de~igned fori~ rt minimum of 25 per cent of rhe span moment. I haL is 5.1 kN m. In fact, to
rrovide a m1nimum of 0. 13 per cent of steel, I-l l0 ban m 400 mm centres have b~.:cn
~pecitied. The layout or the reinfmcemen\ in 11gure 8.5 i.., accmding to the ..,implit1ed
rub for curtailment of bar~ in slabs as illuwared in llgure 8.2.
fran~versc remforcemcm = 0.00!3bd
0.0013 x 1000 " I~0
182mm ~/m

Provide Ill 0 m 400 mm centres top and bollom. where,·er there t\ matn rcinforcem~.:nt
( 190 mm'lm).

8.5 Solid slabs spanning in two directions

lit at

When a .~olah is ~upportcd on t~ll four of it~ :.ides it effectively spun..; in both dir~.:c:tion~o.
and it is sometimes more cconomic~1l to design the slab on this ha~is. Th~.: amount of
bending in cuch direction will depend on the nttin of the two 11pan:-. and the conditions
of remain! at each support.
If the slab i~ square and the rcr.traints are similar along ti\C l'our sidus then the load
will s.pon c4ually in both directions. If the slah i~ rccrungu lar I hen more than t)ne-half of
the load will be c:urried in the stiffer, shorter direction and less in I hi! longer direction. If
= one span i~o much longer than the other. a large proportion nf the load will he carried in
the ~hort direction and the slab may as well be designed as spanning in only one
tlircction.
Moment!> in eac:h direction of span arc generally calculated using tabulated
coefficient<;. Areas of rcinforcemem ro resist the moments arc dctcrmmed mdi!pcndently
for each direc11on of lipan. The slab is reinforced with bars in hoth d1rections parallel to
the span" \\ith the steel for the shorter span placed funhest from the neutral a xi' to give
it the grcatcr effective tlcpth.
Thi! -.pan-etlecuve depth ratios are based on the -.horter :.pan and the percentage of
reinlorccmcnt in that direction.
With a uniformly chstributetl load lhe loads on the 'iUpportlllg beam' may gcn~.:rall)
be apportioned a.' ~hown in figure 8.6.
224 Reinforced concrete design

Beam A
Figure 8.6
Loads carried by supportmg
beams

u 0
E ..,
E
...
~
"" ""

Beam B

8.5. 1 Simply supported slab spanning in two directions

A slab simply -.upponed on its four ~-.ides will c.lenccl uhmn both axe~ under load and th~
~:omen; will tend to lift and c.:urlup l'rom the supports, c.:ausing torsional momems. Wher>
no provision has been made w prevent th1s lifting or to resist the torsion then the
moment cocffidents of tahle 8.4 may be U1'>Cd and the maximum moments are given o~
M,x = a,,nl;' in direction of span f,
and
,
M,y = a,ynl~ in direction of ~pan /).
where

M" and M,) are the moments at mid \pan on \trips of unit width with c;pans /, and
respectively
11 - ( 1.35g~ + l.Sql.). that b the total ultimate lond per unit urea

I> = the length of the longer side

I, - the length of the shorter side
a,, and a,> arc the moment coefficients from mhlc 8.4.
The area of reinforcement in directions/, and /\ respectively arc
M,x .
1\,~ = - 'f, . per metre w1dth
0.87 y~:
nnd
M,y
ll,y =--
0.87/ykZ
per metre width

111c s!ah should be reinforced uniformly m:ro:-.s 1he full width, in each direction.
The effective depth d used in calculating/\,~ should he le'' than that for A,, because
Of the different depth~ of the tWO layer~ Of reinforcement.

Table 8.4 Bending-moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions at right
angles, simply supported on four sides

1.0 17 12 1.3 I 4 1.5 1.15 2.0

0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118
0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 225

F.stabli hed practice '>uggcsts that at least 40 per cent of the mid-span reinforcement
<,hould extend to the supporL<; and the remaining 60 per cent should extend to within
0. 11, or 0.1/y of the appropriate support.
It should be noted that the above method is not specially mentioned 111 EC2: however.
as the method was deemed acceptable in B$8110. Its continued use should be an
acceptable method of analysing this type of slab.

( EX AMPLE 8 .5

Design the reinforce ment fo r a simply supported slab

The :,lab i~ 220 rnm thick and spans in two direction:.. ThL: effective span in each
direction is 4.5 m and 6.3 m and the :-.lah supports a variable load of 10 kN/m 2• The
churucteriM ic material su·engtb:, arc fck 25 N/mm2 and /yk 500 N/mm1 .
fy/1, = J .4
6.3/4.5
From lahle ~.4. a~~ = 0.099 and a,) 0.051.
Self-weight of !-lab = 220 x 25 x 10 ' = 5.5 t..N/m2
ultimate toad = 1.35gk + 1.5qk
= 1.35 X 5.5 t 1.5 X 10.0 - 22..431-N/m'

Bending short span

3IId 1
With clas'> XC- I cxpo:-.urc conditions take d - 1R5 mm
M" a,,nt; 0.099 x 22.43 x 4.52
45 OkNm
M,~ 45.0 X 106 -
bcl'.f..k I 000 185~ X 15 = 0.0::>3
From the lever-ann curve. figurc 4.5. I~ -= 0.95. TI1crefore
lever-arm ~ - 0.95 x 185 - 176 mm
and

O.R7 X 500 X 176

2
588 rnm /m
n.
·au~e
Provide 11 12 at 175 mm centres, A,= 646rnm2/rn.
Span-effective depth ratio

~.right 1
= IOOAueq = 100 X 588 = 0.318
It bd 1000 > 185
From figure 6.3. tht'> correl>pondl> to a ba'iic 'pan-effective depth ratio of 28.0:
20
-;pan 4500
118
actual ?4 3
cffecti vc depth 185 - ..
~ 029
Thu'i d 1R5 mm b adequate.
226 Reinforced concrete design

Hl0-200
Figure 8.7
Simply supported slab
spanning in two directions
I

'
H12-17S

4.Sm

Bending - long span

,
M,) - a,~nl;

= 0.051 X 22.43 X 4.5!

= 23.16kN m
Since the rei nforcement for this span will have a reduced effective depth. take
;: = 176 - 12 = 164mrn. Therefore

A - M,y
' - 0.87.J;~::-

:n. l6 x 11Y·
0.87 )( 500 164
325 mm~lm
Prm ide H10 at 200 mm centres. A, = 393 mm '/m
lOOA, 100 .193
-;;;/ =- (()()() v 164
= 0.24
"h1ch i' greater than 0.13, the mm1mum for tranwer'e 'teel, wuh cia'" C25/30 concrete.
rhc arrangement of the reinforcement ''shown 10 hgurc 8.7.
l~--------------------------------------~)
8.5.2 Restrained slab spanning in two directions
When the slabs have fixity at the supports and reinl'orccment is added to resist torsion
and to prevent the corm:rs of the l>lab from lifting then the maximum moments per unit
width are given hy
,
M,, = d,,111~ in direc1inn of span I,
and
M,) = 3,>111~ in direction ol span ly
where J~\ and d,y are the moment coefficients given in table 8.5. hased on previou'
experience. for the specified end condition~. and n - ( 1.35gl l.Sqk ), the total
ultimate load per unit area.
The slab is di\ided into middk and edge !.trips as \.hown in figure 8.8 and
reinforcement is required in the mtddle smp-. lO re'>ist ,H,x and M,y. The arrangement
this remforcement should tal..c i-. illustrated in figure 8.2. In the edge strip~ only nominal
reinforcement i:-. ncccssaJ). such that A,/ bd = 0.26f.:1m/f}l > 0.0013 for high yield
steel.
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 227

Table 8.5 Bending moment coefficients for two-way spanning rectangular slabs supported by beams

Short span coefficients for values of ~ 1 1~

Long-spon coeffidents
Type of panel and moments considered 1.0 7.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 for all values of ly , lx
Interior ponels
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.031 0.044 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
Positive moment at midspan 0.024 0.034 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024
One short edge discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.039 0.050 0.058 0 063 0.067 0.037
Positive moment at midspan 0.029 O.Q38 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028
One long edge discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.039 0.059 0.073 0.083 0.089 0.037
Positive moment at midspan 0.030 0.045 0.055 0.062 0.067 0.028
Two adjacent edges discontinuous
Negative moment at continuous edge 0.047 0.066 0.078 0.087 0.093 0.045
Positive moment at midspan 0.036 0.049 0.059 0.065 0.070 0.034
- - ---

... .. ... I,
8
figure 8.8
D1v1sion of slab into m1ddle

I I
1- _ _ Edge slnp -' and edge strips
Q.

51 "
...i ~
;;
/, .,... . "'
:;;
Mtddle strip 3/,
tte .g'l
.... '2
:I I;§' T

_) I l - · - Edge Slrlp · - •
I, 31.. ~ l I,
i 4 8 8
1..

(cl) ror span I, (b) For span ~

ion In audition, torsion reinforcement is provided ut c.lbwnrinuous corner~ nntl it ~hould:

unit
1. consist of top and bottom mats, each hoving bar~ in both directions uf ~-opan;
2. extend from the edges n minimum diE.tunce 1, / 5:
3. ut a corner where the slab is discontinuou!l in both directions hnve an area of steel in
each of the four layers equal to tJ1ree-quartcr~ of the urea required I'm the muximum
mid-span momem;
OU\ 4. at a corner where the slnb is discontinuous in one direcrton only, have an area of
<"~tal tor~ion reinlorcement only half of that !.pecified in rule 3.

and Torsion reinforcement il> not. however. nccc~;~ary at an} corner \\here the 1>lah ;..,
e.,cnt continuous in both directions.
minaI Where /) fl, > 2. the slabs should be de~igned as ~panning in one dtrecllon only.
~ eld lr ~>hould be noted thatrhe coefficients for both shear and momen111 can only be U\Cd if
d w., B or C ductility reinforcement i~o .\pccificd and the mrio .1j d is limited 10 0.25.
228 Reinforced concrete design

1,= S.Om
Figure 8.9 J
Continuous panel spanning in
two direction~

support
--. a b
Disc;ontinuous
supported edge
.,E 'C
N
&.

-
..; a. ~
" a

d
..L
support

( EXAMPLE 8.6
\

Moments In a continuous two-way slab

The panel con~tdered i~ an edge panel, U\ ~hO\~n in figure 8.9 and the uniform!~
U.i~>trihutctl lontl, n ( 1.35gk + l.Sqk) I 0 kN/m 2•
The moment coefficient"\ nre taken from table 8.5.
~ 6.2)
I ::!5
I, 5.0

Positive momenls at mid-span

M,, ,J""'~ :;: ; ().().l5 X 10 5~
II :!5 kl\ m tn dtrc~.:uon I,
M,> - d,)111: 0.028 10 "s'
7.0kN min direction ly

Negative moments
Support ad. M, 0.059 x 10 )( 5' 14.75 kl\ m
Support<, nb (llld de, M~ o.o:n X 10 X s' 9.25 kN m
The moment~ calculated arc for a metre width of slab.
The de~tgn of reinforcement to resist these momenb would follow the usual
procedure. Tor,ion reinforcement, accordtng to rule 4 1~ requtrcd at corners h and c. A
check would aJ,o be required on the ~pan effective depth ratio of the slab.

l~--------------------------------------~)
8.6 Flat slab floors

A llat slab noor is a reinforced concrete sltth supported directly hy concrete column'
without the usc of Lntermctliary be:um. T he ~l ab moy be of constant lh ickne~-.
throughout or in the area of the column it may be thickened as a drop panel. The column
may aJ<.o be of constant '>Cction or it may be llared to form a column hend or capital.
These vanoul> forms of con~truction arc illu11trated in figure R.l 0.
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 22'

rr Figure 8.10
Drop panels and column
heads

v
Floor without drop Floor with column Floor wllh drop
panel or column head but no drop panel and column
head panel head

The drop panels ore effective in reducing the shearing stre:-.sc:-. where the column i11
liable to punch through the slab. and they also provide an increase<.! moment or
re!.istance where the negative moments arc greatest.
The llat slnb floor has many a<.lvantages over the beam and ~lob lloor. The simpl ified
rormwork ar1d the reduced ~Lorey heights make it more economical. Win<.lows can
extend up to the undcr~idc of the slab, and there are no beams to ob~ truct the light and
nnl~ the circulation of air. The absence of sharp corners gtves greater fire resistance as there
rs less danger of the concrete spalliog and expo~ing. the reinforcement. Deflection
requirements will generally govern slab thicknesl> which should not normally he le:,s
than 180 mm fur lire rcl>istance as indicated tn table 8.6.
l'hc analy\is of a nut 5lab strucrure may be carried out hy divtding the ~tntctun.: into a
\eric' of equivalent frames. The moments in these frame~ may he determine<.! hy:
(a) a method of frame analy:,is '>uch ru. momelll dtsmbution. or the "iffne!-ts method on
a computer:
(b) a stmpltlted method using the moment and \hear cocflictent~ ol table K.l subjeCt to
the followtng requirements:
(i} the lateral stabrltty i~ not dependent on the slab-column connections:
(ii) the condition~ for using table tU <.lcscrihed on page 209 arc sati:,ricd:
(iii) there nrc at lenst rhree rows of panel:, of tlpproximately equal span in the
direction being considered;
(iv) the hay si~c exceeds 30m 2

1 ,ual
Table 8.6 Minimum dimensions and axis distance for Flat slabs for fire resistance
.. A
Standard fire res1stance Minimum diml'nslom (mm)
_) -------
Slab thickness, h1 Axis di~tance, a
REI60 180 15
REI 90 200 25
REI 120 200 35
REI 240 200 50
umn<.
·ness Nott:
• umn 1. Redi~tnbuuon of moments not to exceed 15%.

~ pttaJ. 2. for hre resi~tanct> R90 and above, 20% of the total top reinforcement in each dirtction over
mtermedidte supports should be continuoU5 over the whole spJn cmd pl.lced '" the column strip.
230 Reinforced concrete design

Position of maximum
Figure 8.11
- -- -- - - --:.._-_-- ~ negaL1ve moment
---
Flat slab divided into strips
,
,
Pos•tion of maximum
- - 1 - - - pos1L1ve momcnl

W1dthof half column strip= //4 with no drops

or = half drop width when drops arc used

Interior panels of the Aat sluh ~hoult.l be t.livit.led as shown in ligure g.l l into colur
and middle strips. Drop panel~ should be ignored if I heir smaller dimension is less th~
one-third of the smaller panel dimension JK . If a panel is not square, strip widths in hv
directions are ba.'>ed on l,.
Moment~ dctennined from a structural anuly~i~ or the coefficient1. of table 8.1 ...or
distributed between the strip~ as shown 111 table !.0 such that the negative and poslll ~
moments resi~tcd by the column and middle ~trips totul I 00 per cent in each ca~e.
Reinforcemenl designed to re i't these \lab moments may be detailed according t.o
the simplified rules for slabs, and c;atisfying nom1al spucing limtl!>. This should be
spread aero~!. the respective strip hut. in <,olid 'lab' \\ithout drop,, top steel to re'l
negati\e moments in column strip-. 'hould ha' e one half of the area located in 1
centml 4uartcr-strip width. If the column Mrip ts narrower because of drop,,
moments rcsbted b} rhe column and middle \trip' ~hould be adJU~ted proponional _
illu,truted in example 8.7.
Column moments can be calculated from the unaly~is of the equivalent fr..
Particular care is needed over the tran~;fer of moments to edge column<;. This b to en~ure
that there is adequate moment capacity wtthin the slah udjucem to the column since
moments will only be able to be transferred to the edge column by a strip ot sinh
con~iderably narrower than the normtll internal panel column sttip width. As seen in
table ~.7. a limit i~ placed on the negative moment transfcn·ed to an edge column, and
~ lab reinforcement 'ihou ld bl.! concentrated within width be a'i defined in figure R.l2. If
exceeded the moment shoult.l be limited to this value and the positive moment increased
to maintain equilibrium.

Table 8.7 Division of moments between strips

Column stnp Middle strip

Negative moment at edge column 100% but not more 0
than 0 17bpd2 f,k
Negative moment at internal column 60-80% 40-20%
Positive moment in span 50-70% 50-30%

b.• width ol edge strip.

 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 231

c,
Figure 8.12
Definition of be

C, slab edge
~----- I c,

inner face of column * 4~ !.

y
j·
'

b. =l • y/2 ..j- ~~
Note: All slab reinforcement perpendicular to a free edge transferring moment to the column
should be concentrated within the width be
(a) Edge column {b) Corner column

The reinforcement for :1 Rat slab should generally be arranged according to the rule!.
lllui>tratec.J in Jigurc 8.2, but at least 2 bottom bars in each orthogonal c.Jirection shou lc.J
pas~ through internal columns 10 enhance robustness.
Important feature~ in the design of the slabs are the calculations for punching shenr nt
or
the hend the column~ and at the change in depth of the slnb, if drop puncl~ are used.
The design !'or ~hear .\hould follow the procedure described in the previous sect ton Oil
punching ~henr except thm EC2 requires that the design shear force be incrca,cc.J ahnvc
the calculated value by 15 per cent for internal columns. up to 40 per cent lor edge
columns and 50 per cent for corner co lumn~. to allow for the effect~ of moment transfer.
The~e 'iimpltfied rules only apply to braced :-.tructurc~ where adjacent 'pans do not differ
by more than 25~.
In constdenng punchtng shear. EC2 plaeei> additional requirements on the amount
and di-;tnbuuon ol re111forcement around column head\ to en,urc that full punching
'hear capacuy io; de\'eloped.
The U'iUlll basic \pan effective depth ratios may be u...cd hut where the greater '>PliO
exceed' R.5 m the basic rntio should be multiplied by 8.5/span. For flm ~labs the ~pun
effective depth calculation should be based on the longer span.
Reference ~hould he made to codes of practice for further detatled informntion
describing the requirements for the analysis and design of Oat ~labs. including the u~>c ol
bent-up har~ to provide punching shear reststance.

(EXA MPLE 8. 7

Design of a flat slab

The co l umn~ arc at 6.5 m centres in each direcUon and the slab support~ a variable lond
=
of 5 kN/m • I he characteristic material strenglhs are ~k 25 N/mm2 for the concrete,
2

and /y~ 500 N/mm 2 for the reinforcement.

1t i~ decided to use a floor ...tah us ~hown in figure 8.13 wi1h 250 mm overall depth of
slab. and drop panels 2.5 m square hy I 00 mm deep. The column heads arc to he made
1.2 m dwmetcr.
Permanent load
Weight of slab = 0.25 x 25 x 6.51 = 264.1 kl\
Weight of drop - O.l x 25 \( 2.51 = 15.6 kl\
Total= 279.71<1'\
232 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 8.13
Flat slab example

6.5 m column centres each way ~

Variable load
Total= 5 x 6.5 2 = 211.3kN
Therefore
ultimate load on the Ooor. F = 1.35 x 279.7 1 1.5 x 211 .3
- 695 kN per panel

16.4 l..~fml
695
and equivalent distributed load. n
6.5 2
ll1c effective span.
~lab thicl..nc~~
L - clear ~pan between column head') + at either end
2
350 .,
(6.5 1.2) 10 l
"' X-

5.65m
A concrete cover of 25 mrn has been allowed, and where there urc two equal layer~ of
rctnforcement the effect1ve depth has heen taken as the mean depth of the two l ayer~ in
calculating the reinforcement area~. (d - 205 mm in ~>pan and 305 mrn ut suppOI'l!>.)
The drop d1 men~ion is greater than one-th 1rd of the panel dimension. therefore the
column strip is taken as the width of the dmp panel (2.5 m).
Bending reinforcement
Since the variable load is less than the pl.!rmancnl load anti hay size 6.5 x 6.5
c
42.25 m 2 ( 30 m2 ), from table 8. I:
1. Centre of interior span
Po~itivc moment = 0.063/-'/
= 0.063 X 695 X 5.65 247 kN m
'I he width of the middle ~trip i!'. (6.5- 2.5) = 4m which is greater than half the
panel dimension, therefore the proponion ol thi ~ moment taken by the middle strip
can be taken as 0.45 from table 8.6 adju<;ted as sho" n.
-t
0.45 X 6 I" = 0.55
.5 -
Thus middle strip positi' e moment = 0.55 '>' 247 = 136 I..N m.
The column strip poi>itivc moment =( I - 0.55) x 247 llllli m.
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 233

(a) For the middle strip

_!!_ = I 36 X 106 = 0.032

bd2fck 4000 X 205~ X 25
From the lever-arm curve. figure 4.5. Ia = 0.97. thcrcfon:
M 136 X let
A - - - - ~=---=-=-=---::-:::-:---::-::-=
' - O.K7i)l~ - 0.87 X 500 X 0.95 X 205
1605 mrn 2 bottom steel
Thu\ provide ,\ixteen HI 2 bar~> (A, 1809 mm1 ) each way in the ~pan.
di~tributed evenly acros~ the 4 m width of the middle ~trip (spacing 250 mrn
maximum allowuble for a slab in an area of maximum moment).
(h) The column ~trip morm:nts will require 1310mm2 houom ~tcel which can be
provided a~-. twelve H 12 bar~ (/\, 1356 mm 2) in the :.pan diMrihuted evenly
across the 2.5 m width of the column strip (spacing approx 2 10 mm).

2. Interior &upport
Ncg:uivc moment = - 0.063FI
0.063 X 695 X 5.65 = 247 kN m
and thi~ can also be divided into

mrddle <;trip ()....') 5 X - 4 X .,_4 7 0.31 X 247

6.512
= 77k:"Jrn
and column lltrip =( I - 0.31 ) x 247 = 0.69 x 247 = 170 kl\ m
tal For the middle wip
M 77 X lOt'> - OJ
btf'}~l 4000 > :2()5Z X 25 - O. S
f-rom the lever-arm curve. rigure 4.5. /., = 0.98 ( 0.95 ). therefore
M 77 x 106
A,
0.!\((vl:: 0.87 X 500 X 0.95 X 205
2
909mm

= Provide ~.: I even evenly ~paced Ill2 burs ::1:. top steel (A 1 1243 mm 2 ) lo !-.ati:.fy
400 mm maximum spacing limit.
(b) For the column strip
6
M 170 X 10 = 0.0 29
btf""iJ..l 2500 X 3052 X 25
From the lever-arm curve. figure 4.5. 1. = 0.97 ( > 0 95). therefore
6
M 170 X 10
A = --=
' 0 X7f,l:_ 0.87 X 500 X 0.95 X 305
1
- 1349mm
Provrde H 12 bars a\ top steel at 200 centres. This ill cqui-.alcnt to fourteen bar~
(A, 1582 mm1 ) over the full 2.5 m width of the column Mrip. The bending
reinforcement requirements arc summarhed in figure 8.14.
234 Reinforced concrete design

figure 8.14 t Column {Column

Detail$ of bending I
reinforcement 11H12- 400 11 H12- 400

,
>

16H12-250each way

(a) Middle stnp4.0m wide

14H12-200e.w 14H12- 200 e.w

14'--<-'--> •
12HI2 -210

(b) Column strip 2.5 m wide

Punching shear
1. At the column hC<td
perimeter u0 = 1r x diameter of column head
- ;r x 1200 = J770mm
7r ,
'hear force Vw - F J.2·n 695 676.4kN
4
To aiiO\\ for the effects of moment tran,fcr. \ i' incrca~cd hy 15 per cent for an
intcmal column. thu'
\'fd rtt = l 15 676.4 778 J..N

Ma\imum permissible \hear furce.

vRd !nO\
()5
• Ll
d[o6(1- 25(}
,
1-~)].1~~
1.5

= 0.5 X J770 X 305 X [().() (I 25 )] 25

250 1.5 x I
0 , 5174kN

thus Vnd,rtf is signifieun()y lc:.s than VR11, ,,," .

2. The nr~t critical section for ~henr i~ 2.0 X effective depth from the face of
the column head. that is. a section of diameter 1.2 t 2 x 2.0 x 0.305 2.42 m.
(i.e. within the drop panel).
Thus the length of the perimeter 11 1 rr >< 2420 7602 mm

Uhimate shear force, \!Ed= 695- ~ x 2.42 2 1< 16.4 620k'l

VU!cft = 1.15 X 620 713kN

l·or the unrcinforced section

VRd.r = I'Rd cll td 7602 X 305
= I'Rd c X
!()() X 1582 ?
With Pt = Py = Pz = x
2500 305
= 0.-1~
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 23!

thus from table 8.2, vRd.c = 0.47 Nlmm~; therefore

VRd c =0.47 X 7602 X 305 X 10-~ = 1090k..~

A~ VFA er1 is less than I'Rd.c the section 1s adequate. and shear reinforcement i!. not
needed.
3. At the dropped panel the critical section i~ 2.0 x 205 = 410mm from the panel with
a perimeter given by
II =(2a + 2b 2;r X 2d)
= (4 x 2500+27:" x 410) = 12576mm
The area within the perimeter is given by
2
(2.5 I Jd} (4 - r.}(2.0 X 0.205) 2
(2.5 -J 3 X 0.205) 2 - (4- r.)(0.41Q} 2
9.559 m2
Ultimat·e ~henr force.
Vrtl 695 - 9.559 X 16.4 = 538 J..N
Ml

Vw<11 = 1.15 538=6191-.N

VRd, = I'Rd.c lld where u 12576mm and tl 205mm
JOQ X J582 ,
PI 'l
_suo 1-0.5 = 031%. thus from table 8.2 ''Rd ,c ?' 0.55 N/mm·

hence
\'Kd ~ 0.55 12, 576 > 205
14181-.~

A~ I Ld c11 is lcs' than VR,, , the section b adequate.

INote in the above calculation p 1 has been ba~ed on column \trip reinforcement at
the support. Since the critical tone will lie partially in the middle strip. thi~ value
will be a minor over-estirnme buL is not significam in thi~ ca~e.l

Span-effective depth ratios

At the centre or the ~pan
e 01 I OOA ~. •eq JO() x 1605 = 0. 20
-1 m. /it/ 4(){)0 X 205
Prom ligure 6.3 the limiting basic ~pan-effective depth ratio i., 32 for clas1- C25 concrete
and thi~ i~ multiplictl by a K factor of 1.2 for n flat slab (!.ce table 6.1 0) giving
J2 X 1.2 384.
actual ~pan effective depth ratio 6500/ 205 = 31 7
Hence the slab effetl!\C depth i~ acceptahle. To take care of '>tabilit} requ1remcnt~. cxLra
reinforcement may be ncccs'ary in the column stnps to act as a tic hetween each pair of
columns ~ee section 6.7, and the requirement for at lca~t two bottom bar.. to pa~s
through each column will be satisfied by the spacings calculated above and sho" n in
figure 8.14.
236 Reinforced concrete design

8.7 Ribbed and hollow block floors

Cross-sections through a ribbed and hollow block floor slab are shown in figure 8.15.
The ribbed floor is formed u~ing temporary or permanent shuttering while the hollow
block floor IS generally com.tructed with blocks made of cia> tile or '' ith concrete
containing a lightweight aggregate. If the blocks arc suitably manufactured and have
adequate strength they can be considered to contribute to the strength of the slab in the
design calculations. but in many design~ no such allowance is made.
The principal advantage of the~c floors is the reduction in weight achieved by
removing part or the concrete below the neutral ax i), and, in the ca'e of the hollow block
lloor. replacing il with a lighter form of construction. Ribbed and hollow block lloors
are economical for buildings where there are long spans. over about 5 m, and light or
moderate live load,, such a<; in hoi>pital wards or apartment buildings. They would not
he suitable for Slrut:turcs having a heavy loading, such as warehouses and garages.

Figure 8. 15
Sections through ribbed and
hollow block floor~. and waffle
slab

(a) Sectton through a rtbbed lloor

II I
=s==--
1! I
Supporting beam

Solid end se<tion --,

--d
-l
r - 1r- 1 r- 1 r 1 -, r -
E
Ill 1 I I I I
-- -- r--- 1 r----- I I I I

21 I r - 1r - ' r -
I I I
- 1r
II I I I I

·f il l r -, r - 1 r - 1 r - 1 r - 1 r -
~IiI 1 ~- ~ -- ~ ~- ~ ~-~ '-S
"'
II I I I I I I I I I I

I· I
~-'-'- 11 -'\),..--1-1~ I I

light mesh

t=J; o ..M. o ..o ..o ..n

(b) Parttal plan of Clnd section through a waffle slab

(c) Section through a hollow b lock floor

 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 23i

:\car to the supports the hollO\\ blocks are Mopped off and the slab i~ made solid. This
.. 1ne to achieve a greater shear ~trength. and if the slab i~ supported by a monolithic
,crete beam the solid section acts as the tlange of a T-section. The ribs should he
.ecked for shear at their junction with the solid ~; lab. lt is good practice to stagger the
'Ih of the hoUow blocks in adjacent rows so that. as they arc stopped off. there is no
::11pt change in cross-section extending acros~ the slab. The slabs arc usually made
hJ under partitionl> and concentrated loads.
During construction the hollow tiles should be well soaked in water prior to placing
.: concrete. otherwise shrinkage cracking of the top concrete flange 1~ liable to occur.
The thickness of tJ1e concrete flange should not be less than:
1. 40 mm or one-tenth of the clear distance between ribs. whichever is the greater. fnr
slabs with permanent blocks:
2. 50 mm or one-tenth of the clear distance between nbs. whichever ll> the greater. for
slabs without pcnnanent blocks.
these requirements are not met. than n check of longitudinal shear between web und
i ...ngc should be mude to see if additional tran~verl'e steel il> needed
The rib width will be governed hy cover. bar-spacing ami lire resi~tunce (!.ection 6.1 ).
The rihs !)hould be ~raced no further apart than 1.5 m and their depth below the flange
'hould not be greater than four times their width. Transver~c rihs should he provided at
'lacings no greater than ten tune~ the overall slab depth
Provided that the above dimen"onal rcqu1remt!nt~ arc met. nbbcd ~lab~ can he treated
or annly!>it-. as solid ~lah1-. and the clcl>ign rcquiremt!nts can be based on tho~e of a solid
,Jab. Calculaticms of reinforcement will require evaJualion of effective llangc breadths
;.Nng the procedurel> de1-crihcd for T-bcam-. in Chapter 7.
Ribbed :-.labs will he del>igned for ~hear u-;ing the approach described previously With
?, taken us the breauth of the rib. Although no &pccific guiuance ~~ given in EC2,
previou!> practice suggests that. where hollow block!-i urc used, the rib width may be
mcrea'\ed by the wall thickncs~-o of the block on one sitlc of the rib.
Span effective depth ratioo; \\Ill be based on the 'horter span \\ ith the ba:-.ic values
21ven 111 ligurc 6.3 multiplied by 0.8 where the ratio of the Oange width to the rih width
exceeds 3. Again, no specifi~.: guidance i~> given in the Code but previous practice
'uggcsts that the thidness of the rih width may include the thickness of the two adjacent
bloc!. walls.
At least 50 per cent of the tensile reinforecmcm tn the ~pun ~hould continue to the
supports and be anchored. In some instance~ the slabs are i>llpported by steel henrm and
an! de:-.igncd as s1mply supported even though the topping i\ cominuou.:;. Reinforcement
-.hould he provtded over the suppOrt!> to prevent cracl.1ng 111 these ca~e~. This top !>tee!
<;hould be determtned on the basts or 25 per cent or the lllld-span moment and ~hould
extend at lca~t 0.15 of the cleur span into the adjoining span.
A light reinforcing mesh in the topping nange can give added 11trcngth and durubility
10 the sluh, particular!> if there are concentrated or moving loads. or 1f cracking due to
~hrinkage or thermal movement t<; likely. The m1111mum area of reinforcement reqUired
to control shrinkage und thermal cracking can be calculated, as given in chapter 6, but
established practice suggests that an area of rnesh equivalent to 0. 13 per cent of the
topping ftangc will be adequate.
Waffle slab!. arc designed as ribbed slab~ and thetr de~ign moment~ each way arc
obtained from the moment coefficients tabulated in table 8.5 for two-way spanning
slahs.
238 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 8 .8

Design of a ribbed floor

The ribbed floor is coru.tructcd with permanent fibrcglasJo. moulds: it b continuous over
several spans of 5.0 m. The charJcteristic material Mrcngths are fcL = 25 Nlmm2 and
f>l = 400 N/mm 2 .
An effective section. as shO\\n in figure lU6. which satisfie, requirements for ..
60 minute fire resistance {see table 6.5) is to he tried. The characteri.,tic permanent load
including self-weight and finishe~ 111 4.5 I.. N/m~ and the charactcriMic variable load i~
2.5 1..N/m 2•
The cuJculaLions are for an end ~pan {which wi ll be most critical) for which the
moments and shears can be determined from the ~.:oefficient::. in tnble 8.1.
Considering a 0.4 m width of floor ns supportctl hy each rib:
Ultimate loud = 0.4( 1.35g~ + l.5qd
= 0.4( 1.35 X 4.5 I 1.5 X 2.5)
3.93 kN/m
Ultimate load on the span. F = 3.93 >< 5.0 19.65 kN

Bending
(I) At mid-~pan de:.ign a~ a T-sl.!ction:
M ::: 0.086F/ = 0.086 x 19.65 x 5.0 R.45 k'l m
The dfl.'Cti H~ brcatlth uf nange h. . + btlll + bclf'J (\CC \CCII On 7.... ) \\here
b,u 1 ::: belr1 0. 2b, I 0 1/u < 0.2/o b1
\\ 11h /1 1 ( 400- 125!12 == l37 rnm antl/0 O.X5 x 5000 4250 mm

h. . + brttl +ben~ = 125 + 2(0.2 x 137 0.1 x 4250) 1030 mm

or 0.2 x 4250 X50 mm
which both cxccetl the rih spacing of 400mm, whidl govern~
6
M 8.45 X 10 = O.OJ3
bd~j;.~ = 40() X 1602 X 25

Figure 8.16 2 Hl 0 above each rib

Ribbed slab

span= 5.0m

200

Cross· section at mid-span

 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 239

hom the lever-ann curve. figure 4.5. la = 0.98 ( > 0.95). Thus the neutral axis
depth lies within the flange and
6
A,
M
= 0.87i)kfad - 0.87 X 8.45 X 10

5()() X 0.95 X J6Q

12R mm~

Pro,ide t\\0 HIO ban. in the ribs. A,= 157mm~.

2. At the end interior o;upport de~ign as a rectangular ~ection for the 'olid ~lah:

M 0.086FI 0.086 x 19.65 x 5.0- 8.45 k:-.1 m as in ( I )

and /\, 128 mm 2 as at mid-span
Provide two H 10 bars in each 0.4 m width of slab. A1 = 157 mm!.
3. At the section where the ribs terminate: this occur~ 0.6 m from the centreline of the
.~upport and the moment may be hogging so that 125 mm rib:. mu~t provid<.: the
concrete area in compression to resist the design moment. The maximum moment or
rei.iswnce of the concrete is
M (), 167/..~/u/2 0.167 X 25 X 125 X 1 60~ X 10 -~
= 13.36 kNm
which mu"t be greater than the moment at thi~ section. therefore compre.,~ion ~teeI is
not rcquirctl.

Span-effective depth ratio

At the centn: of the ~pan

I = I OOA lt.9_ = I()() X 128 = 0 10%

I hd 400 160 ·-
f-rom figure 6.3 and table 6.10 the limiting basic "pan-effective depth ratio (p = 0.3%)
for an end 'pan 1s 32 I J 41.6.
For H T-section with ll nangc \\ idth gre<lter than three times the weh width thi~ ~hould
be multiplied by 0.8 to give a limiting rmio of 0.8 x 41.6 33.2.
actual ~<.pan effective depth ratio = 5000/ 160 = 31.3
Thus d 160 mm is adequate.

Shear
Maximum ~h<.:11r in the rih O.<i m from the support centreline (end spnn)
V1 11 0.6F 0.6 X 3.93 0.6 X 19.65 0.6 X 3.93 9.43kN
A, 157
PI=- 0.0079
bd 125 X J60
hom tublc 1!.2. the ~hear resistance without reinforcement VRd ..: = "Rd.,bd where
I'Rd.0.6R N/mm 2 and, from table 1!.3. the Mrength modification factor= 0.94. llcncc:
Vkd c 0.94 < 0.68 X 1:!5 X 160 = 12.78k
A~ VRo, i' grcatcr than \'1:<.1 then no l>hcar n:inforccmcnt i~ rcqutrcd pro\ided that the

l_______________________________________________)
bar~ in the rib~ arc ~ccurcly located during conl>truction.
240 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 8 .9

Design of a waffle slab

Del>ign a waffle <tlab for an internal panel of a Ooor S}stem. each panel ~panning 6.0 rn in
each direction. The characteristic material ~trength~ are kl - 25 :-.f/mrn1 and
J,~ = 500 '/rnm2 • The !.Cction a-. u~cd in example 8.8. figure 8.16 i!. to be tried with
characteristic permanent load including ~elf-weight of 6.0 lu'.i/m 2 and characteristic
variable load of 2.5 kN/m 2•
Oe~ign ultimate load = (l35gk + I .5ql)
= (1.35 x 6.0) f (1.5 x 2.5) = I t.RS kN/m~
A:, the slab ha~ the same span in each uircction the moment coefficients. .J", .d~y arc
taken from table 8.5 with fy/1~ = l.O. Calculations nrc given for n single 0.4 m wide
beam section and in both clirct.:tll.ln~ of !>pan.
Bending
1. At mid-span: design a:. a T -sect ion.
Positive moment at mid-~pan 111" , 'i,~nf~

0.024 v I I .85 < 62 I0.24 k:'-lm/m

Moment carried by each rih 11.-l x 10.24 = 4. 10kNm
M 4.10 X 10~
0.016
bt/'fd = 4(XJ X 160~ X 25
where the effecth e breadth 1s 400 mm as 111 the pn!\JOU' c\nmple.
Prom the lever-arm cur\C. f1gurc t5./ 0 95. Thu~ the neutral U\Jl> lie:. \\ith.in the
flange and
M -tto to~>
A, =----=- 62 rnrn'
O.S7f~k;: 0.87 X 500 X 0.95 160
Pro ville two HI 0 bars 1n cat.:h r1h at the bottom nt the beam, A, 157 mmZ to satisty
minlfllum requirement of0.13bd% 0.0013 x 400 x 160 H3mm 2/rib. Note that
~incc the service ~>lre~>s in the ~tee l wi lt be reduced, thil\ wi ll kutl to a higher spun-
effective ch.:pth ratio thus ensuring that the spon- effet.:tive depth ratio of the slab is
kept wi thin acccptubll: limit~.
2. At the support: design as a rectangular ~>Cction for the \Oiid slab.
Negative moment at support m,, !1"111; 0.01 I x I I.R5 x b~
= 13.22 kN m/m
Moment carried by each 0.4 m width 0.4 < I 3.22 5.29 kN m
M 5.29 X 101>
btJ2fcl. 4()() X 160~ X 25
2
O.Q l

hom the lever-arm curve, figure 4.5 1. = 0.95. Thu.,

M 5.29 X 1011
A, = - - - - 80mm 2
0.87.1;~,:: 0.87 y 500 0.95 ) 160
Provtde two HI 0 ha~ in each OA m v. idth of 'lab . ./\, 157 mm 2 .
 1
Design of reinforced concrete slabs 241

3. At the l>cttion where the ribs terminate: the maximum hogging moment of rc'istance
of the concrete ribs is 13.36 kJ.'l m. as in the prcviou!> example. Thi~ b greater than
the moment at this section. therefore compression :.tecl is not required.

Span-effective depth ratio

IOOA ~ req _ 100 x 62 = 0.096~
be/ 4()() X 160
hence from tigure 6.3, limiting basic span depth ratio J2 )( 1.5 (for interior 1-~pan)
X 0.8 (for nange > .1 X web thickness) when p < O.JCJr.
Thw. allowable ratio = 32 x 1.5 x 0.8 = 38.4
actunl - span = 6000 = 37.5
effective depth 160
Thus d = 160 mm is just adequate. It ha:-. not been necesl-tilry here to allow for the
increased ~pun/effective tlcrth resulting from providing an incn.:ascd steel aren. t h u ~
con~iclenu ion could be given to reducing the rib reinforcement to two II X bars ( I 0 I mm 2)
which :-till sat i!>lie!. nominal rcquircml.!nts.
Shear

From Tahle 3.6 in the Desifollll!rs Guide (ref. 20) the shear force cocflicicnt for a
wntinuous edge suppol1 is 0.33. I lence, for one rib, the shear at the 'upport
1',, ~"11/, v /)- 0 33 )I 11 .85 X 6 X 0.4- 9.38k:--J
Ma~1mum \hear 111 the rib 0.6m from the centre-line''
\;Ld 9.18 0.6 )I 1185 >< 0.4 = 6.5-tk:-1
Atthl\ po~IIIOil. vi(oJ' l'l!oJ., 125 X. 160 and
100/\ 100 )( 157
PI
btl 125 X 16()
hence from table 8.2, I'Rd, = 0.68 N/mm1 and from table 8.3 K 0.94
1
.'. VRrlr 0.68> 0.94x 125x 160 x 10 12.8 J..N
Therefore the unrcinl orccd ~>Cellon i~ adcqume 111 shear, and no linJ..~ arc rctJuircd
provided thut the bars in the ribs arc 1->Ccurcly located during const ruction.
Reinforcement In the topping flange
Light reinforcing mc~h should he provided in the tOp of the nungc.
Area required 0.13 x b x il/ 100 0. 13 x 1000 x 60/100 = 7Hmm 2/m
Providc D98 mesh (sec tahlc A.5), A, 98 mm 2/m.
l~·-------------------------------------------)

8.8 Stair slabs

The U\ual form of stam. can be classified into two type:-.: ( I ) tho'c :-.pannmg horiLontall)
in the tran~ver<;e direction, and (2) those spanning longitudinall).
242 Reinforced concrete design

8.8.1 Stairs spanning horizontally

Stairs of this type may be supported on both sides or they may be cantilevered from a
'iupporting wall.
Figure 8.17 shows a starr supported on one -;ide by a wall and on lhc olher b) a
'tringer beam. Each step is usually designed a<; ha\'10£ n breadlh b and an effective
depth of d = D/2 as '>hown 10 the figure: a more ngorous annly&i& of lhc section i'
rarely justified. Distribution steel in the longitudinal dtrection is placed above the main
reinforcement.
Detaill> of a cantilever stair are shown in figure R.l8. The effective depth of the
member i~ taken as the me<ul effective depth of the M:ction and the main reinforcement
must be placed Ln the top of the stairs and anchored into the support. A light mesh ot
reinforcement is placed in the bottom face to resi~t !\hrinl.agc cracking.

Figure 8.17
Stairs )pdnning horiLonlcllly .... o

Stringer Distribution steel

be~m

Section A A
'
Waost
....

Figure 8.18
Cantilevered SltllrS
s-1
:= : = : = : = : = : ~
·- -- --·- ·- -- ,
#
Mdin
rconforcement Light mesh

• I I I I
td
r
II
• •
Ligh t mesh
8
Section B-B
~
~ _SP-~n

8.8.2 Stair slab spanning longitudinally

The l>tair -;lah may span into landings which <.pan at right angles to the stairs as in
11gure R.l9 or it may span between supporting beam\ as in ligure R.20 of example 8.1 0.
The permanent load is calculated along the slope length of the stain. hut the variable
load il> b~bcd on the plan area. Loads common on two spans which intersect at right
angles and surround an open \\CII may he assumed to be dtvided equally between lhe
!.pan&. The effective span (/) i'> mea~urcd hori7ontally between the centres of Lhe
:.upports and lhe thickness of lhc wai'>t (h) i~ taken a-; the slnb thickness.
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 243

Figure 8.19
Stairs spanning into landings

Stair ~lab!. which arc continuous and constmcted monolithit:ally \\'ith their supporting
ah~ or beam~ cun oc
<.bign~.:d for a bending moment of say Fl I 10. where F ~~the total
Ill mate load. llowcvcr. in many in~Lances tht: ~lain.. are preca~t or con~tructed after the
ma111 ~tructure. pod.et!. with dowel!> being left in the )Upporting beam~ to retch c the
tatr.... and with no apprectablc end re~traint the dc~ign moment l>hould he 1'1/R.

( EXAMPLE 8 . 10
Design of a stair slab
The 'tair' arc of the type ~ho~n in figure 8.20 11panning longitudinally and :.et into
pudet' in the two ~upporting beam~. The effective lipan i., 3m and the ri~e of the Main..
'' l .S m with 260 mm treads and I 50 mm ri,ers. The variable load is lO k N/m ' and the
chnrncteri&lic material ~trcnglhs arc .fc~ 30 N/mm~ and .h·~ 500 N/mml.
Try a 140 mm thick waist, cffc<:tivc depth. d - 11 5 mm. Thb would give an initinl
e~ timnte of the &pnn-cffcctivc depth ratio of 26. 1 (3000/ II 5) whi<:h. from table 6. 10,
lies n lillie above the basic value for a 'lightly stressed' simply :-.uppmlctl slah.
H12 - 400
l 'o
Figure 8.20
Stairs supported by beams

.,E

EHective depth, d = 1 I 5

H12-400
Span 3.0m _
244 Reinforced concrete design

Slope length of stairs= ~- 5}) = 3.35 m

Consider a I m width of stairs:
Weight of waist plus step1oo = (0.14 x 3.35 + 0.26 x 1.5/ 2)25
= 16.60kl'\
Variable load 3.0 >. 3 9.0 k,
Ultimate load, F = 1.35 x 16.60 1.5 x 9.0 - 35.9li..N
With no effective end restraint:
Fl 35.9 1 X 3.0 _ k.N
M 146
if 8 ' -· m
Bending reinforcement
M 13.46 X 106 _
34
bdlfck 1000 X 1152 X 30 - O.O.
From the lever-arm curve, figure 4.5, /J = 0.95 (the maximum nonnnlly adopted in
practice). therefore
M 13.46 x 10"
A - ---- - 283 mm 1/m
• - O.X7/yk<: - O.R7 X 500 X 0.95 X 115
Maximum allowable spacing is 311 3 < 140 420 mm with an uppl!r limit of 400 rum.
Provide Hl2 bars at 300 mm cen tre~. area 377 mm1/m.
Span-effective depth ratio
At the centre of the 'pan
1001\, '"'" = 100 " 377 - () l'\
bel I 000 x I 15
which i:.. greater than the minimum reqUirement of 0.15 for clas~ CJO concrete (sec
Table 6.8).
f'rom table 6.10 the basic span-effective depth ratio ror u simply supported span with
f1rn1 0.5% is 20. Allowing for the actual steel area provided:
limiting span-effective depth ratio 20 x A, pnlV I A,. rc4
= 2() X 377/283 26.6
actual spun-effective depth ru1io 3000/ 11 5 26.09
lienee the slab effective depth is acceptuhle. (Note that the allowable nuio will actually
be greater than estimated above since the required ~led ratio is lcs., than the 0.5% used
with l!lblc 6.10.)
Secondary reinforcement
Tranwerse diStribution ~tecl 2: O.::!A, nun = 0.2 'X 377 75 .-l mm'tm
l11is i~ very small. and adequately co,crcd by II I0 bar~ at the maxtmum allowable
),pacing of 400 mm centres. area 174 mm 'lm.
Continuity bars at the top and bottom of the l>pan :.hould be provided and. wherea<.
about SO per cent of the main Mccl would be reasonable, the max1mum <,pacing i!> limited
to 400mm. Hence provide, ~ay. II I::! bars at 400 mm cemres a' continuity Meel. )
l~--------------------------------------------
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 245

8.9 Yield line and strip methods

•r cac;cs \\hich are more complex a<, a result of sbapc. suppon condition!-.. the pre~ence
· ilpening<,, or loading conditionl> it rna} be worth\\ hilc adopung an ullunate analy~i'
.ethod. The two pnncipal approaches are the yield line method. \\hich i~ pantcularly
table for -.Jab\ wuh a complex shape or concentrmcd loading. and the ),lnp method
11ch ts valuable \\ohere the slab contains opening<;.
l'hese method\ have heen the subject of research. and arc \\ell documented although
C) are ol a relati\cly specwltsed nature. A tmef tntroduction is mcludl'tl here to
u'tratc the gem:ral principle~ and features of the methods. \\hkh nrc rarticularl)
uahlc in ass1Ming an understanding or failure mechanism\. In practical tlc,lgn
uatinns care must he taken to allov..· for the effect!-. of tie-down fnrcl..'s at cmnl..'t s and
'1on ut free edges of slabs.

8.9. 1 Yield line method

T' e capacity of reinforced concrete to sustain pla;tic tlefomlation hn~ bcl.!n clc~crihed in
lion 3.6. l·or an under-reinforced section the capacity to develop curvature'> between
hr<.t yield of reinforcement and failure due to cntshing of concrete i' mnsiderable.
Fe .t '>lab which is suhJected to tncreasing load, c.:mcktng and reinforcement yic.:ld \\' Ill
t occur Ill the mo't highly ~tres~ed Lone. Th1' wtll then aLt a' u pla,ttc hinge "'
''equcnt load' arc distrihutcd to other region\ oJ' the <ilah. Cruch \~til den•lop to form
pattern ol 'yield line~· until a mechant'm i' formed and collap'c i" tndtcatcd hy
,rcastng detlecttOn\ under COtl\lant load. To CINifC that adeqlt:tte pla\llC uefonllallon
• n take place the Cock -.pcciflc, thai !>lab~ Je,tgncd h) the yield line methou nut't h.:
rc nforccu \\ llh Cia" B or(' (medium or IHghl ducltllly Meel nnd thc ratio 1/ cl 'hould
•I exceed 0.25 lor concrete up to Clas~ C50/60.
hn continuou!> ~>lab:-. the mtcn11cdiate suppon moment 'hould al'o lie between hall'
1J t\.\ icc the mugllttudc of the ~pun moments.
It 1:-. a'Mnnl.!d that a pallern of yield line~ can be ~uperimpo,cd on the !-.lah. which w1ll
IU'c a collupsc mcchani~m. and that the.: regions between yield line' remain rigid anu
'lCrtld.ed. Pigurc lU I ~>how:-. the yield line mechnnii>m which wi ll occur lor the ~implc
1'e of n lixeu endl.!u ,,lah f>panning in one direction with n uniform load. Rotation aloug
•e yield lines wi II occur at a constnnt moment equal t.o the ull imarc.: moment 111

Yield line)
Figure 8.21
Development of yield lmes

FIXI'd
supports

Plastic hinges
246 Reinforced concrete design

resistance of the section. and will absorb energy. This can be equated to the energy
expended by the applied load undergoing a compatible displacement and is known as
the virtual work method.
Considerable care must be taken over the selection of likely yield line patterns. since
the method wi ll give an ·upper hound· 1.olmion. that is. either a correct or unsafe
solution. Yield lines will form at right <mglcs to bending moments which have reached
the ultimate moment of resistance of the slab. and the following rule1. may be helpful:

1. Yield lines are usually \traight and end at a slab boundary.

2. Yield lines \\ill lie along axes of rotation. or pa'" through thelJ' points of
mter!-cction.
3. Axes t)f rotation lie along 'upportcd edges. pass over column-. or cut unsupPQrtcd
edge\.

In !-implc cases the alternative paltcms to be considered will be readily determined on

the ba1-.i~ of common ~en'>c, while for more complex cases difTerenlial calcu l u~ may be
used. The danger of mis~ing the critical layout of yield lines, and thus obtaining an
incorrect 'olution. mean" that the method can only be used wi1h confidence b)
c\petienced dc.,igners.
A number of typical panern~ urc 'hown in figure 8.22.

Simple supports -
Figure 8.22 ~
Exdmples of yield line patterns

! Fixed support

Positive yield line

- -_ ~. ......
....
Axes or rotation

Negattve yteld line

Axe) ol rotation

' Column

rr~e edge

A yield line caw;ed hy a sagging moment is generally referred to a-. a ·positive' yield
line and i~ represented hy n full line, while a hogging momcm causing cracking on lhc
top surface of the ~lab cuuses a 'negative' yield line shown by :.1 broken line.
The basic approach of the method i:; illustrated for the ~ imple case of a one-way
spanning slab in example B. II
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 247

( EXAMPLE 8 . 11 I
Simply supported, one-way spanning rectangular slab

The ~lab ~>h0\\11 in figure 8.23 is ~ubjected to a uniformJy distributed load'' per unit area.
Longitudinal reinforcement is provided as indicated giving a uniform ultimate moment
of resi~tance m per unit \\idth.

Lonttudinal
retn orc;ement Fig ure 8.23
One-way spanntng slab

~ ' ~

I~
Yield m --

el ~
line

' I ~ ~
Pldn
Hinge

Collapse mechanism

The ma"<unum moment w1ll occur at mid!>pan and a poltlll\c } ield line can thus be
'upenmpo:.ed a~ ~>h<m n. If this ill con,idered to be subject to a 'mall di\placcmcnt ..l.
then

external work done area x load x average dbtanee moved for each rigid half nf
the slah
=;(nLx~) xu· x~
therefore
I ,
total n£,· ~t·~
2
Jnternul energy absorbed by rotation along thl; yield line 1s
moment x rotation x length - mdJoL
where

G>~2(~)
0.5£,
4~
L
hence
imcmal energy 4mo ~

thu~ equating mtemal energy abi>orbed \\ilh external work done

I '
2 n /' "1\'..l or m a:. anticipated
248 Reinforced concrete design

Since the displacement ~ is eliminated. this will generally be set to unity in calculations
of this type.
In the simple case of example 8.11. the yield line cro<.sed the reintorcement at right
angle" and transverse steel wa~ not imoh ed in bending calculations. Generally. a yield
line willl1e at an angle 0 to the orthogonal to the main reinforcement and will thus also
c:ro~s tranwer~e <>teel. The ultimate moment of rc i~tance developed is not easy to define.
but Johan~en·~ stepped yield criteria i~ the mo~t popular approach. Th1s a~'iumes that an
inclined y1eld line consis~ of a number of Meps. each orthogonal to a reinforcing bar :b
shown in figure 8.~4.

Yield line
Figure 8.24 ... ;
Stepped yield line ray ~

14]: tJ
I
m,
- I - ..."C3
/
- / , €

-/ l11nH m1 bm0
"""
Remforcement Stepped Yield lin<' Movem<'nt Vectors

II the ultimate moments of re~IStance pro\ 1ded hy ma111 and tranwcrsc steel arc m1
and 111~ ~r unit width. it foliO\\' that for cquihhnum of the vector. :-.h0\\0. the ultimate
momcnr of re~i~tance normal to the } 1eld Ime llln p.:r unit length is given by

hence

In the extreme ca~e of n 0. this reduce.-. to 1110 111 1, and ''hen m1 - m2 - m, then
111 11 111 for any value of 0. Thh. Iauer ca:-.c oJ an orthotropically reinforced sluh
(rcin!'orcement mutually perpendicular) with equal moment' of re~>iswnce i,-. said to be
isotrop1cally reinforced.
When applying thi~ approach to complex situations it i~ often difficult to calculate the
lengths and rotations of the yield lines. and a !.imple vector notation can be used. The
total moment component mn can be resolved vectorial ly in the .\ and v direction~ :mel
since internal cncrg)' dissipation along a y1elcl line is given by moment x rotation x
length it follow~ that the energy di,s1pated hy rotation of yield line~ bounding any rigid
area is given by

\\here m, and m, are }ield momenh 111 dm:ction~ x Jnd 1. I, and /> art: projections of
) 1eld line!'> along each axi'>. and ~~, and ¢) arc rotation~ about the axe~. Th1~ 1~ illustrated
in example 8.12.
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 249

( EXAMPLE 8. 12 J
Slab simply supported on three sides
The ~lab !>hown in figure 8.15 supports a uniformly distrihuted load (u.d.J.) of,,. pa umt
area.

IlL
Figure 8.15
X y
Slab supported on three sides

m1===::
.....::
mJIII 8

Internal energy absorbed (E) for unit displacement at points X and Y

Area A
EA m,l,t'J, + m) l yr:>y
\\here c:1, - 0: hence
I n
L, m 1nL x JL m1 J

Area B
L'll m,l,¢, m,lyO~

\\here m} - 0: hence
I
21111 'JL X
· ctL
hence total for all rigid an.:a)> i~

External work done

This can also be calculated for each region separately
I . I I ,
W" -(nLxdL)u•x - wodL·
2 3 6
Wa = [~ 11'<1 3/} +of.(~- Jf.) I ' X~] X1
' of there lore
:rated total 21\'A + IVo
I '
_) =6o(3- 23)hr
250 Reinforced concrete design

Hem:c equaling internal and external work, the max1mum u.d.l. that the slab can !>Ustain
is given by
..,- (
-mta -nh
1 J1) x 6 - llltO ~ -1112 _,..J1)
_ J?(
,- , ,
ai - o(3 - 2 3)1.- o·L-(311- 2 1·)
ltts clear that the rc!>ull will var) according to the \alue of J. The maximum value of
11· may be obtained by trial and error using se,·eral values of 3. or alternatively. b)
di ftcrentiation. let m2 = Jllllt. then
12m d n 2 11,12 )
II'
n~L2(3;J- 2J2)

and

tl{ml /w) =0 will give the aitical value of I'J

d,8
hence
JrtrJ2 + 4o 2 ;~- 3n2 =o
and

~]
,\ m:gah\e value 1~ 1mpossihlc. hence the critical \aluc of ,j for usc in the analyc;il> ''
gi' en b} the posll1ve mot.

8.9.2 Hilleborg strip method

Thi!-t is based on the 'lower hound' concept of plu-,tic theory which suggests that it J
~trcil~ c.Ji~tribuuon throughout a Mructurc cnn be found "'hich sati'>fies all eqUJiibnum
t'onditions without violating yield critcriu, then the structure is safe for the
corrc~pond1ng system of external loath. Although safe. the '>Lructure will not necessaril)
be ~erv1ceahle or economic. hence considerable sktll is required on the part of the
engineer in selecting a suitable distribution of bending moment~ on which the ucsign
cnn be ba~ed. Detailed analysi~ or a slab designed on thi~ basi~ is not necessary. but the
cle~igner\ structural sense and 'feel' for tile way loads are transmitted to the support~
are of prime imporwncc.
Although this method for design of slabs wa~ proposed hy ll il lcborg in the 1950s.
developments by Wood and Armer in the 1960s havc pmduced it~ currently used form.
The method can be applied to slab~ of any shape, and a~sume:-. that at fnilure the load
will he carried by bending in either the x or y direction separately with no twisting
action. llcncc the title of ·strip method'.
Considering a rectangular ~lah ~1mply ~upported on four ~ides and carrying a
uniformly di!.tributed load. the load may be expected to he di'itributed to the supports in
the manner shown in figure R.26.
Judgement will be required to detcnnine the nngle c\. but 11 can be !'teen that if
n 90 the slab w11l be a'>sumed to be one-way spanning and. although safe. is unlikely
to be servtceable because of cracking near the upports along the r axis. Hillcborg
'>Uggcsts that for such a !>lab. n should be 45 . The load dtagrams causing bending
moments along typical <,lrip-. spanning each direction are also shown. It will be seen that
 Design of reinforced concrete slabs 251

-o
c
Figure 8.26
..
0
"O""
-o 'Q.
~·:::
·~
-"".,..
Assumed load distributions

(8 2-
Load

Load and B.M.O

Strip A

he ultcrnalive pallern. :-.uggcsled by Wood and Armer, in ligur~; R.27 will .~imp l ify the
design, and in this case live :-.trips in each direction may be conveniently used as ~hown.
Each of these will be designed in hending for ils particular lonuing, as if it were one-way
'panning using rhe method~ of ~ection BA. Reinforcement will he arrunged uniformly
across each strip. to produce an overall pattern of reinforcement bands in two dirct:tion-..
Suppon reactions can also be obtained very simply from each strip.
The approach 1s particularly suitable for ltlabs \\ith openings. in \\hich ca~c
'trengthcncd hamh can be provided round the opening-. with the remainder olthc \lah
divided 1nto ~trips ttlo. appropriate. A typical pattern of thi-. type I'> -;ho\\ n in hgure H.2R.

Suggl!)ted Strips
Figure 8.27
lC ~.
load distribution according to
Wood and Armer

$'.:. j
Q. Note
E
VI
::. I ! Strips
x, andx,
It!!
~ "'~ I y andy,
etc are ldentlcal
01
01
:I
I
N

'lie V>
"'
~ !- t
/ 45" .

Stiffened bands
Figure 8.28
Strong bands around
openings
 CHAPTER 9
Column
design
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
•···•················ ·•··•··•••·••··•·••·•••••••··••·•·••·•··•····•· ·•·•·····
The columns in a structure carry the loads from the beam~ and slabs down to the
foundations, and therefore they are primarily compresston members, although they
may also have to resist bending forces due to the continUity of the structure. The
analysis of a section subjected to an axial load plus bend1ng 1s dealt with in chapter 4,
where it is noted that a direct solution of the equat1ons that determine the areas of
reinforcement can be very laborious and impractical. Therefore, des1gn charts or
computers are often employed to facilitate the routine des1gn of column sections.
Destgn of columns is governed by the ultimate limit state; deflections and
cracking during service condit1ons are not usuc~lly a problem, but neverth eless
correct detailing of the reinforcement and adequate cover are important.
Many of the principles
used in this chapter fo r the
design of a column can
also be applied in a similar
manner Lo oth er types of
members that also resist an
o;~xial load plus a bending
mom ent.

252
 Column design 25 3

9.1 Loading and moments

The loading arrangcmcnL'> and the analy!>is of a 'tructuml frame have been described
with example~ in chapter 3. Tn the anal}sis it was necessal) to clas~ify the ~tructure mto
one of the following type~:
1. hraced - \\here the lateral loads are resio;ted b) shear wall;., or other form~ of bractng
capahle of transmitting all horizontal loading to the foundations. nnd
2. unbraced - where horizontal loads arc resisted h) the frame nction of rigid!)
connected column~>. beam1. and slabs.
With a braced structure the axial forces and moments in the column-; are cau~ed by
the vcnicul permanent and variable actions only. whereas with an unhraced ~>tructurc the
loading arrangements which include the effects of the lateral load~ must also be
considered.
Both braced and unhraccd strw.:turcs can be further classilied th swuy or non-swny. ln
a sway structure sideswoy is likely to significantly increase the magnitude of the
bending moments in the columns whereas in a non-sway ~>tructun: thil'l effect i~> let.s
significant. This increase of moments due ro sway. known ns n \econd order' effect. is
not considered to be significant if there is less than n 10 per cent im:rcasl! in the normal
('fir~t order') design moments as n result of the sidesway dbplacement ~ ol' the ~tructurc
Suh,tunt1ally hraced ~tructures can normally be considered to be non-:-.wny. EC'2 gives
further guidance concerning the classification of unhraeed structure'>. In thi' chapte1
only the de.,1gn of hraccd non-~wa} 'lructures will he considered.
I! For a braced \trueturc the critical arrangement of the uhnnatc loud 1s u\uall> that
which cau ... e~ the largc... t moment in the column. together" 1th a large axial load. \<;an
example. figure 9.1 'ohO\\' a building frame "ith the critical loading an·angement for the
design of it~ centre column lit the fir~t-floor k\el and al~o the left hund column at all
floor levels. When the moment!-. in column~ are !urge und particularly "llh unbraced
columm. 11 may nbo be ncces\at) to check the ca~e of ma:-.1mum moment combmed
w11h the mmimurn axial lond.
ln the case of braced lrames. the axial column force!- due to the vertical louding may
5 he calculuted as though the beam11 and slabs are simply !'>upported. provitll!d that the
If span!. on either s1de of the column differ by no mnre than 30 per cent and therc i:-. not~~
cantilever spun. In M>me ~otructures it is unlikely that all the noon, ol u huilding will
carry the full imposed load ut the same instant, therefore a reduction i!-. allowed in the
tolll l impose(.) load when design ing columns nr foundotion~ iu buildings which urc
greater than two storeys in height. Furthl!r guidun~o:c on thi), can ht! found in
OS EN 1991 1-l (Act ion), on structurl!s)

Figure 9.1
A crilicatloading arrangement
1.3SG, + l .SQ,

1.3SG, + 1,5Q,

1st t _3SG, .. 1.50\ 1.35G,

Floor 1 - - - -
254 Reinforced concrete design

9.2 Column classification and failure modes

(7 ) Slenderness ratio of a column

The ~tenderness ratio A of a column bent about an axi~ i-. given by

A=~= lo (9.1
j(I / A)
where
/ 0 r.~ the effective height of the column
i is the radiu5 of f:yrarion about the axis considered
l is the second moment of urea of the section about the axi~

A is the cross-sectional area of the t:olumn

(2) Effective height 10 of a column

The effective height of a column, 111 • i~ the height of u thcoretical column of equivalent
section but pinned at both ends. Thi~> depends on the degree ol' fixity at each end of the
column. which itself depends on the rdmivc ~tiffnesse~ of the columns and beam-.
connected to either end of the column under con:.idcration.
EC2 give' two formulae for calculating the effective height:
For braced member-;:

(9.2)

For unbraced members the larger of:

lu I /-(1+ lOk' A2) X (9.3.a)

\ k, + k:
and

lu I( I + I ~ kJ (1+ I ~\J (9.3.b)

In the above formulae, k1 and k1 arc the relative llexihilitics of the rotational restraints a1
ends ·1· and '2' of the column rcl.pectively. At each end /q and k2 can be taken as:
column stillness _ (£/ / l),..rumn (/ / /),ulurnn
L beam stiffness - L 2(£1 /1)~,: L 2(/ //)!><am
It i~ a~sumed that any column above or below the column under consideration does not
contribute anything to the rotational rc~traint of the jornt and that the &tiffness of each
connecting beam is taken a:- 2£/ f l to aiiO\\' for cracking effect'> in the beam.
Hence. for a typical column in a symmetrical frame with -;pans of approximate!}
equal length, as shown in figure 9.2. k1 and J..~ can be calculated a<.,:
kl = k~ =A = COlUmn Sti.ffnel>!l y/ /)cCllumn - (/ / llcolumn I (/ / l)cnlumn
2:: beam str ffncss "£ 2(/ / I) t.:.m 2 x 2(/ / /) btam 4 (//I) t-eam
 Column design 255

non-falling column - I Figure 9.2

Effective length calculation
beam for a column in a
End 1 symmetrical frame
failing column -
End 2

non-fatling column
9.1

Note: the effective contnbution of the non-failing

column to the JOint sttftness may be •gnored

Table 9.1 Column effective lengths

1 (f / l(olvrnn) 0 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.50 1.0 /.5 2.0

k
4 (Tj/btmnl (fixed end)
lo braced
(equation 9.2) {x/} 0.5 0.56 0.61 0.68 0.76 0.84 0.88 0.91

lo unbraced
(equation 9.3(a) 1.0 1.14 1.27 1.50 1.87 2.45 2.92 3.32
and 9.3(b)). Use
greater value {x/} 1.0 1.12 1.13 1.44 1.78 2.25 2.56 2.78

Thus. for thic, '>ituat1on typical values of column efleeti\C kngth' c~tn he tahulated
using equation~ 9.2 and 9.3 a\ ~hown in table 9.1.

(3) Limiting slenderness ratio - short or slender columns

EC2 place<; an upper limit on the ~lenderness rauo of a single memhcr below which
113.a second order effects may bc ignored. This limit i~ given by:

A11 111 20 X A X 8 X C/ VII (9.4)

where:
13 b II I /( I I· 0.2qlel )
lJ v'Tf'2w
at
C 1.7 rm
'/let effective creep ratio (if not known A can be taken a~ 0.7)
w ll,f.,.J/(IIJ"") (if not known B can be taken a~ 1.1)
.~d the design yield strength of the reinforcement
f..t~ the de~ign compressiYe strength of lhc concrete
A, = the total area of longitudinal reinforcement
II = Nr..J/(AJ'cd )

N&~ - the dc~ign ultimate axial load in the column

r 111 - M01 / Mo• (if rm not known then C can be taken"" 0.7)
Mnt- Mm are the first order moments at the end of the column with IMu1 ~ IMm
256 Reinforced concrete design

The following condition~ apply to the value of C:

(a) If the end momems. Mot and Mu~. give ri'\c to ten~ion on the swnc side of the
column r01 should be taken as po~itive from which it follow" that C :5 1.7.
(b) If the con,erse to (a) is tn1e. i.e the column i' 111 a state of double curvature. then
rm ~hould be taken as negative from which it folio'"' that C > 1.7.
(c) For braced members in which the first order moment<. ame only from tmnsver~e
loads or imperfections: C can be taken a<; 0.7.
(d) For unbraced members: C can he taken a' 0.7.
For an embraced column an approximation to the limiting value of A wJII be given by:

At11n = 20 X A X 8 X Cj [n 20 X 0.7 x I. I X 0.7/ ../Nr:<J/(A,kt~ )

- 10.8/ /NEc~/(A.:./~d)
The limiti ng value of A Cor a lmtted column will depend on the relati ve value of the
column 's end moments that will normally act in the ~-tame clockwi'\c or anti-clockwi se
direction as in case (b) above. If th ese moments :trc of arproximatcly equtll value then
r111 - =
I , C 1.7 ~ J 2.7 and a typiml, approximate limit on A wi ll he given by:

Ahm = 20 X A X 8 X Cj[ii = 20 0.7 X I. I x 2.7/v'Nt-tt/(AJcd)

41.6/ .fNt.J/{A.J~d)
Alternatively for a bracl'd column the minirm1111 limitmg value of A will be given b)
tal-.ing C =
1.7. Hence:
\hnl 20 A X B '( c;../ii 20 X 0.7 >. 1.1 X I 7, VNtd (AJc.J)
'26.2/ \ ' NEcJ (Ac.f~,t )
It the actual <.knderness milo is le'" than lh~ calculmed Htluc of \ 1101 1hcn 1he column
can be trentcd a.' l>hon. Other'" 1~e 1he column mu'it be treated a-. slender and second
order effec:l~-o mu-;t be accoumed for 111 the de,ign nf the column.

( EXAMPLE 9. 1
Short or slender column
Determine il' the column in the lm1ccd frame shown in figure 9.3 ii> short or slender. The
concrete ~trcngth .1~·• =
25 N/mm 2, and the ultimate axial load 1280 kN .
It can be ~een thm the column will have the hi ghe~t s lendcrn c~!' ratio for bending
about axes YY where II ~00 mm and abo the end restraint~ ~1re the les~ stiff 300 x 500
heams.

Effective column height /0

f u>t = 4()() X 300'/J:! 90()" 10~ Innl~
1 4
'"""'" - 300 ,.. 500' 1 12 - 3125 x I0 ' mm
fcotfl~ol 900 >< 1011 / 3.0 101
k, =h ==-':..::..:._....:.;.;-~
- "iJ11tx-.llll f ltx:...,) 2(2 3125) HY'/4.0 X 101 )
0.096
From table 9.1 and b) interpolation; effective column height/o 0.59 >. 3.0 = l.77 m.
 Column design 2

Figure 9.3
length= 4.0m each sid~ \
_ 3oo _ Column end support detail

Beam '
~ 400 -
z

Beam

Note: the beams are continuous

In both directions
I /·. I \(

Slenderness ratio ,\

Rudius of gymtion. i
"
3.46
86.6 mm

Slendernc's ratio \ 111 /i = 1.77 x l0'/86.6 20.4

ror a bmced column the mmimum limiting value of \ will be given hy
\h., 26.2t v Nt;J /(AJ..,J)
''here:
N~:t~ /(AJ~'Cl)- 1280 ( 10 /(400
1
X 300 25 / 1.5) 0.6-t
thu\
\1uu - 26.2/ V0.64 32.7 (> 20.4)
llcncc, compurl!d with the mwinwm limiting value of,\ the column i~ shon and ~ccond
l order moment effect!> would not have to be wf...cn into uccount.
Load N

:r The (4) Failure modes Moment M

mg Short eolumns usually fail by crushing but a slender column b liable to foil by buckling.
500 The end moments on a slender column cause it to deflect ~ideways and thuN bring into
play an additional moment Ne114d as illustrnted in figure 9.4. TI1e moment Nendd cou~e:-. u
further lmeral deflection and if the axial load (N) exceed~ a critical value thi~ deli eel ton,
and the additional moment become self-propagating until the column hud.les. Euler
denved the critical load for a pin-ended strut a~

The CfU\hing load Nu.t or a trul) axially loaded column may he taken a-.
Figure 9.4
Nu.J = 0 567j~k Ac + 0.87AJ;.. Slender column with lateral
defle<tton
where Ac ill the area of the concrete and A, is the area or the longitudinal ~~teet.
258 Reinforced concrete design

10
Figure 9.5 \
Column fatlure m~

Buckling

35 70 105 175 210 I

/i
Value~ of N~n 1 /NuJ anu I have been calculated and plotted in figure 9.5 for a typical
column crms-\cction.
The rutin of Ncn 1/ Nud in ligurc 9.5 determine~ the type of failure of the column. With
I/ i le~~ than, '>ay. 50 the load wtll probuhly cause cntshing, Nu<J il-l much lcl>S than Nc111 ,
the load thm call'•C\ huckling and therefore a budding failure will not occur. This i~
not true with highl·r value of 1/ i nnd '>O a buckling failure is pos~ible. depending on such
factor~ "' th~.: initit~l curvature of the column and the actual eccentricity of the load.
When ! 1 1 is greater than 110 then N.,11 i~ les\ than Nud and in thi~ ca~c a huckling failure
\\Ill oc<.·ur for the column considered.
'I he mode of l':ulurc of a column can be one ot the foliO\\ ing:
1. Material ft~ilurc with negligible lateral dcllection. wh1ch usually occurs with ~hort
column:; hut can ui'>O occur ''hen there arc large end momentf> on a column with an
intermediate \lendcrnc's ratio.
2. Material failun: inwnsificd hy the lmcral deflection anu the additional moment. Thts
type of failure is typtcal of intermediate column\,
3. ln~tahility l:ulure \\hich occur \\ ith l>lender column~ and is liable to he preceded by
cxce,~ive deflections.

9.3 Reinforcement details

The rule., govern ing the mintmum and maximum amount~ of reinforcement in a load
hcarmg column ure as follOW\.

Longitudinal steel
1. A mini mum of four bars i'i required in a rectangular column (one bar in each corner)
and six bar., in a circul11r column. Bar diameter should not be less than 12 mm.
2. fhe minimum area of steel is given by

= O.IONEd > OOO"k

A, 0.87/l~ - . - '
 Column design 25

3. The rnaJtimum area of steel, at laps is given by

1\, ma~ < 0.08

A,
\\.here/\, is the total area of longitudinal steel and Ac is the cro ..s-sectional area of
the column.
Oh . .m regtons
t erwtse. . away f rom Iaps: -
As.nu\
- < 0"'
. u-t .
A,

Links
1. Minimum si7e = ~ x size of the compre11~ion bar hut not less than 6 mm.
2. Maximum spacing should not exceed the lesser of 20 x size of the smallest
compression bar or the least lateral dimension of the column or 400 mm. Thi&
~racing shou l(l be reduced by a factor of 0.60.

(a) for a distance equal to the larger lateral dimension or the column above and
~p1C3.1 below n beam or slab, and
(b) at lapped joint!. of longiwdinal burs> 14 mm diameter.
Wtlh 3. Where the direction of the longitudinal reinforcement changes, the ~pncing of' the
o \m . links should be calculated, while taking account of the lateral force~ Involved. If' the
Ilu '' change 111 direction b lesl. than or equal to I in 12 no calculation is nece~sary .
uch
4. Every longitudinal bar placed in a corner ~h oulc.J he held by trans\ersc
~ load
remforcemcnt.
at lure
5. No compression bar should be further than 150 mm from a rcstra111ed bar.
Although links are popular in lhe United Kingdom, helical remtorcemcnt '' popular
1 hon in Mlmc part<; of the world and provides added '>trcngth 1n nddtllon to added prutecuon

I lh 30 agmn~>t sCI~>mtc load1ng. Si1ing and spacing of helical reinforcement ~hould he similar to
linb.
f-igure 9.6 shows po'isible nrrangements of reinforcing. har~ nt the junction of two
column~ and u floor. In figure 9.6a the reinforcement in the lower column il> cranked Ml
that it will lit within the :-.muller column above. The cr~,.,~ in the rciuforcemcnt11hould, if
po:-siblc, commence uhove the soffit of a beam so that the moment of re~i~tance of the
column i~ not reduced. For the same reason, the bnrs in the upper column ~ohou l d be the

Figure 9.6
Detdils of splices in column
reinforcement
load

omen
::m.

Beam
Soffot

(a) (b) (c)

260 Reinforced concrete design

one., cranked \\hen both columns are of the same si;e., a:; in figure 9.6b. Links should be
provided at the point<; ''here the bars are cranked in order to re~i:.t buckling due to
horizontal components of force in the inclined lengths of bar. Separate dowel bars as in
figure 9.6c may al~o be useu to provide continuity between the two lengths of column
The column-beam junction <;bould be detailed !.ll that there is adequate space for both
the column \ted and the beam 'tee I. Care lui attention to detail on thb point \\ill great!)
as~ist the fixing of the :.teel during construction.

9.4 Short columns resisting moments and axial forces

The area of longitudinal steel for these columns is determined by:

1. u'ing design chan-. or con tructing M- N interaction diagram)> a~ in chapter 4.

2. a ~olution or the ba!'ic dc .. ign equations. or
3. an approximate method

De'>ign cham are u~ually used for columns ha\ ing a rectangular or circular cross-
1>cction nnd a :.ymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement but internctton d i agrom~ can
be constructed for any arrangement of cross-section us illustrated in examples 4. 10
and 4.11. The bu,ic equations or the approximate method can be u~ed when an
unsymmetrical arrangement of rcinforccmenl i<. required. or ,.,hen the cro:.s-~ection i'>
1101\·rectangular as ucscnbetl in 5CCllOil 9..'i.
Whichever design method is used, a column shou ld not be designed for a moment
lcs~ than N1..t 1'111111 • where 1'111111 ha~ the lc\~er value of It / 30 or :!0 mm. Thh is to allow
fm tulerancc' tn con,tructton The dtmcn,ton h i' the o' erall '"c or the column cross-
section tn the pl<lne nf bending. Note that UK pnu.:tice is to limit th~.: design moment to
It /20 not It / 10.

9.4.1 Design charts and interaction diagrams

The design or a section !>Uhjl.!ctcd to bending plw. axinl lo<td shou ld be in accordance
with the princtplcs de&cnbcd in section 4.R, which deal~ with the analysi~ of the cro%-
secttnn. The h:l\tc equation' dcnved for u rectangular \CCtion as shm\ n in figure 9.7 and
with a rectangular stress hlod. are:
(9.5)

,
M~ct - Fn
(2
(9.6)

NfA dc'>tgn ultimate axial load

Mr.d = destgn ultimate moment
v = the depth of the stress hlod 0.8.\
A: = the area of longitudinal reinforcement in the more highly compre:..scd race
1\, = the area of reinforcement in the other face
f,c the stress in reinforcement A~
J,. the ~tre..,s in reinforcement A,. negative when tensile.
 Column design 261

0.0035 0.567fk
b
yd' r1 - -j Figure 9.7
Column section

• • •
f·
A,
d

A, aXIS

• •• - r, F,

Sec lion Stra1n Stress

1.4
Figure 9.8
13 Rectangular column
1.2 e A, • (d'flt 0.20)
2
1I
1.0 A,
• • 2
' d'

"'
0.9
b_ T
0.6
N
bhf, , 0.7
06
o.s
0.4

03
02

0 I
....
0 0 OS 010 0.15 0.20 0 25 0 30 0 35 0 40 045 0.50
M
bh2 fc;

These equation~ urc not suitable for direct solution und 1he de!tign of n column with
symmetrical n:infon.:ement in each ftH.:e is hesl curried OLll u~ing dc~>ign chart~ a:;
illu:-.tnlled in figure 9.8. Set~ of these chart!. can he found in the Concise Eurocode
(ref. 21), the Manual for the Design of' Concrete Structures (ref. 2~) and the web~> it e
www .eumcode2.in ro.

(EXAMPLE 9.2
6
Column design using design charts
Figure 9.9 show~ a frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for whid1 the centre
column~ along lme PQ are to be designed in t11is example. TI1e frames at 4 m centres, arc
braced again~t lateral forces. and <;upport the following floor load~:
permanent actum ..:~ I 0 kl\/m1
vanahle action q~ - 15 f...l\/m2

CharacterilillC material ~trengths are fck = :!.5 'J/mm1 for the concrete and /y~ = 500
N/mm2 for the steel.
262 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 9.9
Columns in an industrial
_-_-_-_=:._-.._=:_-._- _-.._*-._=:_-._-_---:
I I
structure

1 I I
I I
I I
1
I I I I

Plan
_-._=:_-._-----==----_-_-~-- _=-_- _3-:-:_-
1 1 I
p

beams 300x 700dp

1st floor

300 x 400 columns

ground
floor

6.0m

Sl'cllon through the frame

Ma\imum ultimme load at each noor ·t.O( 1 .3511~ i I 5qd per metre length of beam
4( U5 X 10 I 1.5 15)
- l441..N/rn
Mintmum ultimate load at each tloor 4.0 x 1.35gk
- 4.() X 1.35 X I()
- 54 I..N per metre length of beam

Consider fir~t the dc!tign or the CeJI!re column ut the llllUCr!o.idc (u.s.) of the first tloor.
The critical arrangement of load lhat wil l cause the maximum moment in the column i~
shown in figure 9. 10a.

Column loads
Second and third floors = 2 x 144 x I 0/ 2 - 1440kN
first floor = 144 x 6/ 2 54 x 4/ 2 540
Column ~elf-weight, say :! x 14 :!8
20081..N
Similar arrangcmenLS of load will give the axial load in the column at the
under 1de (u.s.) and top side (t.s.) of each floor level and these value~ of Nw arc sho\',.n
in table 9.2.
 Column design 263

1.35G, + 1.5Q,
Figure 9.10
Substitute frame for column
design example
1.35Gk + 1.50..

1st 1 35G• + 1 .50.. 1.35Gk

Floor
A B c

'- ..,~ ~'-

(~) Cntlcalload1ng arrangement for centre columns at 1st floor

Jc..oum :.0.:..

'-
54 x 4 =216kN
144

A ~
X 6 864kN
, c A I+432 -432 +72 -72 '
c
k.a
B
P"
' kac
kNm B

2 k,o ull•"' 2

(b) Subst1tute frame (c) Fixed end moments

Table 9.2

Floor Nfd Mld Nrd Mfd A/yk A,

(kN) (kNm) bhfck bh 1 fck bhfck (mm 1)
3rd u.s. 540 82.6 0.18 0.07 0 240
2nd l.S. 734 68.4 0.24 0.06 0 240
beam + 540
2nd u.s. 1274 68.4 0.42 0.06 0 240
1st t.s. 1468 68.4 0.49 0.06 0.10 600
+ 540
1st u.s. 2008 68.4 0.67 0.06 0.30 1800

oor. Column moments

nnb
The loading arrangement and the substitute frame for determining lhc t;Oiumll moments
at the lir~>l and second floors arc shown in figure 9.10(c).
Membc1 stil'l'nc~scs arc
kAB I blr' I 0.3 X I 0. 73
- X -- X 0. 71 X I0 3
2 2 12/.Afl 2 12 X 6
I 0.3 X 0.7' O O
AR(
2
.,x.,
-
- = 1.7xl ·
4 !_X
:1

k - 0 ·3 x OA' = o53 o-3

'"1 12 X 3.0 .• X I
the
.. \\0
therefore
2) = (0.7 1 + 1.07 + 2 X 0.53) 10- 3 = 2.8-l X 10 l
264 Reinforced concrete design

and

. "buuon
d1qn r the co Iumn
. f acLOr 10r = L-k
'\' 0.53 = 0.19
kc<'l = -
2.84
Fixed end moments at B arc
144 X 62
F.E.M ·BA = -,
I_
- 432 kN m
2
• : _ 54 X 4 _ ? .
F.f. .M ·UC - - - - - 7... k~ Ill
12
Thus
column moment Mf.d = 0.19(432- 72) = 68.4 k~ m
At the Jrd tloor
'[)- (0.71 + 1.07+0.53) 1o- '
= 2.31 X 10-J
and

column moment MEd = 0.53

2.31
(432 72) = 82.6 kN m
The area' of remforcemcnt in table 9.2 arc determined by u...ing the de~ign chart of
figure 9.8. Section' through the column ore shO\\ll in figure 9.11.

.-
HS at 300 HhL 300
Figure 9.11
Column sections In design
1- 300
I
example

8..,.
[OJ [OJ
4H2S .H16
(~) Ground to 1st Floor (b) 1st to 3rd Floor
NotP: thl' link spacing Is reduced to 0.60 x these values for 400mm
above dnd below each floor level and Dt laps below 1sl floor level

('over for the reinforcement i~ token as 50 mrn and d' /It f!0/400 0.2. The
m1n1murn area of reinforcement allowed 111 the ~ection is given hy:
,\, 0.002blt = 0.002 x 300 x .WO • 240 mm1
and the maximum area is
t\, - 0.08 x 300 x 400 9600 mm'
and the reinforcement provided il> within these lirniU..
A lthough EC2 permits the usc of 12 mm main Meel, L6 mm bars have been u~ed to
ensure adequate rigidiry of the rdnforcing cuge. A smaller column section could have
been used nbove the first floor but thb would have involved change:- in formwork and
l_________________________________________)
possibly also increa,cd areas of reinforcement.
 Column design 2t

9.4.2 Design equations for a non-symmetrical section

The symmetrical amlJlgernent of the reinforcement with A~ = A, i~ ju\tifiablc for the
columns of a butldtng where the axial loads are the domtnant force~ and where any
moment\ due to the wind can be acting in either direction. But some member\ arc
required to resist axial forces combined with large bendtng moment!-. !-.O that it is not
economical to ha\'e equal areas of steel in both faces. and 1n these ca~cs the u~ual de~ign
chart!. cannot be applied. A rigoro~ design for a rectangular section a\ shown in
figure 9.12 invo l ve~ the following iterative procedure:
1. Select a depth of neutral axis, .\ (for thi1-. dc1>ign method where the moments are
relatively large . .\ would generally be lesll than h).
2. Determine the ~tccl "trains f-;.; and ~, from the ~ train distribution.
3. Determine the steel stresses .he andj~ from the equations relating to the stress-strain
curve for the reinforcing bars (see section 4. 1.2).
4. Taking moments about the centroid of As

Nl'cJ(e ..- ~ d2) -: 0.56~/~~bs(d - .v/2) +.t~~A~(d d' ) (9.7}

where s = 0 K1.
This equation can he solved to give a value for A ~
of 5. A, is then determined from the equilibrium of the axial forces , that i~

N1 <1 0.567/,lb.l / -.:A: l f. A, (Y.S)

6. l·urther values of.\ may he selected and \tCpll {I ) to (5) repeated until a min1mum
\'alue for A' A, 1' obtained.
The term};. tn the equauons may be modified to (J"' 0 567/,-..) to allo\\ for the an~a
ol concrete di'iplaced by the remforcement A:.
Stre"" f, ha'i a negative stgn whenever 11
b ten~ile .
N14 : Normal to the ~ect•on
Figure 9.12
Column with a
non-symmetrical arrangeme

~~·
-
(' of reinforcement

h/2
' • A'•, • d'' 0.567f,.bs
d neutral

'' axis

The /112
• •
1..
A,

b
t
dz
i
--
f,A,

Section Stress Block

(EXAMPLE 9 . 3
d to
\e Column section with an unsymmetrical arrangement of reinforcement
The column :-.cction shm' n in figur~ 9.13 res.i:.~ an axial loud or 1100 ~and a moment
_) of 230 I.Nm at the ultimate limit state. Determine the areal> of reinforcement required if
the chttracteri~tic material strengths are f.,l = 500 N/mrn~ and }~l = 25 N/mm1.
266 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 9.13
Unsymmetrical column design
300
.I -
0.0035

example

0
~ -- r---- neutral
8... axis

As
I
• • • ' d,=60

'
Section Strains

1. Select n depth of neutral axi~ . r = I90 mm.

2. From the strain diagram
.
steel stnun E:,c
0.0035
=- - (x- d')
X
0 0035
=- '190 ( 190 - 80) 0 .00"-l)3.

and
. 0.0035
steel stram !, =- X
- (d - r)
0.0035 (340
190 '
190) = 0.00276
3. hom the M rc,~-Mrain curve and the relevant equations of section 4. 1.2 yield strain.
0.00217 for grade 500 steel
t, > 0.002 17: therefore /.... 500/1.15 435 ~/mm 2
and
E..:.< 0.00217; therefore !...: £,.,, 200 x 10 1 x 0.00203
4061'!/mm2• compres~>ion.
4. In equation 9.7

Nt::d (e + ~- d2) = 0.56~(~~/n(d .1'/2) r f...:A~(d d' )

MEd 230 X 106 = 209
e Nt;d 11 00 x 103 mm
~ = 0.8.r = 0.8 x 190 = 152 mm
To allow for the area of concrete displaced
I-.e become!> 406 0.567fck = 406 - 0 567 x 25
= 392~/mm 2

and from equarion 9.7

1 1100 X 103 (209 J40) 0.567 X 25 > 300 X 152(14()- 152/2)
A,=------~~----~~~~~~~----~------~~
392(340 RO)
= 2093mm~
 Column design 267

5. !·rom equati on 9.8

Nr..d 0.567/c.. bJ - /scA: ...L /.,As

(0.567 X 25 X 300 X 152 )- (392 X 2093)- ( JJOO X 101 )
A, 435

= 843mm2
Thu'

A: +A, 2936 mm 2 for x = 190 mrn

6. Values of II~ f-A, calculated for other depths of neutral axis. A. arc ploncd in
figure 9. 14. h om this tigure the minimum area of reinforcement required occurs
with x ~ 2 10 mm. Using thi s depth of neutral axis. step~> 2 to 5 arc repeated giving

C:sc 0.00217. e, = 0.00217

Ji., fr~hm 435 N/rnm2 and f., = 435 N/nun 2 tcn~ion
so that

A: = 1837 mm~ and /\, R9 1 mm 2

(Alternati vely separate values of A~ and A, as calcu lated for each value of x could
have al~o have been plotted against x and their values remJ from the graph at
r 2 10mrn.) This area would be provided \\ith
A: three H25 plus two lJ20 ban.
2098mm'

and

A, one 1125 plu' l\\ o 1120 bars

- 1119mm 2

With n symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement the area from the design chart of
r
ligure 9.X would he A~ A, ~ 3 120 mm 2 or 14 per cent grl!ater than the area wi th an
unsymmetrical arrangement, and including no allowance for the area of concrete
displaced by the ~ooteel.

Figure 9.14
Design chart tor
unsymmetrical column
2900 example

2800

2700
180 190 200 2t0 220 230
Depth of neutral axis, x

These types of iterative ealculalionJ> arc readily programmed for solution by computer or
using spread~heets that could find the oplimum l>tecl areas without the necel>~ity of
ploning a graph.
268 Reinforced concrete design

9.4.3 Simplified design method

As an alternatiYe ro rhe previous rigoroul> method of design an approximate method ma:r
be used when the eccenuiciry of loading. e ;., not lese; than {h/ 2- th).

Figure 9.1S
M. = M + N(h/2 - d1 )
Simplified design method M

?
A', A, A', A,

\/ \:-

The moment MEd and the axial force NEd arc replaced hy an Increased moment Ma
when.:

(9.9 l

plus a compressive force NFA acting through the tcn~ilc 'teel A a~ shown tn figure 9.15.
Hence the destgn of the reinforcement t'> carried out 111 two pal1!-..
1. The member is designed as a douhly rcmforced :-.ectton to rc,i:-.t Mu acting hy it~elf.
The equation., for calculating the area' of rctnforcement to re<,i!,t M~ for grade:- C50
concrete (or below) arc given in 1>Cctinn 4.5 a~:
/VI~ O.l67fc~bd~ I 0.87J;v'\:(d d' ) (9.10
O.R~/~~11, - 0.2CJ4(dbd I 0.8~()~/\: (9.11

2. The area of A, calculated in the 11r~t pun is reduced by the amount Nf!.d /O.'d7f)·k·
This preliminary design method i~> prohahly most usc l\ 11 for non-rccttlllgulur column
sections as shown in example 9.5, hut the procedure i& hrc;t clemonstn.1ted with a
rectangu lar cross-section in the following example.

( EXAMPLE 9 .4

Column design by the simplified method

Calculate the area of steel requtrcd in 1hc 300 x .tOO column of figure 9.1.l
NF~ =
= II 00 k . MF.d = 230 k m. /.k 251\/mm, and />l 500 Nlmm 2•
. . 23() X )()6
I:.cccnlncll) e = ---...,.1
1100 X 10
= 209 mm > G-(/2)
 Column design 26~

1. lncrea ed moment

Ma =MrA+NwG-d1)
= 230 + 1100(200 - 60) 10-3 = 384k.J"l m
The area of <;teel to resist this moment can he calculated u~ing formulae 9.10
and 9.11 for the de:;tgn of a beam with comprel>sive reinforcement. that •.,
MJ 0.167fckblP + 0.87J;.k11~(d d' )
and
0.8~(,lA, = 0.204/-~bd + 0.87/y~A:
therefore
38-+ x 1o6 - 0.167 x 25 x 3oo x 3402 ~ o.s7 x 500A~ ( 340 - 80}
so lhat
A~ = 2115mm~
and
().!{7 J( 500 J<. 1\, = 0.204 X 25 X 3(){) X 340 + Q,g7 X 5()() ' 21 15
\, 331 I mm 2
99 2. Rcductng thi!> an:a by Nw /O.R7j~ ,
I 100 " 10'
9 1" A, 311 I - ..,.-...,_--,--
0.87 x 5(Xl
- 782 mm 2
self
rhis compare' wtth A~ = 1837 mm~ and A, 891 mm~ with the de,ign method of
C50
example 9.1. (To give a truer comparison the WC)o\ in the comprc,~ive reinforcement
11hould have hcen modtfied to allO\~ for the an:a of concrete di,pluccd, as was done in
910 exurnplc 9. 3. l
911

9.5 Non-rectangular sections

a
Dc~ign chart\ arc not usually uvuilttble for columns of other than a rectnngular or a
circulur cross-section. Therefore the dc~ign of a non-rectangular ~ection entails either
( I) un iterative solution of design equations, (2) a ~imp lified form of design, or
(3) con~truction of M N interaction diagrams.

9.5.1 Design equations

3
For a non-rectangular ~ecuon tt IS much simpler to consider the equivalent rectangular
~tre~~ block. Determination of the reinforcement areal. follow-. the same procedure a\
de.,cribcd for a rectangular column 111 section 9.4.2, namely
1. Select a depth ol nemral axis.
2. Determine the corresponding Mccl !>trains.
3. Determtne the steel stressc!>.
270 Reinforced concrete design

.
p
Nld normal to the section
Figure 9.16 0.0035 0.567f,,

!- · ~r ,
Non-rectangular column
section

.!1
2
d _ __ _ ~ neutral • •_
axts
h
2
(K -
'
Section Stratns Stress Block

4 . Tnl\t: moment!> about A, so that with reference to figure 9. 16:

NEd ( e-'- ~- d2) 0.567}~kAl., (d x) I f~cA: (d - d')

Solve th1 ~ equation to give A~

5. For no resultant force on the sec11on
Nw - 0.567..f..kAcc + f<.eA~ +./~A ,
Solve thi\ equation to give A,.
6. Repeal the previous step~ for different values of 1 to lind a minimum (A:+ A, ).
In ~tepl> (..J ) and (5)

A., b the mea of concrete 111 comprcssmn shown \haded

.\ i:-. the di\tance from the centroid of '1,< to the extreme lihrc m compression
j~ l'i the Mre~c; in reinforcement A" negative 11' ten~ile.

The calculation for a particular cro~s-~cction would be very similur to that described
111 example 9.3 except when using the design equat1ons it would he necessary to
determine A,c and x for cuch position of a neutral ax1~.

9.5.2 Simplified preliminary design method

The procedure is similar LO that de~cribed for a column with n rectangular section as
described in section 9.4.3 and figure 9. 15.
The column is designed to resist a moment M0 only. where

M, MI\U I NF.d G- d2) (9. 12)

The slecl area required to resist this moment ~:w1 he calculalcd from
M,. 0.567/.kAcc(d- i } ~ 0.87/.;~A~ (d d') (9.13)
and

(9.14)
where 11,. i'> the area of concrete in compre~~ion \\ ith 1 0.4Sd for concrete grades
CSO and below and x ill the distance from the cenLroid of A•• to the extreme fibre in
compression.
 Column design 271

The area of tension reinforcement. A,, as given by equation 9.14 is then reduced by
an amount equal to N~-.d/0.87/>1..
Thi~ method should not be used if the eccentricity, e, is less than (h/ 2 - d2) .

9.5.3 M- N interaction diagram

These diagram~ can be con!>tructcd using lhc method described in sec11on 4.8 \\ ith
example5 4.10 and 4.11. They are particularly u~eful for a column in a mult1-storey
building where the moments and associated axial forces change at each ~torey. The
diagrams can be constructed after carrying out the approx1mate design procedure in
section 9.5.2 to obtain suitable arrangements of reinforcing bars.

(EXAMPLE 9.5
Design of a non-rectangular column section
De~ign the reinforcemeut for the non-rectangular section shown in figure 9. 17 given
MFd = 320 ~N m.
NEI.J = 1200 kN at the ultimate limit state and the characteristic
material ~trenglhs are .fck = 25 N/mm 2 and ./)·• = 500 N/mm 2 •

t'
Ml.:d
Nl:.d -
320 X 10
1200 X lQl
11
-
- -
'?67
mm >
(II2 -d)-'
lm:rca~cd moment M. Mw I Nw G d2)

1
320 t 1200{200 80) I0
=464k..\lm
With , 0.45d 144 mm. ~ 0.8.\ 115 mm and the width (11 1) of the 'ection at the
limit of the Mrcss hlocl.
200{400 115)
b, 300
400
443mm
x(l> -1- "')
A.,~
2
11 5{500 1443}
2
54 223 rnm 2
L
Figure 9.17
l
Non-rectangular section
d' 80
' example
.3
'
0
N
M

"
272 Reinforced concrele design

The depth of the centroid of the trapezium is given by

_ s(b ...L 2bJ)
X=-'---,.;-
3(b T bJ)
(500 ..L 2 X 443)
= 115 ( _ ) =56.3mm
3 500 443
Therefore ubstituting in equation 9.13
4(i.l x 106 0.567 X 25 X 54223(320 56.3) f 0.H7 x 500A:(320- 80)
hence
A: = 2503 mrn~
Prnviue three H32 plus two H 16 bars, area 2XI2 rnm 2•
From equation 9.14
lUl~/ykA, 0.567 X 25 X 54 223 I 0.87 X 500 X 2503
thcr~rorc

A, = 4269 mm2
R~ducing A, by Ncd/0.87f,k gives
120() X 103
i\ 4'~-69
' 0.87 X 500
1510mm~

Provtde one HI 6 plus two H32 hat·~. area IHII mm 2 •

The total area of n:inforccmcnt prm ided 4623 mm 2 "hich i~ le~s than the 8 per
cent allowed.
An M-N mtcraction dtagram could nm' he con-;tructcd for tht'> ~teel arrangement. a~

l
~. ___________________________________________)
1n \CCtton 4.8. to provide a more rigurou~ dc~ign

9.6 Biaxial bending of short columns

For mol>t columns, biaxial bending wi ll not govern the design. The loadi ng pattern~
necessary to cause biaxial bending in a building's inLernal and edge columns will not
usually cause large moments in borh directions. Corner eolumnf. muy have LO resist
signilicant bending about bmh axes, hut the axial loads are u<,ually small and a design
similar to the adjacent edge columns i~ generally adequate.
A design for biaxial bending based on a rigorous analysts of the crol!.s-&ection and the
~train and ~tres., distribution~ would he done a~:cording ro the fundamental principles of
chapter 4. For memhcrl> with a rectangular cros'>-,ecrion. \Cparate check<. in the two
principal plane<, are perrnio,~ible if the ratio of the corre,ponding eccentricities satisfie~
one of the following conditions:

etther ~; / ~ < 0.2

or e>j~ < 0.2
b b-
 Column design 273

y
Figure 9.18
Section with biaxial bending

where ey ond e, arc the lirst-order eccentricitie:-. in the direction or the section
dimensions b nnd It respectively. Where Lhc:-.c conditions are not fuiJillcd biaxial
bending mu~t be accounted for and EC2 presents an interaction equation, relating the
moment~ ubmu the two axes to tl1e moment or resistllncc about the two axes, whlch
must he :-.ati~Hed. However, the given formula cannot be u~cd directly to design a
column subject to biaxinl bending hut rather to check it once desig.m:tl. In the absence of
~pccilic dcstgn gutdance it would be acceptable in tl1e UK !hal the wlurnn he de~igned
using the method previously presented in BS 8110.
This approximate method specifies that a column subjected to an ultimate load N1, 1
and moment!> M, and M) in the direction of the ZL and YY axe!> rc~pccti\cly (sec
figure 9.18) may be dc:-.igncd for a -;inglc axis bending but with an 111crca,ed moment
and ~ubjcct to the follm' ing condition~:
. M, M,
(3) tl ,, h'
then the tncreased smgle axi<> desrgn moment rs
h'
M, ~ j b' X M)

(h) if M, ..._ AI/~

,, ll
then the increased single oxis design moment is
I/
M; My + lj;,, X M,
The dimension.., II' anull are defined in figure 9. I8 and the coefficient ;:J is ~pecihed in
table 9.3. The coefficient~ in table 9.3 ore obtained from the equation
Nht
d=l
bhf,;k

Table 9.3 Values of coefficient 1 for biaxial bending

Ned 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 07

bhfc•
j 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
274 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 9 . 6
Design of a column for biaxial bending

The column section shown in figure 9.19 is to be dc~igncd to res1st an ultimate axial load
of 1200 k · plus moments of M, = 75 k'J m and M> - 80 kN m. The chamcteristic
material strengths are fck = 25 , /mm~ and f.,k = 500 l\/mm2.

Figure 9.19
Biaxial bending example

0
t
.....
t I e M, z 75kNm

Z -·- ·-·-·- ~ l
""

60
I
y

M2 75 X 106
c•, = -NF.d = 1200 X 1()3 62.5 mm

My 80 x I if 66.7 mm
C'y = NFd = 1200 X lO'
lhU\

~/('> = 62.5/66.7 0
" " 350 300 o.x > '2
and
l'y/f!( - 66.7/62.5
. - -- -
/1 It 300 350
- 1.24 > 0.2
lienee the column must he designed for binxiul bending.
Mz _ 75 _ O
168
'" (350 - 70) - ·-
Mv 80
0 333
b' (300 - 60) •
M, My
II' < b'
therefore the increased ~ing lc axis design moment b
b'
M; M) .,..JWx M7
Nwfblifcl 1200 x IO't(300 350 x 25) 0.46
h om tahle 9.3, 3 = 0.54
240
M'
~
X()..,.. 0.54 X -
280 .
X 75 = 114.7 kt\ m
 Column design 275

thus
Mtd I 14.7 X 106 0
-- -
bh2_{ck
2
350 X (300) X 25
= .15

From the de!>ign chart of figure 9.8

AJ)k = 0.47
blifck
Therefore required A, 2467 mm 2•
Su provide four 1-1 32 bars.

9.7 Design of slender columns

As specified in section 9.2. a column is da:-.silicd as slender if the slcndemess rutio

uhout either ax is exceeds the value of AJim· lf A::; AJim then the column may be cla~l>ilicd
a~ shmt and the slenderness effect may be neglected.
A slender column with A > Alim must be designed for an additional moment cau~ed
hy its curvature at ultimate conditions. EC2 identi!ie~ four different apprnachc~ to
dc!tigning slender column~:

1. A general method based on a non-linear analys1~ of the 't1111:ture and allm~ing for
~econd-order effect~ that necc~~itates the u'c of computer analy"'·
2. A second-order analy1>i~ based on nominal st1ffness values of the beam' and
column' that. agam, require~ computer analysi" using a proces~ of Iterative analy!.i!-1.
3. The ' moment magnification· method \\>here the design momenh arc obtained by
factonng the fiN-order moments.
4. The 'nominal curvature' method where second-order momentl- arc dctermmed from
an estimation of the column curvature. These second-order momentl- are added to
the first-order moment:- to give the tmal column des1gn moment.
Only the fourth method. as given above. will be detailed here ll). this method is not
greatly dissimilur to the approach in the previous Briti~h Standard for concrete design,
BS RI I 0. Fur1hcr information on the other methods can be found in specialist literature.
T he expressions given in EC2 for lhc additional moments were derived hy ~ t udying
the moment/curvuture behaviour for a member subject to bending plus uxiul loud. The
equa t ion~ for calr..:ulating the design moments arc only applicable w colu mn~. of a
rectangular or circular section with symmetricul reinfnrcemcnt.
A slcnuer column ~hou ld be designed for an ultimate axial load (NCd) plu1. on im:reascd
moment given by
Mr Nhll'rur

where

l'tor =
eo + eJ + e~
eo IS an equivalent fif).t-ordcr cccenlrieity
e0 •~ an accidental eccentricity which accounts for geometric Jmperfecuonl- in the
column
e: is the ~econd-order eccentricity.
276 Reinforced concrete design

The equtvalent eccentricity eo is given by the greater of

0.6eo2 - 0.4eoJ or 0.4eo~

where e01 and eo:>. are the first-order eccentricities at the two ends of the column a.'
described above, and le02l is greater than Jl'ot .
The accidental eccentriciry is given by the equation
In
ea-- ~· 2
where /0 is the effective column height about the axis considered and
I l
1'=-->-
100/i 200
where 1 is the height of the column in metres. A conservative estimate of e0 can be given
hy:
/o 1 /o lo
11-=-X-=-
2 200 2 400
The !.econd-order eccentricity e2 is an estimate ol the deflection of the column at failure
and i::. given by the equation

c~
15 ( -C'v<J
- Kt K2-:; · -)
rr· 0.45d
where

K1 = 1 -L. ( 0.35 + {~ 1 ~0};;<, ;?:: I

,.\ slendeme:-s ratio

oc~
-effective creep ratto- c1( • to) Mor:,1p/ MoEAJ
¢( , to)= tinal creep coefficient
M01 , 11, = the bending moment in the quu'i permanent load combtnation at the Sl
Mm 11 the bending moment tn the design loud combination at the ULS
<Per may be taken as 7.ero if cb( . to )< 2 and).. < 75 and MwoJ/NPA > h
In most practical ca~e!. the above equation may be ~>imp lili ed to
K1K2lfi(yk
ez rr2 x I 03 SOOd
where ris ~omctimc!. approximnted to a value or 10.
The coefficient K1 is a reduction factor to allow for the fact that the dellection mu ~t
be less when there i!i a large propor1ion of the column ~cction in compre~sion. The value
for K1 i~ given by the equation
Nud- NFJ.l < I 0 (9.15 1
NuoJ - Nbal .

owhere Nud i~ the ultimate axial load such that

Nu.t = 0.567fckA..: -r O.R7h~/\-..:
and Nrn.1 i:-. the axial load at balanced failure defined in section 4.8 and may he taken 01>
approximately Nbat = 0.29/cvl, for 1->ymmetricul reinforcement.
 Column design 277

In order to calculate K~. the area A, of the column reinforcement must he known and
hence a trial-and-error approach is necessary. taking an initial conservative value of
K~ 1.0. Values of K2 arc also marked on the column design chart~ a~ ~hown in
figure 9.8.

( EXAMPLE 9.7

Design of a slender column

A non -~W:l) column of 300 x 450 cross-~ection rc~ists. m the ulurn:uc limit ~tnte. an
axial load of 1700 k r and end moments of 70 I..N m and I 0 I..N m eau~ing double
curvmure tlbour rhe minor axis YY as ~bown in figure 9.20. The cnlumn \ effective
height!> arc l~) 6. 75 m and leL - 8.0 m and the charactcri~-.r ic material Mrengths
J,k = 25N/mm2 and/yk = 500N/mm 2. The effective creep ratio 9'c~ 0.87.
Eccentricities are
M1 10 X I()~
t'u 1
Nl!.J 1700
= 5.9nun
M~ 70 101
('()2 - I< = - 41 ::! mm
Nw 1700
where t'tP is negative since the column is bent in douhle curvature.
I he limiting :-lcndcrne~s ratio can be calculated from equauon 9.4 where:
A I /( I l ().2~)c ) - II( I + (0.2 x 0.87)) O.R5
8 the default 'alue of I. I
C 1.7 M111 / M11: 1.7- (- 10/70) = 1.84
r.:
::W A" lJ x C//ii 20 )c 0 85 X 1.1 X 1.84I yl/ =J4.41
--r:'""
\Ill

1700 X 10 3
II 0.89
(3()() X 450) X 0.567 X 25
14.41
.'. Alorn .36.47
v'o !!9
N t d ,. 1700kN
l Figure 9.20
Slender column example

z
(a) Section (b) Ax1alload and initial moments
278 Reinforced concrete design

Actual slenderness rat1os are

,__ 6.75 ~
\ = 7-
I~
= -()
~ X .>.46 =
..>
77.85 > 36.47

/\ \ 1 -- '",,
,
S.O
0.4 X 3A6 = 61.55 > 36.47
5
Therefore the column b ~lender. and ,.\ i<> critical.
Equivalent eccentricity = 0.6eo2 + O.·kot > 0At·0~
0.6eo2 OAeo1 = 0.6 x 41.2 + 0.4 x ( 5.9) 22.15 mm
0.4eu: = 0.4 x 41.2 = 16.47 mm
Thcrl!fore the equivalent eccentricity ec 22.35 mm.
Taking ,. a~ l / 200 the accidental eccentricity i!.
fry I 6750
ea = I'
2
=
200
x T - l6.88mm

The second-order eccentricity is

Kt K!lij{1 ~
('"t= -·-
- 7!"1 X I03 500tl

11. 1 = 1- (oJs 1 200~~ 1

I~O)Oet = I + ((U5
25 77 !15) 0.87
:wo 150
096 ( I)
I >- I X 6750' >( 5(Xl
••• t'~
:r~ I 03 :'iOOd ;;· " 103 500 240
92.92 111111

\\ tth K' 1.0 for the initial value.

l-or the lir:.t iteration the towl eccentricity i~

22.35 + 16.88 + 92.92 132. 15 mm

and the total moment is
M, NL!det(lt = 1700 x 132. 15 x 10 ' - 225 kN rn
Nt:u 1700 X 1().1
1111/..k = 45() X :100 X 25 0.504

225 x ~()
11
M1 = '"/~ = 0. 222
1Jh1fck .f5() X 300· X _;,

From the dc~ign chart of figure 9.&

Ah = 0.80
blrJ..~
and K'
-
= 0.78
This new value of K1 i<; used to calculate t'2 and hence M1 for the 'econd iteration. The
de,ign chart b again u<>ed to determine AJ.\k/ bhf•• and a new value of K2 as shown in
tahle 9.4. The iterations arc continued until the value of K2 in column~ ( l ) and (5) of the
 Column design 279

Table 9.4

(7) (2) (3) (4) (5)

K1 M Mt A,fyk K1
bhZfck bhf-;;
1.0 225 0.222 0.80 0.78
0.78 190 0.187 0.6 0.73

table arc in reasonable agreement. \\hich in th1s de!>ign o<.:cur,\ alter two itcrutinn~. So
lhat the :-~eel area required is
0.6bflj~~ _ 0.6 X 450 X ~()() X 25 _ ~
A, --- - - - - 4050 mm
r}~ soo
and K~ 0.7.+.
A\ a check on the final value of K2 interpolated from the design chart:
Nj,JI 0.2W~~A,
0.29 X 25 X 300 X 45() X I()- 1
978 1-N
Nld 0.567}; ~A, + 0.87()v\,
(0.567 X 25 X 300 X -150 0.R7 X 51Xl x 4050 )10 J

1675 k"'
N.," - Nr:.d 3675 1700
=-::--:~--:~ 0.73
Nud Nt..l 3675 - 978

l~· ___________________________________________)
\\hkh agrees \\ith the linal value in column 5 of table 9.-1.

9.8 Walls
Wall11 may tul.c the form of non-~tructural dividing element:-. in which ca~L· their
thic l.n es~> will often rellcct sound insulation and fire resi~lllm:c requirement)>. Nominal
reinfon.:ement will he used to control cracl.ing in such t:a,\e).. More commonly,
reinforced cont:rctc wall~ will form part of a structural frame and wil l he designed rnr
vertical and horitontal forces and moments obwincd hy normal unulysis methods. In thi ~
situ:ltion a wall is dl!fi ned as being a vertical l oad- hc~1ring member whose length is not
less than four timc11 its lhickncss.
Where several walls arc connected monolitlucally so that they behave a~ a llllll, they
urc de~cnhed as a wall system. Sometimes horilontal f'orl:cs on a strucwrc are rest~ted
hy more than one wall or \)Stem of wall~. in \vhich case the dt ... tribution of forces
hctwcen the walls or sy<.,tcms will he assumed to be in propon1nn to thctr st iffncs-;e)..
It j, normal practice to consider a wall as a 5eries of \Crtical stnps \vhen designing
vcn1cal re111forcement. Eat:h strip i-; then designed as a wlumn ~ubject to the
appropriate venical load and Lranwerse momentl) at its top and honom. Slcmlcrncs<;
effects must be constdered \\here ncccl.'\ary. as for columns. If a wall 11. ).Uhjc<.:t
The
predominant!) to lateral bending. the design and detailing \\ill be undertaken as if it
:nm
were a 'lab, hut the wall thickness \\ill usually be governed by slenderness hmitauons.
lhc
tire resiMancc requirements and construction practicalities.
280 Reinforced concrete design

Reinforcement detailing
For a wall designed either as a senes of column' or a' a ~lab. the area of \'enJca:.
reinforcement should lie between 0.002A, and O.o.t, \, and thi~ "ill normally be equ.J}
di\ ided het\\een each face. Bar -;pacing along the length of the wall should not e>;c~
the lesser of 400 mm or three time'> the \~all thickncs,,
Homontal bar~ !.hould haYe a d1ametcr of not bs than one-quarter of the \'ert ,..
bar , and w1th a total area of not les' than 25'1 of the vertical ba~ or 0.00 lAc whiche a
" greater. The horizomal har<; should lie between the Yerllcal bars and the con~.n:te
surface. \\ith a spacing which i.., not greater than 400 rnm.
If the arc<l of Yertical steel exceeds 0,021\, . then the bars should he enclosed by 1mJ,;s
designed according to the rule:- for columns.
 10
...........................................
CHAPTER

Foundations and
retaining walls
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
.. .•....••...•.•.•..•.....•••••••.........•.•.•••••••••...••••••.........••..
A building 1s generally composed of a superstructure c1bove the ground c1nd a
substructure which forms the foundations below ground The foundations transfer
and spread the loads from a structure's columns and walls into the ground. The safe
bearing capac1ty of the soil must not be exceeded otherwise excessive settlement may
occur, re~ulting in damc1ge to the buildmg and its service facilities, such as the Welter
or gas mams Foundation failure can also affect the overall stabihty of a structure so
that 1t is liable to slide, to lift vertically or even overturn.
The earth under the foundations is the most variable of all the materials thdt are
considered in the design and construction of an engineering structure. Under one
small building the soil may vary from a sort clay to a dense rock. Also the nature
and properties of the soil will change with the seasons and the weather. For
example Keuper Marl, a relatively common soil, is hard
like rock when dry but when wet it can change into an
almost liquid stole.
It is Important to have an engineering survey made
of the soil under a proposed structure so that variations
In the strata and the soil propertie~ can be determined.
Drill holes or trial pits should be sunk, In situ tests such
as the penetration Lest performed and samples of the
soil taken to be tested in the laboratory. From the
information gained it is possible to recommend safe
bearing pressures and, if necessary, calculate possible
settlements of the structure
The structural design of any foundation or retaining
wall will be based on the general principles outlined in
previous chapters of this book. However where the
foundation interacts w1th the ground the geotechnical
--+-
281
282 Reinforced concrete design

design of the foundation must be considered i.e. the ability of the ground to resist the
loading transferred by the structure.
Geotechnical design is in accordance with BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7. This code
classifies design situations into three types: (i) category 1 - small and simple
structures (ii) category 2- conventional with no difficult ground or complicated
loading conditions and (iii) category 3 all other types of structures where there
may be a high risk of geotechnical failure. The expectation is that structural
engineers will be responsible for the design of category 1 structures, geotechnical
engineers for category 3 and e1ther type of engineer could be responsible for
category 2.
This chapter will only consider foundation types that are likely to fal l within the
first two categories.

General design approach

Although EC7 presents three ahernativc t.bign approaches the UK National Annex
a111m~ for only the hN ol thC\C. In this UC'-1gn approach, two \CI<. of load combination'
(referred to as comhinat1on' I and 2 111 table 10.1) nuN be con~1dered at the ultimate
linut -.t.lte. Thc'c two comhinallon~ w11l he u'ed for con~1derat1on of hoth structural
fa1lure. SI"R (e\cc"ivc deformation. crackmg or fmlure of the 'tructun.:). and
geotechnical fa1lurc. GEO (exces'>IVe deformation or complete failure ot the i>Upponing
ma'' of earth).
A th1rd combination must be taken when considenng po\\lhlc lo-,, of equilibrium
(f'QL J of the l-tructure !\UCh as overturning. I he partial safct) factori> to be used for
these three combinations are g1ven 1n mole I 0.1.

Table 10.1 Partial safety factors at the ultimate limit state

Per\istent or transient Permanent actions Leading variable action Accomponymg variable action
design situation (Gk) (Qk ,) (Qk I)

Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable

(a) lor consideration of
structural or geotechnical
1.35 1 .00* 1.50 0 1.50 0
failure: combination 1
(STR) & (GEO)

(b) for consideration of

structural or geotechnK,ll
1.00 1.oo· 1.30 0 1 30 0
failure: combination 2
(STR) & (GEO)

(c) for checking ~tatic

1.1 0.9 1.50 0 1.50 0
equilibrium (EQU)

• To ~ ~pplted to be.mng, sliding dnd earth resistance fort6

 Foundations and retaining walls 28;

ln determining lhe design values of actions to be used at the ultimate limit state the
characteristic loads should he multiplied by a partial safety factor. Appropriate values of
p<utial safety factors can be obtained fi·om tuhle 10. I. fn the case of the accompanying
variable actions they should be further multiplied by the factor ~·u where appropriate
ode values of t1o can be obtained from table 2.-t in chapter 2.
In table I0. L it should he noted lhat combination I will usually be relevant to the
ed structural design of tl1e foundutron, whilst combination 2 will be most likely to govern
the sizing of the foundation to ensure lhat settlement is nor excessive. but this will
depend on the circumst:lnces of the particular situation.
The third combination of actions :-.hown in the finul row of table 10.1 i:-. relevant to the
design of structure!> such as the type shown in figure l0. l. where it ma) he necessary to Figure 10.1
check the possibility of uplift to the foundations and the stability of the structure when it Uplift on footing
is suhjcctcd to lateral loads. The critical loading lUTangement is usually the cmnbinallon
of maximum lateral load with minimum permanent load and no variable load, that i~
l .5Wk I 0.9Gk. Minimum permanent load can sometimes occur during crcclion when
many of the imerior finishes and fixtures may not have heen installed.
At the same time us the dc:-ign values of actions urc determined. u:. above. the soil
parameters u~ed in the geotechnical a!>pccts of the design are rnuliiplied by the parual
factors of -;afety, appropn:ue to the load comh1nat1on under considcratton. <h gi,cn 111
table J0.2. The detailed u~c of the!>e factors will not be developed further 111 lim text hut
are g1vcn for completenes~.
For ~irnplc spread foundation<; such U\ ~trip and rnu footings i:.C7 gives three
altcmativc methods ol design:

1. The 'Direct Method' where calculation'> arc required for each It mit state u-;ing the
partial factor:. of ~afety a~ appropriate from tahlc~ 10. I and 10.2
2. The 'Indirect Method' which allows for a simultaneou.; hlending of ullimatc limit
slate and <;erviceability limit state procedures
3. The 'Prescriptive Method' where an as~ u111ed ~arc bearing prc:.sure is used to si7.c
the foundations based on the serviceability limit ~talc followed by dctuiled structural
de~ign based on the ultimate limit Mate

In the Prt•lcriptit·e Mt>rlwtlthe traditional UK approach to the sinng ol foundation~ t!\

effectively retained ~uch thnt a suitable base ~tLC may he determined based on the
:.crviceability limit slate values for action~ nnd an assumed ullowuble ~ufc bearing
pressure (see tnble IOJ). In !his way settlement will he controlled. with the exception
that for foundations on soft clay full sculemcnt calculutions mw.t he t:arried out.

Table 10.2 Partial safely factors applied to geotechnical material properties

Angle of Undrained
shearing Effective shear Unconfined Bulk
resistance cohesion strength strength density
'\ ..,._
1< ,\U .'IJU

Combination 1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Combination 2 1.25 1.25 1.4 1.4 1.0
284 Reinforced concrete design

Table 10.3 Typical allowable bearing values

Rock or soil Typical bearing value (kN/mz)

Massive igneous bedrock 10000

Sandstone 2000 to 4000
Shales and mudstone 600 to 2000
Gravel, sand and gravel, compact 600
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose fine sand less than 100
Very st1ff clay 300 to 600
Stiff clay 150 to 300
Firm clay 75 to 150
Soft clay Less than 75

When.: the foundation~ arc ~ttbJeCt to hoth vertical and hori7.ontal load~ the followine
rule can be applied:
v
P,
when:
I the vertical load
H the horizontal load
/'_ the allowable vertical loud
/'11 the allowable hori;ontal loud.

The ullownblc hnri7ontul lo:1d wou ld take account of the pa~siw resistance of the
ground in contact with the vertical fac~: or the foundation plu' the friction and cohesion
along th~: bal'>e.
The cakulation~ to detcmune the 'tructural ~trength of the foundation~. that i~ the
thu.:knc~' of the ba,cs and the :lrl!a~ of reinforcement, should he ha~ed on the loading~
;md the rc,ultant ground prcs'iurc' corre~ponding to the ulumate ltmit \late and
con,idenng the \\ON of the cnmhinution' I and 2 for the action' <mblc I 0.1) although.
a~> p1cviou\ly noted. combina11on I \\til usually govern the 'itructural tbign.
For most designs a linear distribution or ~od prC!>SUre aero~~ the ba~o.e of the rooting 1\
:t'iMtllled :11, shown in figure 10.2(a). This assumption must be ba~ed on the soil acting as
an elt1~tlc material and the foming having infinite rigidity. In fact. not on ly do most soi ls
exhibit some pln~tic bchmiour and all footings have a finite stiffne~:-. but also the
t.hstributton of 'ioil pre!>surc varies with time. 'I he aclltal diwibution of hearing pres~ure
many moment may take the form shown in ligure 10.2(b) or (c), depending on the type
of ~od and the sriffne'~ of the ha'ic and the structure. But as the behaviour ol
foundation\ mvolves many uncenamue~ regarding the actton ol the ground and the
loadmg. 11 " u~ually unrealbtic to con\ldcr an analys1<; that ts too soplusticated.

Figure 10.2
Pressure d1~tribullons
under foolings 6
ttttttt
(a) Un1form distribution (b) Cohesive soil (c) Sandy soil
 Foundations and retaining walls 2f

roundation~ should be constructed so that the undersides of the bases are below fro~t
level. A'l. the concrete is subjected to more severe exposure conditions a larger nominal
cover to the reinforcement i~ required. Despite the values -.uggested in tables 6.1 and 6.2
Cl\tabli.,hed practice in the UK would be to recommend that the mintmum cover should
be not les~ than 75 mm \\·hen the concrete is cast against the ground. or less than 50 mm
when the concrete is ca.~t against a layer of blinding concrete. A concrete class of at least
C30/37 is required to meet durability requirement<;.

10.1 Pad footings

The tooting for a single column may be made square in plan. but \\hen.· there is a large
moment acting about one axis it may be more economical to hnvc a n:~.:wngular base.
Assuming there is a linear distribution the bearing pressure\ across the base will take
one of lhe three forms shown in figure 10.3, according to the relative magnitudes of lhc
axia l load N and the moment M acting on the base.

1. In figure 10.3(u) there is no moment ~tntl the pressure is uniform

N
p ( 10. 1)*
IJD
2. With a moment M acting as ~hown. the pressure~ are given by the equation for axial
load plus bending. Thi~ ~~ provided there is positive contact hetwccn the ba~c and
the gmund along the complete length D of the footing, a' 111 figure 10.3(b) ~o that
N M\'
p IJIJ i I

where Its the second moment area of the ba~e about the nxt), of bendtng and .1 i' the
dtstance from the ax1 to \\here the pres ure il) being calcu lated.

Breadth of footing ~ 8 Eccentricity (e) ,. MIN

Figure 10.3

ting j, r r r Pnd-foot1ng pressure

distributions

6 8 8
' i
ng a~
' \Oib
'o the
r l"'~ure D
c type
1our of
14 l
and the
~-
p
t ttf t t t
~c O e <0,6 t >D 6
N N 6M p ., 2N
P • BD P- BD± B[)l BY
where:

Y= 3(1 e)
(a) (b) (c)
286 Reinforced concrete design

Substituting for I 13D3/ 12 and y D/2, the maximum pressure is

N 6M
PI IW- BD'l (10.2)*

and the minimum pressure is

N 6M
p~ = BD BD1 ( 10.3)*

There tS positi\c contact along the base if p 2 from equation 10.3 is positive.
When pressure p~ just equals zero
N 6M
/JD - BD1 - 0
or
M D
N =(;
So that for Pl alway!. to be positive. M/N or the effective eccentricity, I ' - must
never he greater than D/6. In thc\e cases the eccentrtCilY of loading is ~a id to lie
within the 'middle third· of the hasc.
3. When the eccentricity, e is greater than D/6 there is no longer a po!>iuve pres~urc
along the length D and the pres~urc diagram is triungulur ns shown in ligure IOJ(c).
Bulancing the downward load and the upward prcs!-.urcs
I
.,pLJ} =N
therefore
2N
maximum pres~urc I'
BY
''here Y "the length of positive conwct. The cemroid of the pres~ure diagram must
coinc1de with the eccentricity of loading in order for the load and reaction to he
equul tmd opposi re. J'hus
y f)

3
or

therefore 1n the case of c• > D/ 6

2N
maximum pressure I' B(D/ 2 _ c7} ( 10.4)*
3
A typ1cal arrangement ol the reinforcement in a pad footing i!-1 shown in figure 10.4.
With a 'quare base the n!tnlorcemcnt to resist hcnding ~hould he distnhuted uniformly
across the full wtdth of the footing. For n rectangular base the reinforcement in the shon
direction ~hnuld he di~Lnbuted with a closer ~pacing in the region under t~nd near the
t:nlumn. to allow for the fact that the transvcr!-.C momems must be greater nearer the
column. It 1~ recommended that at least two-thirds of the reinforcement in the short
dtrection !-.hould be concentrated in a band \\idlh of (r 1 3d) \\here c is the column
dimension Ill the long d1rection and d i'i the effecuve depth. Lf the footing ~;hould be
 Foundations and retaining walls 287

Figure 10.4
Pad footing rerntorcemenl
details
lap length

'

8
A, t
J_
'- L - - - - - - - ---'

bubjectc<.lto u large overturning moment so that there is onl y par1ial hearing, or i f there
i~ a re:.ultant uplift for(;c. then reinforcement may :l111o he require<.! in the top face.
Do\\eb or !'.tarter bar~ ~hould exten<.l from the looting into the column in order to
provtde continutty to the reinforcement. The'e dowel\ should be cmheddec.J into the
footmg and extend tnto the column~ n fulll<tp length. Sometimes a 75 mm length of the
colu mn is constructed into the same concrete pour a~ the footing so as to form a 'kicker'
nr support for the column·~ .~hullers . In the~e ca~es the dowel'" lup length ~hould be
mea~ured from the top of the kicker
The critical !>Cctions through the ha.,e for chcckmg '>henr. punchmg )~hear and bending
arc shown in figure 10.5. The shcan ng force and hcndmg moment~ an.: cmt~ed hy the
ultimute load!'~ from the column 1111d the wetght of 1he base ~hould not he included in
thc:-c calculations.
The thtcknes' of the base i~ oflcn governed h) the requirement' tor 'hear re~•stancc.
Following the Prescriptiw! Ml!tlwd the princqxll 'tep~ in the dc:.tgn calculation' arc
a!> follows:

1. Calculate 1he plan size of the footing using the permi&sible hcming pressure amlthe
critical loading arrangement for the serviceability limit state.
2. Calculate the heanng prcs'>urc., a<;sociatcd \\ith the critical loadtng arrangement at
the ultimate l im1t state.
3. Assume u suitable value for rhe thickness (II) and efi'cctive depth (d). Check thnt the
shear force at the column fuce is less thun 0.51·Lf~JIId 0.5,• 1ifcl/ 1.5)ud where
11 is the pcnrneter of the column and ,., is the ~>trcngth reduction factor
0.6( I - .f,l( l50).
4. Carry out u preliminary check for pum:hing shear w cn~urc that the footrng
thickness gives a punching shear strC's~ whil.:h is within the likely range of
acceptable pctfonnance.
5. Detenninc the reinforcement reqUired to re!-.1).1 bending.
6 . Make a final check for the punching \hear.
7. Check the ~hear force at the critical ~rction~>.
8. Where upplicablc, both foundations and the <;tructure should be checked for overall
stability at the ultimate li mit state.
9. Reinforcement to rc~ist bendtng in the bottom of the ha~e should extend at lea:.t a
full tension anchorage length beyond the crttJcal !\CCtion of bending.
288 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 10.5
Critical sectiom for design

Maximum - Punching shear penmeter

shear _ 2.0d _ column perimeter + 4n:d

I' --~~ I ;

\ I i"" - Shear
......

Bendmg
l.Od

( EXAMPLE 10. 1

Design of a pad footing

I he fooun g t figure IO.(l) i~ required to resist characterii.ttc ax tal loud~ of 1()()() 1-N
~nnancnt .u1d 350 1-.N 'ariahk from a 400 mm ~quare column. The sate bearing
prcs\urc un the ~oil 1' 200 kN/m: and the charactemt ie material wcngths are
.f..~ JO N/mm' and }, 1 SIX I :"J/mm~.
As~umc a l'ooti11g weight or 150 1-.N so that the total permanent load i:. 11 50 kN and
ha-.c the dcstgn on the Pn·1cnpt11'l' Method.
1. l-or the ~erviceahility limit 'tate
TotuJ dc..,ign axinl load l .OG~ + I.OQk 11 50 ..1... 350 = 1500 kN
. 1500 '
Rcqwcd ba~c nrea - :wo 7.5 m
Provide u ba-.e 2.8 m square = 7.8 m2•
2. l·or the ultimate limtt l>tatl:
From table 10.1 it j.., apparent load combination I will give the largest set of al:lions
for thi~ simple wucturc. Hence, u... ing the partial c;afety factor:. for load
combination I:
Column design axial lotld. Nht U5G~ + 1.5Qk
= 1.15 x 1000 1.5 ll 350- 1875 kN
1875
Eanh pre,sure - 119 kN/m 2
2.1F -·
400 sq
Figure 10.6 1---
Pad foot1ng example
•I

8 .- ,.-----......l!dl-----,
'4)

!J
12H16@ 225 e.w.
1~ -
2.8m.sq
--J
 Foundations and retaining walls 289

3. Assume a 600 mm thick footing and with the footing con~tructcd on a hl1nding layer
of concrete the minimum cover is taken as 50 mm. Therefore take mean effecuve
depth = d = 520 mm.
At the column face
Ma\imum !>~hear res1~1ance. I'Rd m;u

0.5ud [o.6(J - f, L ) ] h l
250 1.5

= 0.5(4 X 400) X 520 X [0.6 ( l - ?-50

30 ) ] 30_ X 10- J
I.::J
= 43931-..N ( > N~-cJ IX75 kN)
4. Punching ~hear
The critical ~cc ti on for checking pum:hing shear is at a di ~ tum:e 2d a::. shown in
ligurc 10.5
Critica l perimeter = column perimeter+ 41rd
4 x 400 1 4?rx 520 - X134mm
Area within perimeter (400 + 4d) 2 - (4 - ?T)(::! .Od )~
= (400 + :!080J1 - \4 - rrJ w ..m'
= 5.22 !d' mm!
therefore
Punchmg 'hear Ioree \'rd = 2 39(2 . 8~- 5 22 ) = 6261u'\
l'w
Punch1ng 'hear 'tre~s l'£:d = -::---:-.__;;;;;._~
Pcnmcter d
626 X 10' - N '
8134 x 520 - 0' 15 • /mm
Tim, ultimate !.hear -.trc11s i' not excc~'ivc, (sec table 8.2) therefore It 6(XJ mm will
he u suiwhle e-.timate.
5. Bending rclnforccmenr see figure 10.7(a)
At the columu face which i' the critical section
I ~
Mr:.<l (2J9 >< 2.8 X 1.2) X ~-

482 kN m

l.Od=
0.68m 0.52m Figure 10.7
1.. ...
Cntical sections

D
(a) Bend1ng (b) Shear
290 Reinforced concrete design

For lhe concrete

Mhal 0.167.f.:lbd1
= 0.167 >< 30 X 2800 X 510~ X J0-1> 3793 kN m ( > 4~2)
M&l
A-= - -
, 0.87/yk.:
From lhe lever-arm curve. figure 4.5. /., = 0.95. Therefore:
- 482 )( 10'' - .,., ~
A, - 0.87 ~ 500 x (0.95 x 520) - --43 mm
Pro\idl! tw·ehe lll6 bar:. at 225mm centres. A, 2412mm 2 • Therefore
IOOA, 100 X 2412
0.165 ( > 0.15 sec table 6.X)
bd 28()() X 520
that is. the minimum steel area requi rement is satil'fied.

Maximum bar size

The ~lecl stress should be calculated unde1 the action of the quasi-permanent loading
which can he e~timated from equation 6.1 a~ follow~:
t;kl Gk + IUQd
1.15( 1.35Gl I 1.5Qd
5001 )()()() i () 3 ' ·'50)
256 '1/mm '
t !51 1.35 .< 1000- 1.5 350)
Theretore lrom table 6.1) the ll1<1\lmum .llltmablc bar ~1te j-, 16mm. lienee.
mtntmum area ami bar 'llC rcqutrcmcnt' "' :.pccthcd h} the code for the purpo!>e:> of
crack control arc met.
6. Fuwl check of punching :.hear
The 'hear re-,i~tance of the concrete without 'hear reinforcement can he obtained
fwm table 8.2 where
/'1 cnn he taken as the average of the steel rauo~ 111 both direction-,
A, 2412
0.0017 ( (), t 7~',i. < 2~)
= bd = 2800 X 520
hcm:c from table 8.2 I'Rd ,, = 0.4 N/mm 2 .
Therefore the shear resistance of the concrete, VRd.• il'> given by:
lftlll,~ I'Rd clld 0.40 x 8134 x 520 x I 0 1
169 I kN ( .-. Vud = 626 kN)
7. Maximum Shear Force - sec figure 10.7!b)
AI the critical section for shear. I.Od from the column face:
De~ign shear """ 239 x 2.8 x 0.68
= 455kN
A' before. I'Kd., = OAON/mm~
.', \'KJ r = I'Rd. cbd

= 0.40 X 2800 " 520 X 10- 3 - 582 kN ( ~ \'hi 455 kf':)

Therefore no shear reinforcement b required.
 Foundations and retaining walls 291

Instead of as~uming a footing weight of 150kN at the stan of this example it i~

possible to allow for the weight of the footing by using a net safe bearing prc:-.surc
flnct where

P.wt = 200 II x unit \\eight of concrete

= 200 0.6 >< 25 = I85.0kN/m2
Therefore
1.0 x column load 1000 + 350
Required base area 7 . 30m~
r>net IR5.0
It should be noted that the self-weight of the footing or ih effect nw~t be included
in the calculations at serviceability for determining the area of the base hut at the
l~ _______________________________________)
ultimate limit stme the self-weight should not he included.

Example 10.1 shows how w design a pad footing with a centrally located set of
actions. If the action~ arc eccentric.: to the c.:entroidal axis or the base then in the chccking
of punching shcor the maximum shear stress. ' '&J. i!- multirlied by an enhancement
factor ,1i ( l ). This factor nccount~ for the non-linear tli:-.lrihution of strc'" urnund the
critical perimeter due to the eccentricity of loading. Refcrcncc should he mudc to EC!
Clause 6.4.3 for the details of this dcs1gn approach.

10.2 Combined footings

Where two column-; are clo'e together it ·~ sometime!> necessnl) or convement to
combine thetr footing1> to form a continuous base. The uimen,ions of the l'oottng ~hould
he chosen so that the resultant loud pa,~cs through the centroid of the ha'e area. This
may be a~!.lllned to gne a uniform bearing pres:o.urc under the foming and help to
prevent differential settlement. For most ~tructures the ratios of permanent wtd variable
loads carried hy each column arc 11imilar so that if the t·c~uhnnt pa~~es through the
centroid lor the serviceability limit ~Late then this will also he true or very neurly at
the ultimate limit ~tate. and hence in these cu:-.es u uniform prc:-.sure dt.,tribution may be
considered for both limit ~tates.
The ~hape of the footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal u~ ~hown in figure I O.R.
The trape:wi(lol base has the tlisadvant:~ge of tlt:t<tiling and cutting vurying lengths of
reinforcing har~; it is used where there is a Jnrgc variation in the lo:1ds carried by the two
columns and there are limitations 011 the length of the footing. Sometimes in order to
~>trengthen the hase and economi~c on concrete a beam is incorporated bctweeu the two
columns :-;o that the bose i~ designed as an inverted T-scction.

Centroid of base and

resultant load coincide Figure 10.8
Combined bases
-"

--m +' o-.- 1--

Rectangular Trapezoidal
292 Reinforced concrete design

The proportions of lhe footing depend on many factors. u· it i!> too long. there will be
large longitudinal moments on the length~ projecting beyond the column!>, 'Whereas a
~hort base ''ill ha-.e a larger span moment between the column<, and the greater width
''ill cau-;e large transverse moments. The thickness of the footing mu~l be such that the
c.,hear stres-;es arc not excessive.

( EXAMPLE 10. 2

Design of a combined footing

The footing supports two columns 300 mm squurc ami 400 mm square with
ch:.ml(.:tcrislic permanent and variable loads a~ shown in figure 10.9. The safe bearing
pressun: is 300 kN/m~ and the churacteri stic material ~tn:ngth~ are}~~ = 30 N/mm1 and
./y~ - 500 N/mm 2• Asstune a ba~c thickne., s II X50 mm.

1. Base area (calcu lated at servicenhility limit ~tate. basi ng the design on the
/Jrt'scriptil'l' Method1

Net safe bearing prc'~sure Pne1 = 300 '2511 300 25 x O.H5

= 27H.!l kN/m 2
Total load = 1000 + 200 1400 + 300
- 2900kN
2900
Area of ha'c reqtmed
278.8

Pro' ide a re~tangular ba,e. 4.() m x 2J 111. area 10 5R m'

2.3m 1.24m
Figure 10.9
Combined footing cx.1mple G, • lOOOkN G, 1400kN
Q, • 200kN Q, 300kN

l
0
"'
00

' H16 ®150

(transverse)

300sq 400sq
column column
E
,....
"'
-0 E@-

3.0m 1.06m
0.54m 4.6m
 Foundations and retaining walls 293

be 2. Resultant of column loads and centroid of base: taking moment~ about the centre
line of the 400 mm ~quare column
1200 ). 3 - 1 ., f
x= 1200-1700- · -~m
The base is centred on thrs position of the resultant of the column load a~ sho'' n in
figure 10.9.
3. Bearing prc~surc at the ultimate limit qare (Load combination I):
Column load:. = 1.35 x 1000- 1.5 x 200 1.35 1400 + 1.5 x 300
1650 I 2340 = 3990 k;\1
therefore

earth pres~ure = 4.63990

X 2.3
= 377 k.N/nr 1

4. A1>suming d 790 mm fur Lh~.: longitudinal harl' und with a mean d 7RO mm for
punching ~ hear calculations:
J\t the column fuw

Maximum shear resi~tance, I'Ru ma' - 0.5wl fo.o (I

l-or 300 mm square column

VRu "'"' o)ud (o.6 (I ;;~) ~ ~~~

;o ) l
30
os 1200 1so [o.6 ( 1 - _so 1.•5
4942lN (Nf.AJ = 1650 l: )
I or 400 mm square column

\IRd """ [o
0.5ttt1 .6 ( I - 1.~ ) ] T:5
.r..~
250

0.5 >. 160() X 780 [0.6 ( 1 - ;~~)] [~.~~ X [()

1

- 6589 kN (Nr,t - 2140 k~)

5. Longitudinal moments and 1\heilr forces: the shcnr-force and bending-moment
diagrnms at the ultimate limit state and for a net upward pre~surc of 377 kN/m~ are
shown in fi gure 10. 10 overleal.
6. Longiluuinal bending
Maximum moment is at mid-span between the columns
6
Mw 679 x 10
A, =
0.!!7/~l.:
= -0.87 x 500
-----
X 0.95 X 790
2080 mm 2

From tahle 6.8

- O. l 5bad -- 0.00 I)-
t\, nun -10()'" .,1()()
x -· >< 790 - "~7"~6
~ - mm ~

Pmvidc nine 1120 at 270 rum centres. area = 2830 mm2• top and bouorn to meet the
minimum area requirements.
294 Reinforced concrete design

0.54m
Figure 10.10 3.0m 1.06m
Shear-force and bending-
moment diagrams 23<0kN~

t t • ft
w: 377 x 2.3 = 867kN/ m

1180~ 920~
I~ I ~S.FkN
""'J 470 ~ 1

679 ~ 1420

~\ 7
<:::J126
B.MkNm

4s7V

7. Transverse bencling
1.152
Mnd = 377 Y = 2491-Nm/m
2
M&l 249 >< 106
783mm' /m
A, - 0.87/.k:: = 0.87 X 50() X 0 95 X 770
But

IVtmtmum A,= --wo-

0 15bd 0.15 "
=
100
I()()() X 770
= 1155 mm·, /m
Provide 1116 bar:. at 150 mm centre~. areu 1140 mm2 per metre.
The tran!>ver::.c reinforcement should be Jllm:ed a1 clo~er centre~ under the columns
to allow for greater moment~ in those regions. For the purro~e~ of crack control.
the ma"imum bar site or maximum bar 11pacing ~hould al~o be checked as in
example I 0. I.
8. Shear
Punching shear cannot be checked. since the critical peri meier 2.0d from the column
lace lies outside the base area. The critical sec1ion for shear is tn~c n I.Od from the
column face. Therefore with d 780 mm.
Design ~hear Vr:d = 1420 - 377 x 2.3(0.7K 1 0.2) 570 kN
The ~hear resistance of the concrete without shear reinforcement can be obtained
from tabll: 8.2 where
p 1 can be talcn as the average of thl: steel ratio' in hmh direction~
"""" As [ 2830 I340 ]
=0.5 Lbd= 0·5 2300 x 790 + 1000 < 770 °·0016 ( 0 · 16t;f< 2%)

hence from table 8.2 ' 'Rd , =

0.36 N/mm2•
Therefore 1he shear resistance ot the concrete. VRd 1s g1\Cn by:
VR<l I'Rd.o;bd = 0.36 X 2300 X 780 'I< 10 ~ 645 kN ( > \1~~~ 570 kN)
Therefore shear reinforcement is not required.
l~------------------------------------~)
 Foundations and retaining walls 295

10.3 Strap footings

Strap footings, as shown in figure I0.11. are used where the base for an exterior column
must nor project beyond the property line. A strap beam is constructed between the
exterior footing ami the adjacent interior footing - the purpose of the strap is to restrain
the overturning force due to the eccentric load on the exterior footing.
The base areas of the footings are proportioned ~o thai the bearing pressures are
uniform and equal under both ba1.cs. Thus it is necessury that the resultant of the loads
-::>n the two footing!'! should pass through the cemrotd of the areas of the two bases. The
'trap beam between the footings should not bear agatnst the soil, hence the ground
directly under the beam \hould be IOO!.cncd and lefl uncompacted. As well as the
loadings indicated in figure 10.11 EC2 recommend& that. where the action of
compaction machinery could affect the lie beam. the beam should he designed for a
minimum downward load <.lf 10 kN/m.

Centroid of bases
lo coincide with Figure 10. 11

I-
r 0
1 resultant of N,
and N2
5 Strap fooling with sheanng
force and bending moments
for the strap beam

8 + s

'- L.,L---...J
_ _ _ _...,;;._

N, Loads at the ult. limit state

1.3S W,

~ -
0/2 R,
'

'
A~
v v
Shear Forces

N,(r- f) - p.Brl S
I, 2 (NI+l.35W1-RJ)-

c~ 2

Pu =n:l upward pre?ssura at the ultimate ""(?'

limit state
kndmg Moments
296 Reinforced concrete design

To achieve suitable sizes for the footings sc\craltrial designs may be necessary. With
reference to figure 10.11 the principal steps in the de$ign are as follows.
1. Ch<x>sc a trial width D for the rectangular outer footing and a.-,sume weigh~ W1 and
W~ for the footings and Ws for the <;trap beam.

2. Take moments about the centre hne of the inner column in order to determine the
reaction R 1 under the outer footing. Tile loadings -.hould be thmc required for the
~crviceahilit) limit state. Thus

(RI - Jl(L--•-f- ~) -NIL- w, ~

W 0 (10.5}

and solve for R 1• The width 8 of the outer footing is then given by

8 =!!.:.._
pD
where Jl i~ the safe heari ng pressure.
3. Equate the vertical loads and reaction!. to determine; the re<tction R2 under the inner
footing. Thus
R1+R2- (N1 +N1 + W1 + W2 + W,) 0 (10.6)
und solve for R:_. The \ite S of lhe square inner fooung is then given by

s
\ pf
?2

4. Check that the rcl'lultant of all the loads on the flx>tmg!-. pas-;es through the cemro1d
of the area., of the two ba~es. If the rc!-.ultant i~ too far away from the centrotd then
\LCps (I) to (4) mu<;t be repeated until there " adequate agreement.
5. Appl) the load111g as.,ocmtcd with the ultunatc limn \tate. Accordingly. reqse
equation\ 10.5 and 10.6 to determine the new value., for R1 and R·. Hence calculate
the beanng pre!)sure Pu for thts lun1t l!tate. It lllll) he a!-.sumed that the bearing
pressures for thil> Cal>e are abo equal and uniform, prov1ded the ratios of dead load to
1mpo!led load are similar for both columns.
6. Design the inner footing ns a :-quare base with bending in both directions.
7. Design the outer footing ns a base with bending in one direction und .. upported b)
the strap beam.
8. Design the strap beam. The maximum hcnding moment on the hcam occurs nt the
point of t.ero shear as shown in figure 10. 11. The !o.hcar on the beam is virtuall)
constnnt, the slight decrea!>e being cau!lcd by the beam's self-weight. The stirrup'
should be placed at a con&tant ~pacing but they should extend into the footings over
the supports so as to give a monolithic foundation. The main tension steel i.,
required at the top of the beam but reinforcement \hould al1.o be provided in the
bottom of the beam so as to cater for any differential settlement or downward load-;
on the beam.

10.4 Strip footings

Strip footings arc u~cd under \\all, or under a line of clo,cly spaced columns. l:.ven
\\here it i' possible to have indi .. idual bases, it is often 'iimpler and more economic to
excavate and construct the formwork for a continuou' ha\c.
 Foundations and retaining walls 297

lap< 2h
Rgure10.12
Stepped footing on a sloping
site

rr Figure 10.13
linear pressure distribution
under a rigid strip footing

fTt ;ttfftt ttlfJ_ ~_LIJ_ t

Uniform pressure Non-unllorm pressure

On a sloping site the foundations ~hould be c.;onstructed on n horitontal hearing and

~tcppcd where neces~nry. At the ~teps the footings 'hould he lapped as shm\n 111
figure I 0 12.
The footings arc analysed and destgned 3!. an im crted continuous beam '>uhjcctcd to
the ground hcanng pre~sure~. With a thick rigid footing and 3 hrm -.oil. J linear
dtstributmn of bearing pre~o.sure is considered. If the column' are equally '>paced and
equally loaded the prcso;ure IS untforrn.ly distributed but if the loading t)> not ')mmctrical
then the base i' !'.Uhjectcd to Wl eccentric loau and the bearing pres.,ure \'ancs a' shown
10 figure IO.ll
The bearing pre"urcs will not be linear when the footing i' not very ngid and the soil
" soft and compressible. In these cases the bending-moment diagram would be quite
unlike that tor a continuous beam with lirmly held support' and the moment~ cuuld be
qutte large. particularly if the loading is unl.ymmetrical. For a large foundation it may be
necessary to have 11 more dctai lctl inveqigution of the soil pressures under the base in
order to determine the bending moments and ~hearing forces.
Reinforcement is required in the b01tom of the base to resi~t the transverse hencling
moments in addition to the reinforcement required for the longitudinal bending.
Footings which support heavily loaded columns often require !>lirrups and bent-up bars
to resist the shearing forcet-.

(EXAMPLE 10.3

Design of a strip footing

Design a 'tnp fooung to carry 400 mm square column-. equally ~raced at '3.5 m
centre.... On each column the characteristic load~ are I000 k:-.1 permanent and J50 kN
\Uriable. The safe beanng preso;ure is 200 k;\/m2 and the characteristic material
\trength~ aref.L JON/mm~ and};,= 500 •tmm2. Bal>c the dcl-tgn on the Prt•lcriptil'l'
Method.
298 Reinforced concrete design

1. Try a thickness of footing - 800 with d 740mm for the longitudinal

reinforcement.
Net bearing pressure. p,.,1 = 200 - 2511 200 25 x 0.8
1
- 180.0 k '/m

\v1'dlh of ..tooung
. rcqui!C
. d= 1000 -l 350 2.14m
180.0 X 3.4

Provide a ~trip footing 2.2 m wide.

At the ultimate limit state
column load, Nb.J 1.35 x 1000 1.5 x 350 1875 kN
. 1875
bcanng pressure= . x .
22 35
= 244k.N/m 2
2. Punching .\'hear at the C()lumn face
Maximum shear resistance. VKd,m.l\

= o.swt [o.6 ( 1- ;;~>) J {::~

0.5(4 X 400) "740 X
30 )1301 '\ ( 10 \
[o.6( I 250
6251 k:'-l
8} in-.pection, the normal 'hear on a ~ection at the column face will be ~ignificantly
le~~ \C\'crc than thi' value.

3. umxiTtulmal r~infurceme/11
L -;ing the moment and shear coeflicients for an equal-1.pan continuous beam
(figure 3.9). for an interior pan
moment at the column1-. M~o.c~ 244 x 2.2 x 1.5] x 0. 10
= 605 k Ill

therefore
665 X 106
A1 2175mm 2
= 0.87 X 5()() X 0.95 X 740
From table 6.8

A, m'" O. ;~~d = 0.0015 X 2200 X 740

1
- 2442mm
Provide eight H20 bar~ at 300 mm centre~. area 2510 mm,. boltom steel.
In the <,pan
MFd 244 X 2.2 X 3.52 X 0.07
=460kNm
Therefore. ~ in the bottom face, provide eight H20 bars at 100 mm centre!..
area= 2510mm2 • top steel (figure 10.14).
 Foundations and retaining walls 299

. 3.Sm centres .: Figure 10.14

Strip fooling with bending

ill B
6
8H20 reinforcement

,..
0
·~ ·~ 0
..Loa

8H20 H20 @ 2SOctrs I

2.2m _

4. Tran\Tene reinforcemenl
In the transvcr~c direction the max.imum moment can he calculmcd on the
assumption that the 2.2 m wide rooting is acting a~ a I.! m long cantilever for the
purposes or calcutaLing lhe design moment:
1.] 2
Mt!d 244 x T = 148 kNm/m
148 X L06 2
A1 = 0.87 X 500 X 0.95 X 720 4l)7 mm j m
. . 0. 15hlt/ 720 '
MtmmumA$= 1oo 0.15 x iOOO x 1080mm / m
100
Prov tde 1120 bar~ at 250mm centre~. area 1260mm!/m. bottom 'lecl.
5. Normal1·11ear will govern a~ the punching perimeter i' ouhttlc the looting.
The crttical '>CCtton for ~hear tS taken I J)d from the column face. Therefore wrth
d 740mm
Oe~tgn ~hear Vrtt 244 > 2.2(3.5 x 0.55 0.74 - 0.2}
= 529kN
(The cnefftcient of 0.55 is from figure 3.9.)
The shear resistance of the concrete without shear reinforcement can be obtained
from tahle 8.2 where
p 1 can he taken as the average ot the ~teet ratio., in hmh directions
~A,
= 0'5 ~bel
s[ 25 10 _ ~] _
O.. 2200 X 740 I 1000 X 720 - 00
' 0165 ( () 165 ~ <... 2%)

=
hcnt:e from table 8.2 "Rd, c 0.36 N/mmz.
Therefore the shear resistance of the concrete. VRd. c is gi ven hy:
VKd .c VRd cbd 0.36 X 2200 X 740 X 10 ~ 586 kN ( '> VE.t 52() kN)

l_________________________________________
Therefore shear reinforcement is not requ ired.
)

10.5 Raft foundations

A raft foundmion tran~mits the loads to the ground hy means of a reinforced concrete
-.Jab that tSconttnuous O\'Cr the base of the stmcturc. The raft is able to span any area\ of
weaker sotl and it spread~ the loado; O\'er a wide area. Heavily loaded structures are often
pro\ idcd with one continuou~ base in preference to many closely-:.paccd. separate
fomings. Also where settlement is a problem. bccau~c of mining sub\itlence. It is
300 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 10.15
Raft foundations
. l .....
Il~
Pedertal
11] ~ .,""~..::,~ ~
-;• t;r,,p'
1 ~ ~~ ~11 · l

(a) flat slab (b) Downstand beam (c) Upstand beam

~I
Figure 10.16

llf:
Raft foundation subject to
uplift

t ! +++ t ! ++ + ! ! table
Upward pressure

common practice to use a raft foundation in conjunction with a more flexible

Stlpcr:-.lructure.
The simplest type of raft is a nat slah of uniform thickncs' supporting the colunm~.
Where punching :-.hear~ arc large the column~ may be provided with a pedestal at the
base ns shown in figure I0.15. The pedestal ),Crves a similar function to the drop panel in
:1 flat slab Aoor. Other, more heavily loaded raft~ require the l'oundmion to be
~trengthcncd by hcrun:- to form a ribbed consu-uction. The beams may be dowostnnding.
projecting hclow the slab or they may be up~tnnding n~ shown in figure 10.15
Down standing bcaml> have the dJ&advantage of tilsturbu1g the ground below the slab and
the excavated trenches are often a musance dunng conc;tructlon. while upManding
hcams interrupt the clear floor area ahove the ~lah. To overcome th1'\. a o;econd <;lah 1'
l>omctimes cast on top of the beam~. so formmg a cellular raft.
Rafts ha' ing a unifonn slab. and without strengthen mg. bemm. arc generally anal) sed
and de~igned as an mverted flat slah floor l.uhjected to earth hearing prc:.sure\. With
regular column spacmg and equal column loading, the coefficients tahulatcd in
section 8.6 for ftat slab floors are used to calculate the hending moment~ in lhc raft. The
'>lab muM be checked for punchmg shear around the column' and urountl pedestals. rf
they are used.
A raft with strengthening beams is dc~>igned a~ un inverted beam and slab lloor. The
slab ~~designed w span in t\\O directions where there arc supporting beams on all four
side!). The hcam~ arc often subjected to high shearing forces which need to be resisted
hy u combination or stirrups and bent-up bars.
Raft foundations which arc below the level of the water table. as in Rgure I0.16.
shou ld he checked to ensure that they are able to res1st the uplift forces clue to the
hydrostatic pressure. This mny be criticn l during con~truction before the weight of the
superstructure is in place, and it may be necessary to provide exltlt weight to the raft and
lower the water table by pumping. An ullernutivc method is to anchor the slab dov. n
with ~hon tension piles.

10.6 Piled foundations

Pilcl> arc used where the soil conditions arc poor and it is uneconomical. or not posc;rble.
to provide adequate spread foundation\. The piles mul.t extend do\\ n to firm sotl so lh..
the load is carried by either (I) end bearing, (2) friction. or (3) a combination of bott
end bearing and friction. Concrete piles rna) be precast and driven rnto the ground. ur
they may be the cast-in-situ type which are bored or excavated.
 Foundations and retaining walls 301

"el'FTEI I~ Figure 10.17

Bulbs of pressure
I
I
I
\
Bulb of
I pressure
I I""
I I
Gravel , _,~- _
• ....., T!!::;w.
Soft clay

' ....
Pile group Single ptle

A soils survey of a proposed site should be carried out to determine the depth to lim1
~oil and the properties of the 1-.oil. This information will provide a guide to the lengths of
pile required and the probable ~arc load capacity of the pile!.. On a large contract the
~afc loads are often determined from full-~cale load tests on typical piles or groups of
piles. With driven piles the safe load cun he calculated l'rom equation~ which relate the
resi~tancc of the pile to the measured :-et per biO\\ and the dri\ ing force.
The loud-carr}tng capacity of a group of piles 1<. not nccessanl} a multiple of that for
a single ptle it is often con~iderably le!-.s. For a I:Jrgt: group of clmely spaced fricttoJJ
piles the rcc.luerion can be of the order of one-third. In contrast. the load capacity of a
group of cnd hearing pilcs on a thicl- stratum of rod. or compact sand gravel is
suh)>tantially the :-urn total of the resi~tant:c of each 1ndl\ idual ptle. Figure I 0. I 7 shows
the bulbs or pressure under piles and IllUstrates why the settlement of a group ol piles is
th.:pcndent on the soil propl:T'lie:- at a greater depth.
The minimum :-pacing or
pilel>. centre to l:Cilli'C, ~hould not be les~ lhan (I) the pile
perimeter for friction pile~. 01 (2) tw1ce the lca!>t \\idth of the pilc for end hearing pilel>.
Bored piles 3rc ~mnetime~ enlarged at the btl\e ~o that they have a larger bearing area or
u greater resistance to uplift.
A pile is designed as a ~ho1t column unle% it i~ ~>lender and the :-urrounding :-oil is too
weak to provide rcstra1nt. Prcca\t pile<, muM also he del>igncd to resi~t the bending
moments cau<>ed hy lifting and ~tacking, nnd the hcud of the pile must be reinforced to
withstand the impact of the driving hammer.
Jt i~ very difficult, if not impOSSible. to determine the true distribution of lond of ll pile
group. Therefore. in general. it is more reali'>IIC to u-.c method-. that are Mmplc but
log1cal. A \erucal load on a group of vcnical p1b wnh an ax1' of '>ymmetry is
considered to he distributed according to the following equation, which is similar in
form to that for an eccentric load on a pad foundation:

Pn = -N ± Ne" Yn ± Ne» \n
11 '" In
where
Pn is the axial load on an individual p1le
N IS the vertical load on the pile group
n i~> the number of piles
e.. and e,y arc the eccentricities of the load N about the centroitlul axes XX and YY
of the pile group
fu and In arc the second moment\ of area of the pile group about axes XX anti YY
r 11 and .l'n arc the distances of the inclividu:.~l pile [rom axes YY und XX,
re~>pectively.
302 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 10.4

Loads in a pile group

Determine the distribution between the individual pile~ of a 1000 kN vertical load acting
at the position ~hown of the group of vertical piles shown in figure 10.18. To determine
the centroid of the pile group take moments about line T- T.
- LY
' ' =f/- =
2.0 - 2.0 .L 3.0 + 3.0 l 67
= . m
. 6
where 11 IS the number of piles. Therefore the eccentricitic~ of the load about the XX and
YY centro1dal axis are
e._ - 2.0 - 1.67 = 0.33 m
nnd
~'Y>' - 0.2m
1,~ = LY~ with respect to the centroida l axis XX
= 2 X 1.672 + 2 X 0.332 + 2 X 1.33 ~
9.33
Similarly
1,\ = I>~ = 3 X 1.0! + 3 X 1.0'
6.0
therefore
N Nl'n
II
- I Yn
"
=Ne,,
I .
t)
tn

1000 1000 X 0.33 JOQO 0.2

= -6- J: 9.33 _In± 6.0 111

166.7 ± 35.4yn ± 33.3.\n

y
Figure 10.18
... l .Om + l.Om _
Pile loading example
I

E
&
T
@1 I
I
2® T
~

.....
10
E
0
II ...;
1>- 1000kN

-@3 \ -
X- · - -·- - --- ·- X
4~ ,
E
.....
:t E
..... ~
0

..=
II
e-s 60
- O.Sm

y
-e,., ... 0.2m
 Foundations and retaining walls 303

Therefore. ~ub~tituting for Yn and Xn

P1 166.7 - 35.4 X 1.67 t- 33.3 X 1.0 = 140.9!w'l

P2 = 166.7-35.4 X 1.67-33.3 X 1.0 = 74Jk'
P1 166.7 35.4 X 0.33 r33.3 X 1.0 = 211.7 k.'l
p~ = 166.7-35.4 X 0.33-33.3 X 1.0 = 145.1 k:\l
P5 - 166.7- 35.4 X 1.33- 33.3 X 1.0 = 247.1 k.\f
Pt. 166.7 35.4 x 1.33 33.3 x 1.0 = 180.5 kN
Total = 999.6::::: IOOOkN

When a pile group is unsymmetrical about both co-ordinate axes it is nece&sary to

consider the theory of bending about the principal axes which is dealt with in mo11t
tcxtboo"-~ on strength of materials. Ln thjs case the formulae for the pile l oad~ are
N
f>u II
.L 1\•\'n .L IJ ru

where
N (e\~ 2::.>~- <')) L.An.\'n)
L:>~ L.\ 1~ (l: \'n,l'n) 2
and

8
Nkn L \'~ I'" L .\n."n)
L I~ L \'~ (L 1n,ln}2
l\ote that t'n 1s the eccentricity about the XX a\IS, while ~'n is the eccentricity about the
YY a\is. a\ 111 figure I 0.18.
Piled foundnllons are somet1mes required to res1st homontal force!. 10 addition to the
vertical loads. II the horizontal forces are small they can often be resi'ited by the pass1ve
pressure of the soil against verucal piles. otherwise if the forces are not ~mall then
ra"-ing piles mu:>l be provided as shown in figure IO.l9(a).
To determine the load in each pi le either a \latic method or an cla~tic method i!,
avai lable. The static method b ~imply a graphical analysis U\ing Bow·~ notation as .
illu:-.trated in Hgure IO.l9(h). This method assumes that the piles arc pinned at their ends
so that the induced load~ lire axial. The dustic method takes into account the
displtu.:cments und rotations of the piles which may be considered pinned or fixed ut
their end~. The pile foundation is analysed in a similar manner to a plane frame or ~pacc
fntmc and available cumputcr p)'()grams arc commonly used.

Figure 10.19
Forces in raking piles

(a) (b)
304 Reinforced concrete design

10.7 Design of pile caps

The pile cap must he rigid and capable of transferring the column loads to the piles. It
l>hould ha"c sufficient thicknes<; for anchorage of the column dowels and rhe pile
reinforcement. and it must be checked for punching shear. diagonal shear. bending and
bond. Pile!, are rarely positioned at the exact location~ shov.n on the drawings. therefore
thi'i mu:-.t be allowed for when designtng and tlctailing the p1le cap.
Two method.<. of design are common: des1gn using beam theory or design using J
truss analog) approach. In the former case the pile cap i:-. treated a!> an invcned beam
and is designed for the u~ual conditions of bending and shear. The tru:-.s analogy method
is used w determine the reinforcement requirements where the span-to-tlepth ratio I '
less than 2 such that beam Lheory is nul approprimc.

10.7.1 The truss analogy method

In the truss analogy the force from the suproncu column is asllumed to be transmitted
hy a triangular trus), action with concrete proviuing the compres~>ive members of the
I russ and steel reinforcement providing the tensile tie force as 'hown in the two-pile cap
in figure I0.20(al. The upper node of the ln1ss is locatctl ut the centre of the loaded are..
and the lower nodes at the inter~ection of the ten:.ile reinforcement with the centreline'
of the pile~. Where the piles arc .,paced at a distance greater than three times the p1le
diameter only the reinforcement within u d~'>t<lnce of 1.5 time~ the pile diameter fror-
the centre ol the pile should he con~idcrcd a~ effecuve 111 prov1ding the tcn.,ilc rc:.istanc~
\\ 11hin the trtl\:o..

Figure 10.20
Truss model lor a two-p1le cap

(a) (b)

Prom the geometry of the force diagram in rigurc I0.20h:

T
N/2 d
21
therefore
Nl
I
2c/
Hence

required area of reinforcement = 0 87T{,~ '!.d

N X I
0.87/,~
( 1 0. ~

Figure 10.21 Where the pile cap is supported on a four-pile group. a.-. ~h<m n in Hgun: I0.21. the
Four-pile cap load cun be considered to be tranl>mtrted equall> by pnrallel pairs of trus:.es. such ..,
 Foundations and retaining walls 305

Table 10.4

Number of piles Group arrangement Tensile farce

2 A {.
•
21
~8 T
A8
_ Nl
2d

3 I A 2NI
TAB- Tsc- TAc;
21 9d

'c 0 • ....
r ; 8
2/
~ --1
4 A B Nl
® 0 TAs - Tac - Teo TAo - -
' 4d
2/
•
' D® 21
•.._:~ c

AB and C'D. and equation 10.7 can be modified to gi\c

. d f . r . h T/ 2
requ1re area o reJn.orccment m eac truss = O.SJ./)k ( 10.8 )

and thi., rcinforcemem should be provided in both directions 111 the bottom face of the
pile-cap
The tru'' theory may be extended to give the ten~ile force 111 pile caps \\ ith other
configuration~ of pile group~. Table 10.4 gwe~ the force for ~ome common ca~e~ .

10.7.2 Design for shear

The !.hear capac.:ity of a pile cap should be checked m the crilicul ~-.cction tnken w be
20 per cent or the pile ditlmetcr inside the face of the pile, as ~hown in ligure 10.22. In
determining the shear resi:-.luncc, shear enhnncemenl may he considered such that the
shear force, VEJ, mny be ckcreascd hy a,.j2d where a, i~> the distance from the face of
the column to the critical scc.:lion. Where the ~pacing of the pile' is bs than or equal to

~/5 .,.II_
Figure 10.22
Critical sections for shear
checks

Punching ~hear
perimeter
306 Reinforced concrete design

three times the pile diameter, thi~ enhancement may be applied across the whole of the
critical !.ection; otherwise it may only be applied to strips of width three time!. the pile
diameter located central to each pi Ie.

10.7.3 Design for punching shear

Where the spacing of the pilel> cxcec<J... three times the pile diameter then the pile cap
~hould be checked for punching shear using the method outlined in section 8.1.2. for
slabs. The critical perimeter for punching shear i11 all !>hown in figure I0.22. The shear
force at the column face should be checked LO ensure that it is less than
0.51'l/cdlui = 0.5,· 1(Jc~/ l.5}ud where u is the perimeter of the column and the strength
reduction factor. 1· 1 = 0.6( I - /c~/250).

10.7.4 Reinforcement detailing

As for al l member~. normal dct:Jiling requirements must be checked. These include
maximum and minimum steel areas. har spucings, cover to reinforcement and anchorage
lengths of the tension steel. The main tension reinforcement should eontimre past each
pi le and ~>hould be bent up vertically to provide u full anchorage length beyond the
centreline of each pi le. In orthogonal directions in the top and bottom faces of the pile
cap a minimum steel area of 0.26(f..11n/f)dhd ( > 0.0013/}(/) ~hould be provided. It I'
normal to provide fully lapped horiL.ontal links of si1.c not le'>~ than 12 mm and a
~pacings of no greater than 250 mm. a~ sho" n in figure I0.2:\(b). The piles ),hould be cu
otl ~o that they do not extend Ulto the pile cap beyond th~.: lower mat of reinforcing bar.
otherwise the punching shear strength may be reduced.

10.7.5 Sizing of the pile cap

In determrntng a suitable depth of pile cap table I0.5 may be used as a guide ''hen thert
are up to six piles in the pile group.

Table 10.5 Depth of pile cap

Pile size (mm) 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 750
Cap depth (mm) 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1400 1800

( EXAMPLE 10. 5

Design of a pile cap

A group of four piles supports a 500 mm '<Juarc column which tran~miL'> an ultimate
axial load of 5000 kN. The pile~ are 450 mm diameter and arc 'paced at 1350 mm centre~
a~ ~ho" n. Design the pile cap for }~L = 30 l'\/mm 2 and/>~ 500 N/mm~.
(a) Dimensions of pile cap
Try an O\erall depth of HXX> mm and an a\·erugc etfecu,·e depth of 875 mm. Allow t11e
pile cap to c.xtend 375 mm either ~ide to give a 2100 mm .,quare cap.
 Foundations and retaining walls 307

2100
Figure 10.23
column starter bars 9H20e.w.
Pile-cap design example
/'

_soo-l ~ T"T r;;=;::::;:=lF;:~-;;:::~

To
,.,.,
0
g
0 ~I
01)

./' \ ~~==t:=F~
\.. )
15H20e.w.

290
(a) Plan (b) Relnrorcement details

(b) Design of main tension reinforcement

1-rom equation 10.8, the required area of reinforcement in each truss i ~
T/2 NxI
=-----
0.87/yk 4tf X 0.87.f;•k
5000 X I01 X ( 1350/2)
4 I( 875 X O.ll7 X 500
2216mm'

The total area of reinforcement required in each direction 2 x A, 2 x 22 16

4432 mm1. As the pllec; are l>paced at three time~ the pile diameter thi' retnforcement
rna) he dt<.tributed uniformly acro~s the secuon. Hence prm ide fifteen 1120 bars.
area 4710mm'. at 140mm centre!> in bnth directions:
IOOA,
( > 0.26J~Im
100 x4710
lui 2100xR75
0.26 =0. 15)
J;~

(c) Check for shear

Shear force, Vt::LI· along critical section 5000/2 = 2500 ~N and 10 allow for shear
enhancement thi ~ may be reduced 10:
llv 290
2500 X
2
tf 2500 X
2 875
X = 414kN
VRd L 0.121.( IOOf!fck)'/.1 (~ 0.035kl.5./~(t 5 )

where: k I -t jWojd = I -t / : = 1.49 (< 2} and fl = 0.0026

l'tld ~ = 0.12k(100p.hd 1 ~

=0.12 X 1.49 X ( 100 X 0.0026 X = 0.35 N/mm-

30) I '1. '

and I Rchfmin\ = 0.0351. 1 %'~ = 0.035 X 5

1.49 15 X 30° s = 0.35 N/mm'
therefore the 'hear resistance of the concrete. VRd c il> given by:
\ ' lld c l'Rcl .hd
- 0.35 "2 100 x 875 X 10)- 643kN (> V~.cd 414k:-.i)
308 Reinforced concrete design

(d) Check for punching shear

A~ the pile spacing is at three times the pile diameter no punching shear check i~
necessary. The shear at the column face should he checked:
Maximum shear resistance. VRd,mn'

= 0.5ud[o.6(1- {~~1) Jf:~

= 0.5(4 X 500) X 875 " [o.6(1 3() ) ] 30 X lO ~
250 15
= 9240 kN ( > N'Ell 5000 kN)

10.8 Retaining walls

Su~.:h wal l ~ ore usually required to re~ist u combination of earth and hydrostatic loadings.
The fundamental requirement is that the wall is capable of holding the retained material
in plnce without undue movement arising from deflection, overturning or ).liding.

10.8.1 Types of retaining wall

Conc.;rctc retaining walb ma) be constdered in terms of three ba~tc categories:
(I) gruvity. (2) counterfort, and (3) cantilever. Within these group~ many common
variations extsl. for C\ample cantilever wall~o may have additional surporting tiel> into
the rctnined material.
The su·uctural action or each type 11-. fundamentally different, but the techniques used
in analysis, design and detailing nrc those normally u~ed for concrew structures.

(i) Gravity walls

The~;e arc uwall) con,tructcd of nw. ~ concrete. with reinforcement mcluded tn the face~
to rc-.trict thermal and ..,hrink<~gc cracktng. A\ tllu•arated in figure 10.24. reliance b
placed on 'cll-\\etght to :-.au'f) l>tUblhty requirements. both in respect of overturning
and \lldmg.
It 111 generally taken a~ <l requirement thm under working conditton:-. the re~>ultnnt of
the ~ell'-weight and overturning forces mu~t lie within the middle third at the interface of
the busc and soil. This en,ures lhnt uplift is avoided Ht this inte1fac:c, us described in
!>Cction I0.1. Friction effects which resi~t 'liding are thus maintained across the entire
base.

Figure 10.24
Gravity wall

Ioree
 Foundations and retaining walls 309

Bending, ~hear. and deflection~ of such walls are u~ually insignificant in view of the
large effective depth of the section. Distribution steel to conrrol them1al cracking i:.
necessary. however, and great care mullt be taken to reduce hydration temperatures by
mix destgn. construction procedures and curing technique~.

(ii) Counterlort walls

This type of cot1\lructinn will probably be u:.ed where the overall height of the wall is
too large to be con~lructed economically either in mass concrete or as a cantilevct.
The basis of design of counterfort walls is that the earth pref.~urcs act on a thin wall
which :-.pan~> hmizontally between the massive counterforts (tlgure 10.25). These mu~>t
be ~ u fficient l y large to provide the necessary permanent load for !>Lability requirements.
pussibly with the aid of the weight of backfill on an enlarged hase. The countcrfort~>
muM he designed with rcinforl'cment to act as cantilevers to resist the considerable
bending moments tiH\1 arc concentrated at these points.
Countcrfort
Figure I 0.25
Countcrfort wall

JllURl
l Span

Cro~~-sewon Plan

The i>paclllg of countcrfort'i \\til be go\cmcd by the abO\c factor:-.. coupled with the
need to rnatntatn a l>atisfactory span-depth ratio on the wull "lab. \\ hich mu'it he
del>tgned for bending us a continuou~ slab. The athalllage ol Lhtll form of con~truction i'i
thut the volume of concrete involved is con.,idcrahly reduced. thereby removmg many
of the problems of large pours. and reducing the quuntJfles of cxcavatton. Bulanc.:d
aguin'it thi.s mu)t be con11idcrcd the generally increased -;htHtering complication anti the
probable need for increased reinforcement.

(iii) Cantilever walls

These arc tlc.signetl as vertical cantilevers ~panning !'rom a large ngicl ha~o.c which often
t'Ci les on the weight of backfill on the hato.c to provide ~labi l ity . Two fo ll11l> of thito.

rlgure 10.26
Cant1lever walls

~ -- H,

' -- Heel beam

c.
(a) (b)
31 0 Reinforced concrete design

con.,Lruction arc illustrated tn figure 10.26. In both ca.c,es. stability calculations foliO\\
similar procedures to those for gravity walls to ensure that the re1-oultant force lie within
the middle third of the base and that overturning and sliding requirements are met.

10.8.2 Ana lysis and design

The design of retaining walls may be split into three fundamental !>tttges: (I) Stability
analysis- ult1mtlle limit \tate (EQU and GEO), (2) Bearing pressure analysis - ultimate
lunll '>tate (GEO). and (3) Member design and detmling - ultimate limit state (STR) and
c,erviceability limit states.

(i) Stability analysis

l~ nder the action of the loads corresponding to the ultimate limit state (EQU). a
retaining wr~ ll must be stable in term!-- of resistance to Ol'errurning. This is clemon~lrated
hy the simple case of a gravity wall as shown in figure 10.27.
TI1e critical condition' for overtummg are when a maximum horilOntal force t~ch
with a minimum verucal load. To guard again\! fmlure by overturning, it ic, u~ual to
upply conservative fr~ctorl-1 of safety to the forces and loads. Tahle IO.I(c) gives the
factors that arc relevant to these calculation1..
A panjal factor of safety of ~·c ; = 0 9 i' applied to the permanent load Gl if 11<; effect
" ·favourahle'. and the ·unfavourable' effect- of the permanent earth prel>Sure lmtding at
the n:ar laL'c or the wall arc multiplied hy a partial !'actor or safety of 'Yt 1.1. The
' unfti\'Ottrahk' et'fects of the variable ~urchargc loading, if any, arc multiplied by a
partial facto1 of ,afety of ~ 1 1.5.
h1r resi.,tance to overturning. moments would normally he taken ahout the toe of the
ha~e. point A on figure 10.27. Thus the requirement is that

0.9G~x ,;;> 1 1 //~v

Resistance to .1/irlinf: i' provided by friction between the unders1de of the ba-;c and the
ground. ami thus is also related to total self-weight Gk. Resiswncc providi.!d by the
passive earth pressure on the.: front face of lhc base may make some contrihution. but
\lllCe thi-. material is often backfilled against the face, th1s re)>istanee cannot hi!
guaranteed and i-. usually ignored.
Failure by \licl ing is considered under the acuon of the load), corresponding to the
ultimate limit swte of GEO. Tahlc lO.I gives the factors that are relevant to these
calculation.-,.

Figure 10.27
Forces and pressure~ on a
grav1ty wall

Fnction force ~G,

~urcharge
pressure
 Foundations and retaining walls 311

A partial factor of safety of ~1G = 1.0 is applied to the permanent load Gk 1f its effect
is ·favourable' (i.e. contrihutes to the sliding resistance) and the 'unfavourable' effects
of the permanent earth pressure loading at the rear face of the wall arc multiplied by a
partial factor of safety of I t = 1.35. The ·unfavourable' effecu, of the variable
surcharge loading are multiplied by a partial factor of safety of I t I .5.
Thus, if the coefficient of friction between base and :-oil IS JL, the total friction force
will be given by JLGk for the length of the wall of weight GL: and the requirement is that
l.o,,ck ?: 1r Hk
where H1. is the hori7onwl force on this length of wall.
If this criterion i~ not met. a heel bc<ml may be used, and the force due to the passive
eanh pressure over the face area of the heel may he included in resiMing the ~licling
force. The partial load factor / ron the heel beam force ~hould be taken a~ 1.0 to give the
wor~t condition. To ensure the proper action of a heel hcam. the front face must be cnst
2
·ed directly against sound, undisturbed material. and it is important thrn this is not
overlooked during construction.
In considering cantilever walls. a considcrnble amount of backfill is often plnccd on
top ol' the base. a11d Lhi!> is laken into account in the stahility unaly~is. The force~ a(;ting
in this (;a~e are shown in figure 10.28. In addition to Gk and Hk there is an additional
vertical load Vk due to the material above the base actmg a distance q from the toe. The
worst condition for stability will be when thi<> is at a minimum; therefore u partial loa<.l
fnctor ")r 0.9 b used for consideration of O\Crturnmg and 1.0 for con~i<.lcration of
~liding. The '>t:thility requirement~ then become

0.9GL.\ t 0.9Vllf ~ ")rlh\' for overturning ( 10.9)

11( t.OGL t 1.0\'L) ?: / r Hl for ~liding ( 10.10)
When a heel hcam is prov1<.lcd the additional pa,s1ve rcsisl<lnce of the earth must be
included in equation I0. I0.
Stability analysis. a' described here. will normally suffice. rtowcver. if there 11- doubt
ahour the foundation material in the region of the wall or the rei inbility of loadu1g
values, it may he necessary to perform a full slip-circle analy:-.i1-, u~ing wchniques
common to f>oil mechanics. or to usc increa.~ed factorl> of sufety.

L~r.:.:m. Figure 10.28

I Forces on a cantilever wall

I
Re;ultant force Hk
- ~

D/2 D/ 2

Beanng
pressures
312 Reinforced concrete design

(ii) Bearing pressure analysis

The bearing pressures underneath ret:Hntng walls arc a:-.sessed on the basis of the
ultimate limit state (GEO) when determining the size of base that is required. The
anaJy,is will be 'imilar tc> thai dJscussed in ~ection 10.1 with the foundation being
subject to the combined effects of an eccentric verucal load, coupled with an
overturning moment.
Considering a unit length of the cantilever wall (figure 10.28) the resultant moment
about the centroidal axis of the base i'>

( 10.11 )

and the vertical load is

( 10.12)

where in lhi~ ca:-.c ol the STRand GEO ultimute limit state~ the part ial factors of safely
are gi\'cn in Tahlc 10.1:

l-or load comhinmion I· " 1 - 1.35 and 'irz 'in = 1.0

For load comhinm ion 2: 1r1 = l 'r:! ")'f' = l.O
as,uming that. for load comh1nat10n I. the effect of the moment due to the hori7ontal
load on the maxtmum hcanng pressure ut the toe ot the wall at A 1s ·unfavourahlc'
whi lst the moments of the ~te l f-wcight of the wall and the earth acting on the heel or the
wall act in the opposite sense and are thus ·ravourahle'. This assumption may need
chcck1ng in mdi\1dual ca~es and the appropriate partwl ft~ctor:-. applied depending on
whether the cllccl of the load can be con:,1dcrcd to be f~1vourable or unfavourahlc.
The distribution of bearing prcssure11 wi II be os ~hown in tigurc 10.28. provided the
cl'fcctive eccentricity lies within the 'middle third' of 1hc base. that i~

M D
N 6
The ma'\imum hcanng prc~),ure 1s then £1\en by

N M D
(11 D+ I "2

Therefore

N 6M
PI D-t 1)2 ( 10.13)

and
N 6M
"~ = o D~
( 10.14)
 Foundations and retaining walls 31

(iii) Member design and detailing

A<> with foundations, the design of bending and ~hear remforccment " ba\ed on an
analyst<; of the load~ for the ultimate limit ">Late (STR) . wtth the corrc\pondmg beanng
pres~ures. Gra' ity ''all~ will o;eldom require bending or shear :.tccl, \\hile the ''alb m
counterfort and cantile,er constmction "ill he designed all lllabs. 1l1e de\ign or
counterfons "ill generally be similar to that of a cantiJe,er beam unles:. they arc
mas<;tve.
With a cantile\cr-typc retaining wall the stem ill designed to re1:1iM the moment caused
by the force It H1• with lr value!> taken for load combination I tf this load combinatton
is deemed to be critical. For preliminary si1ing, the thickne~~ of the wall may be taken
as 80 mm per metre depth of bacl..lill.
The thidnc~~-. of the base b u~ually of the same order a~ that of the ~tern. The heel
and toe mullt be designed to resist the moments due to the upward earth hearing
presMtre~ and the downwm·d weight or soil and base. The soil bearing prc~sures ure
CHJcuJalctl from equation~ lO.lJ 10 l0.14, provided the resultant of the horitontaJ and
vertical force~ lies within the 'middle third'. Should the resultant lie outside the 'midd le
third', then the bearing pressures should be calculated using equation I 0.4. The partial
factors or ~afcty "'til· it:! and In sbould be taken to provide a combtnation which give~>
the critical dc~ign condition (the worst of combinations I and ::!).
Reinforcement detailing mu~t follow the gL•nera l ntle' for ~lah' und beam~ a~
uppropriate. Particular care must be given to the <.letading of relllforcement to hmit
~hnnf..uge and thermal cracf..ing. Gravity wall<. are particular!) vulncr.thle bccau'c of the
large concrete pour~ th<tt arc generally tnvolved.
Rc,tramt., to them1al and ~hrinf..age movement :o.hould he reduced to a minunum.
llowe\cr. this IS counteracte<.l in the con~trucuon of ba~e~ hy the need lot good frictton
between the base and !>Oil: thu~ a llliding layer 1' not po"ihlc. Re111lorccment tn the
ba'e~ mu't therefore be adequate to control the cracf..ing cau,ed hy a !ugh degree of
re.,lraint. Long wall~ re.,traincd by rigid ha'e" are parucularly ~>uscepllblc to crading
during thermul mo,ement due to lo.,ll of hydranon heat, und detailing mu\t attempt to
<.lbtnbutc these crncf..s to en . . ure ueceptable wi<.lth~. Complete vct1tcal movement jointr-.
must be provided. '11tcse jomts will often incorporate a ~hear f..ey to prevem differential
movcmem of udjaccnt r-.ections of wall. and watcrhar~ and scaler' should he used.
The bucf.. races of retaining walls will usually be ~ubject to hydrostutic forces l'mm
groundwater. These may be reduced by the provision of n drninage path at the J'ncc of
the wall. lt is usual practice to provide such a dntin hy a layer of rubble or porous blocks
as shown ln ligurc l0.29. with pipes to remove the wuter. often through the fron t of the
wall. In addition to n:ducing the hydrostatic pres~urc on the wnll, the likelihood of
leakage through the wall is reduced, and warer i~ abo lc'~ likely tn reach and damage
the ~oil henemh the foundation~ of the wall.

Figure 10.29
P1p~ ca~t
mto wall Dra1nage layer

Dramdge
Porous pipe
cha~nnel la1d to fall

mm ' "
314 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 10.6
Design of a retaining wall

The cantilever retaining wall shown in figure 10.30 supporL~ a granular material of
~aiUrated density L700kg/m2• It is required to:
1. check the stability of the waU
2. determine the bcanng pressure:. at the ultimate limit ~tate. and
3. de!>ign the bending reinforcement u~ing high-yield ~ tee!. fvk = 500 kN/mm2 and
concrete cia's C30/.l7.

(1) Stability
Horizontal force
It b a:>sumed that the coefficient of active pressure K4 0.33. \\hich i<; a typical value =
for a gr:Jnular material. So the earth pressure is gi vcn by

Pu Kupgh
where p j, the density of the backfill and h i~ the depth con ... idered. Thu\. at the base
1
[1u = 0.33x 1700x 10 x9.8 1 x 4.9
= "7.0 kNim'
Allowing for the minimum required surcharge of 10 ~/m 2 an additional hori7.<mtal
prc~wre nf
p = Aa I0 '.J ~ \J/m'
liCll' uni lmmly over the wholl: depth h.

300
Flgure 10.30
Retain1ng wdll design example
... I·

165.1 .. 22.0

H10·200ew
~.... I
I
- 16 2kN

active earth

Ground level
I
I
I
p. ~ 27.0kN/m'
A '
H12-200 t
39.4kN 34.0kN passive _.,.1 IJ• 3.3kN/ml
~800...j.!OT~200 beanng

P• U
~ _
l

3.4m _
1
I
p1 pressures
 Foundations and retaining walls 315

Therefore the horit.ontal force on I m length of wall i~ g1ven by:

Hk lcanh = 0.5pah = 0.5 x 27.0 x 4.9 = 66.1 kN from the active earth pre~)ourc

and
//l 1,ur) p)r 3.3 x 4. 9 = 16.2 k.:-1 from the surcharge pres~urc

Vertical loads
(a) permanent load:.

wall
..~ {0.4 + 0.3) x 4.5 x 25 = 39.4
base 0.4 x 3.4 x 25 = 34.0
earth = 2.2 X 4.5 X 1700 X 10 3 X 9.81 165.1
Total = 238.5 kN
(h) vnriahle loads
Nurchargc 2.2 x 10 = 22.0J...N
The paninl foetor~ of safety a1> given in table 10.1 will be usctl.

(i) 01•ertrtminR: taking moments about point A at the edge of the toe.:. at th1.: ultimate
limit state (l!QU).
l·or the overturning (unfavourable) moment a factor of 1.1 is applied to the earth
pn.:\surc.: and a factor of 1.5 to the ~urcharge pressure

overturning moment A
11 Hk lc~· h/3 + A
11 H~ ,ur/r/2
={ l.l ><66.1 x 4.9t3)+{1.5x 16.2 x 4.9/2)
178 J...l\ m
ror the rc\tratning (favourable) moment a factor of 0.9 is applied to the pcnnancnt
loads and () to the vnriahle ~urcharge load

rcsmun1ng moment - -; 1(.39.4 x 1.0 + 34.0 x 1.7 + 165.1 x 2.3)

= 0.9 X 476.9
429kN m
Thus the criterion for overtuming is sntisfied.

(ii) Slidi11~: from equat ion 10.10 it i ~ necessary that

I'( I .OG~ -t I.OVk) >'''II Hk for no heel heam
For the sliding (unfavourable) effect a factor of 1.35 i1> upplicd Lo the cunh pressure
and a factor of 1.5 to the ~urcharge pressure
sliding force 1.35 x 66.1 + 1.50 x 16.2
113.5 kN

For the re.,traming (favourable) effect a factor of 1.0 i~ applied to the permanent
loads and 0 to the variable surcharge load. As~umu1g a value of coefficient of
friction Jt 0.45
frictional rcl>istmg force 0.45 x 1.0 x 238.5
= 107.3kN
316 Reinforced concrete design

Since the sliding forte exceed~ the frictional force, resistam:c mu\t aho be
provided by the passive earth pre~sure acting against the heel beam antltht!> Ioree
given by
lip - /1 X 0.5Kppgt?
when! Kp 11- the coefficient of pa~sive pre~:.urc. a<;!'tumetlto be 1.5 for rhi~ granular
material and a b the depth of the heel below the 0.5 m 'trench' allowance tn fmnt
of lbe ba..,e. Therefore
1
/lp 1.0 X 0.5 >< 3 5 X 1700 X 10 X 9.~1 X ()j~ = 7.3 kN
Then.:fore total rcsiqiog forte i'
107.3.,. 7.3 - 114.6kN
'~hith marginally cxteeds the ~liding force.
(2) Bearing pressures al ultimate limit state (STR & GEO)
Consider load combination l a" the critical combination that will gtvc the max1murn
bearing prc.:s,ure at thc.: toe of the wall bee whle 10.1 ), although in practice lo..u.i
combtnallon 2 ma) haH~ to he chcdcd to determine if 11 gives a \\Orse effect. Note that
thL ''c.:ight ot the earth and the 'un:hargt· loa<.ling exerts a moment about Lh~.: ba'~:
ccntrd111e that" ill r<'diiC<' the maximum p1cs<.urc ut the toe of the wall. lienee the cfteL
ot the weight ol the ca1th i~ talo..en us a fttt'Ottrnbh• effect (/1 = I) and the weight of the
'un:hargc loud ~~ al,o tab.en as a jal·ourablt• ellect ("11 0) within the calcu lation'
hl'lm' The tmjm·ourablc effect!. of the luteral earth prc.:s~urc and the lateral ~urcharg.e
prc.,~urc an: mullipl1cd hy factors of r 1 1.35 and 1 1 = 1.50. rcspccth el)
f·rom equall(li1S 10. 13 and 10.14 the bearing. prc~sures are given by
N J 61\1
1'0 D'
''here H i~ the moment about the base centreline. Thc.:refore
M ~I (66 1 X 4 9/3) + . . , ( 16.2 X 4.9/2) +")I X 19.4(1 .7 1.0)
-')r X 165.1 X (2.3 - 1.7)
1.35 X 107 9 I 1.5 x 39.7 + 1.35 X 27.6 1.0 X 99.1
= 145.7 -f 59.6 + 37.3 - '.19.1 143.5 b.N m
Thcrc!nrc. hearing pres,ure tiL tm: and heel of wall
( 1JS X
- - - - -3.4
{39.4 -f 34.()) I 1.0
-- 165.1)
--±---
6x l43.5
3.·-1'
77.7- 74.5
- I52 2, 3.2 kN/m' (a\ 'hO\\ n in figure I0.1 1)

Figure 10.31

''ffi""'""'" ... '"'

__.11. ~
m? ~: : : : : : Ul
_... _2200 bearing
-- pressure~

6 P1 = 3.2 1

p, 152.2 __.;
1

34m
~ - - - - - -"'1
 Foundations and retaining walls 317

(3) Bending reinforcement

(i) Wall
Hon zontal force
=110.5Kopgl,Z + -.,p ,h
= 1.35 X 0.5 X 0.33 X 1700 X 10 -~ X 9.81 X 4.51 + 1.50 X 3.3 X 4.5
75.2 I 22.3 97.5 kN
con~idenng the effective 1>pan. the maximum moment i~

Mb.l 75.2 X (0.2 + 4.5/ 3) I 22.3 X (0.2 4.5/ 2) 182.5 kN m

Mtu l !l2.5 X 106 _
bd~f~k JO()() X 33()2 X 30 O.056
for which 1., - 0.95 (figure 4.5). Therefore
6
~~~ = 182.5 X 10
0.95 X 330 X 0.87 X 500
= 1338 mm 2/m
Provide 1120 bars at 200 mm centres (A, - 1570 mm ' ).
(ii) Base
The hearing prc~~urc~ at the ultimate limit \late arc obtai ned from part (2) of the ~e
calcu lation\ . Using the figurclt from part ( 2):
prc~c;urc Pt - 152.2 kN/m 2
fh = 3.2 J..N/m1
and 111 figure 1Cl.31 :
p1 3.2 - ( 152.2 - 3.2)2.2/ 3.4 = 99.6 J..N/m'
/feel: tal-ing moments about the qcm centreline for the vertical l oad~ and the
hearing pres, ure~

3.4 1.0 ) + "Yt

l't X 34.0 )I
(T - X 165 .1 X IJ J.2 X 2.2 X l.J

(99.6 3.2) X -~"' X

') ') ("' 0.2)
~~-
')

1.35 X 23.8 + 1.0 X 2 14.6 9.2 9<!.0

139 kN m
therefore
6
Mw = 139 x 10 = 0.043
btf2j;k 1()()(.) X 3302 X 30
for which Ia 0.95 (figure 4.5). Therefore
139 X IOh
() 95 X 33() X 0.87 X 5()()
1019mm1/m
Pro\'ide H20 bars at 250mm centres (A, 1260mm 2/m). top steel.
318 Reinforced concrete design

Toe: taking moments about the stem centreline

0.8
MFA ~ ~~~ X 34.0 X 0.6 X - - 152.2 X 0.8 X 0.6
3.4
~ 1.35 X 4.8-73.1
~ -67k. m
therefore
MFd 67 X 106 .,
bcf-J,~ - 1000 x 330~ X 30 - O.(L I
for which Ia = 0.95 (figure 4.5). Therefore:
67 X 106 ,
As= 0.95 x :no x 0.87 x 500 = 491 mm·fm
The minimum area for this, and for longitudinal dblribution steel which is also
required in the wall and the base. is given from wblc 6.8:
0. 15/Jtd 2
A,,min = loO = 0.0015 x 1000 X 330 495 mm

Thus. provide H 12 bars at 200 rnm centre~ (A~ )()6 mm 2/m) • bottom and
dbtribution steel.
Also ~teel should be provided in the compres,ion face of the wall in order to
prevent cracking - ~ay. IUO bars at 200 mm centres each way.
Bendtng reinforcement i& requtred 111 the heel heum to n:~bt the moment due to
the pa~'i'c earth pressure. Tht<. reinforcement would probabl) be in the form of
dosed link~.
 CHAPTER 11
...........................................

Prestressed
concrete
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
... ...•••• .•......•••• ...••.•.••.•••••••..... ••...•...•.••.••..••..•..•••....
The analysis and design of prestressed concrete is a specialised field wh1ch cannot
possibly be covered comprehensively in one chapter This chapter concentrates
therefore on the basic principles of prestressmg, and the analy~is and des1gn of
statically determinate members in bending for the serviceability and ultimate limit
_) states.
A fundamental aim of prestressed concrete is to limit tensile stres,es, .:md hence
flexural cracking, in the concrete under working conditions. Design is therefore
based initially on the requirements of the
serviceability limit state. Subsequently
considered are ult1mate limit state criteria
for bending and shear. In add1lion to the
concrete stresses under working loads,
deflections must be checked, and atten-
tion must also be paid to the construction
stage when th e prestress force is first
applied to th e immature concrete. This
stage is known as the transfer condition.
The stages fn the design of prestressed
concrete may therefore be summarised
as:

1. design for serviceability- cracking

2. check stresses at transfer
3. check deflections
4. check ultimate limit state - bending
5. des1gn shear reinforcement for ultimate
l1 mit state.
They are illustrated by the flow chart in figure 11.1.

319
320 Reinforced concrete design

___.
When considering the basic design of a concrete section subject to prestress.
the stress distribution due to lhe prestress must be combined with the stresses
from the loading conditions to ensure lhat permissible stress limits are satisfted
Many analytical approaches have been developed to deaf with this problem
however, it is considered that the method presented offers many advantages of
simplicity and ease of mampulat1on in design.

EC2 Section
2.3 1 Cdlculate moment Vdltdtion
(non-permilnenl actions & finishes) Mv

D Structur~
5. 10.2 Slr(.')S limits { ConcrelP u)age
cl~ss
D
Min, section moduli

D
Trial !<'Ction ,.._ { Shap!'. cover,
d~pth,
IO)) allowance ~tc

D
Self-weight t
2.3 1
~rmanent actton momPnt Ql

~
D -'
Total momt>nt ~
D
Draw McJgnel dtagram lor cnucal section
~
:.0
II)
Ql

D v
·~
Select prestress force Jnd ecccrllrtetly ~

D
DPtPrmlnl' tendon proftle

5. 10.4-5.1 0.9
D
Ccllculate lOlSe~
D
Check nnal stresses and wesst>s
under quasl·permanent lo.td~
D
7.'1 Check delle( lion~

8.10.3
D
Design end block Pr~strtss lystem

6.1. 5.10.8
D
Ultimate moment of reslsta11ce

D
Untenstoned reinforcement , . . _ Ultimate moment
~
~
D , . . _ Ultimate shear lore~
-'

~
6.2 Shear remforcPmPnl des.gn
~
D §"'
8.10.3 Check end-block (unbonded)
5
Figure 11 .1 D
Prestressed concrete destgn FINISH
flow chart
 Prestressed concrete 321

11.1 Principles of prestressing

In the dei>ign of a retnforced concrete beam subjected to bending it i1- accepted that the
concrete Ill the ten~ile .tone !!> cracked, and that all the ten!>ilc rc-.i'>tancc " prov1ded hy
the reinforcement. The '>trel>i> that rna) be pcrmiued in the reinforcement i-. limited by
the need to keep the cracls in the concrete to acceptable '' idth~ under working
condillons. thus there is no advamage to be gained from the u~c of the very high Mrength
steels wh1ch are available. The design is therefore uneconomic in two rc)!pccts: (I) dead
\\eight includes 'uselesl> · concrete in the tensile 7one. and (2) economic uM: of Mccl
resource~ is nm po~'ihle.
·Prestressing' mean:- the artificial creation of Mres.,es in a structure before loading, l>O
that the stre~ses which then exist under load arc more favour<Lble than would otherwbc
he the case. Since concrete i:-. :-,trong in cumpres:-.ion the material in a beam will be used
most erliciently if it can he maintained in a :.tate of compression throughout. Provision
of a longitudinal comprcs~ive ror~.:c acting <ln a concrete beam may lherefore overcome
both of the disadvantages of reinforceu concrete cited above. Not only Is the concrete
fully utilised. but also the need for conventional tension rcinl'orccment is removed. The
compres~ivc rorcc is u:-.ually provided by tensioned steel wires or ~trand~> which arc
anchored against the concrete nnd, since the stress in thi<. Meet is not an imrortant factor
in the behaviour of the beam but merely a means of apply1ng the appropriate fwce. full
advantage may be taken of very high strength steel~.
The way in wh1ch the c;tresc;es due 10 bending and an applied compre"IH' force may
be comb1ned I\ demonstrated 111 figure 11 ..2 for the ca~e ot an a\Wll> applied force
acting over the length of a beam. The stres!-. & .. tributiun at any ~;ecuon \\Ill equal the
'um of the compression and bcndmg ..,trcsse\ if it i., avmmcd that the concrete behave-.
elastically. 'I hu., 11 is poss1hle to determine the applied force 'o that the combmed
stresses arc alway!> comprel>SI\·e.
By appl) ing the compre11-.ive force eccentrically on the concrete cross-section. a
funhe1 Mrc"s distribution. due to the bending effects of the couple thu' created, 1s added
lC) lho\e 'hown in figure 11.2. rhi'l effect i:-, illu<,trated in figure 11.1 and otters further
udvuntages when aucmpting to produce W<lrl...ing Mrc~>~c.., \\ ith1n required limm.

Figure 11.2
Elfecls of axial preslre~s

2-+ .~-~!.~~~>I·~·1 p

c c c c

! 0![7
T
Bending strain
dlstnbution
c
Prestress
T
Bending
c
Total

Seclion 8-B Stress distribution - Section 8-8

322 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 11.3
Effects of eccentric prestress
t t t '
+ '
t e
• 1

l_s
C C T C

Of\· [7
C
Axial
prestress
T
Bending
C
Eccentricity
prestress
or
C
Total

Stress distribution- Section B B

Early attempt~ to achieve this effect were hampcn:d both by the limited steel
~tn:ngth~ availahk and by shrJllJ..agc and acep ol the concrete under sustained
romprcs•.1on. cnuplco with rela\atmn of the '>tccl. This meant that the steel lo~t a large
part nl Its innial prcten~ion ano as a n:~uh re~idual stre~~e~ were so small a~; to be
t"cle". It is no\\ posSible. howc\er. to produce stronger conere::tes which have good
cn:ep propcrttcs, and \er} htgh stn.:ngth '>teclc. whtch can he stressed up to a lugh
pcn.:cntage of their 0.2 per cent prool -.tres'> arc al-;o avatlable. l·or example. hard-drawn
''ires m.l) c:arr) stre:-.seo.; up to ahout three tunes tho-.e fXl''-ihle in grade 500 remforcmg
\tccl. This nut onl} result\ in saving-. Oll>tcel quantity. hut al'o the cfli!ct!) ot shnnkage
and creep become relamcly ~mailer and rna) t}ptcally amount til the loss of only about
25 per cent of the tmtial applied force. Thu,, modern material-, mean that the
pn:strcssing of concrete i' a pracllcal propo~Jtton. with the force' being provided b}
'teel p<ts,ing through the heam and nnchored at each end while under high tensile load.

11.2 Methods of prestressing

l'wo hn,ic techniques arc common ly employed in the con~>trtl Ction of prcstrusscd
concn:te. their chief difference being whether the !-tleel tCIISlOtllng proces~ is performed
before or niter the hardening of the concrete. The choice of method will be governed
largely by the type ano size of member coupled w1th the need for prcc:ust or in situ
con~tructJon.

11 .2.1 Pretensioning
In tlw• method the steel wire~ or ~trand~ are '>!retched tn the required ten'>ion and
anchored 10 the ends of the moulds for the concrete. l'hc concrete is cast around the
Lc!n,toned \lee!. and \\hen it ha' reached o;;uffictent 'trength. the anchors are released and
the force in the c;teel ts tmn,ferred 10 the concrete hy hond. In addition to long-term
lo,ses due to creep. -,hrinl-uge and relaxation. an 1mmediate drop 111 pre,tress force
occurs due to elastic shortening of the concrete. TheM! features are illustrated in
figure II A.
 Prestressed concrete 323

Beam with pretensioned

tendons Figure 11.4
Tendon stres~es -

, pretensionmg

Before
transfer
After
transfer
and losses

bond -I
length length

Becau))e or the dependence on bond. Lhe tendon~ for this form of c:on.~truction
generally conflisl of small diameter wires or small strands which have good bond
characteristics. Anchorage near the ends of these wires is often enhanced by the
provision of small indentations in the surface of the wire.
The melhml is ideally suited for factory production where large number\ or identical
unit~ can he economkal ly made under comrolled conditJon~. a development of thi'>
being the 'long line' :-y~tem where several unit\ can be cast at once end to end - and
the tendon~ merely cut between each unit after rclea\e of the anchorage~. An adv:mtage
of factory production of prestrc~scd units i~ that ~pcciali)..ed curing technique~ ~uch a~
stenm curing cnn he employed to increase the rate of hardening of the concrete nnd to
enable earlier 'transfer' or the stress to the concrete. Thi~ is particularly important where
re-use of mould!. t\ reqtured. but 11 t~ essential that under no circum:,tancc., rnu.,l cnlcium
chloride be U'>ed ac; an ncceleraLOr becnuse of its severe corrosi' c acuon on small
diameter ~teel wtres.
One maJor hmlfallon of this approach is that tendons mu~t be straight. whtch may
cau~e difficulue~ when attempting to produce acceptable final !.lre:,:, level\ throughout
the length of a member. It may therefore be necessary 10 reduce either the pre~tress or
eccentnctty of force nenr the ends of a member. in which cu~c tcntlon-; muM either be
'dcbondcd' or 'denccted'.
1. Deboncling consist~> of applying a wrapping or coating to the Mcel to prevent bond
developing with the surrounding concrete. Treating some of the wires in thi~> way
over pun of their length allows the magnitude of effective prc:-tn:s~ force to be
varied along the length of a member.
2. Dellecting tendons is a more complex operation and i~ U)..Ulllly restricted to lurge
member!'., such as bridge benms. where the individual member:- may he required to
form purl of a continuous structure in conjunction with in .1it11 concrete ~labs and ~ill
beam!.. A typicnl arrangement for det1ecting tendons is shown in figure I 1.5, but it
must be appreciated that substantial ancillary equipment is rc4uircd w provide the
necessary reactton~.

Deflection supports
(cut off after tr.1nsfer) Figure 11.5

l l
Prestressed tendons
Tendon deflection

Concrete ~
~
Tojacks~ ~
Y""
- ~,
7
- \;..,

22 , 7 2 2 ,~Tofacks
I
.
324 Reinforced concrete design

11.2.2 Post-tensioning
This method. wtuch is the most suitable for in .1i111 con~truction. involves the stressing
again~! the hardened concrete of tendon~ or steel bar\ which are not bonded 10 the
concrete. The tendons are passed through a flexible ~heathing. wh1ch is cast into the
concrete in the correct position. They arc tcm.ioncd by Jacking against the concrete. and
anchored mecharucally by mean\ of \tccl thrust plate:. or anchorage blocks at each end
of the member. Alternatively. steel bar!> threaded at their ends may be tensioned against
hearing plates by means of tightening nms. It i~ of cour e usually necessary to wait a
con~iderable time between casting and stre~sing to permit the concrete to gain sufficient
strength under in siw conditions.
The use of tendons cons1sting of u number of ~trunds pas:-.ing through tlexible
sheathing offer~ considerable advantage~ in that curvet.! tcnt.lon protiles may be
obtarned. A post-tensioned strucruml member may be constructed from an n~semb l y of
sep:~rme pre-cast units which [Ire constrained to act LOgcther by means of tensioned
cnb l e~ which ~u·e often curved as illu~tntted in figure 11 .6. Alternntively, the member
may he cast a:-. one uni1 in rJ1e normal way but a lighl cage of untensioned reinforcing
steel i~ nl:ccssary to hold the ducts in their correcl position during concreting.
Af1er strcs~ing. the remaining ~puce in the ducts may be left empty ( 'unbondcd·
con~>truction). or more usually will be filled with grout under high prcs~urc ("bonded"
con~truction). Although this grout a~sistc; 111 tmnsm1l1111g forces between the steel and
eom:rcte under live loads, and improves the ultrmate ~trength of the member. the
principal use rs to protect the highly stres-;ed ~trands from corro~ton. The quality of
~orl..manship of grouting i!> thu!:. criucal to avoid air pocl..cts which may permit
corro~ion. The honding of the highly stressed o;tecl \\llh the 'urrount.ling concrete beam
al'o greatly a''ist-. demolition. since the hcam may th~.:n \afcly be 'chopped-up· into
'mall length' wrthout rclea!)rng the energy ~torcd 111 th~.: -.tccl.

Par;~bohc tendons
Figure 11.6
Po~t·tensloned s!'gmental
construction

Precast segments

11.3 Analysis of concrete section under working loads

Sine~: the object of prestressing is to marntain favourable ~tress conditions 111 a concrete
member under load. the ·worJ,.ing load' for the mcmhl:r must be considered 111 terms of
hmh maximum and minimum values. rhu' at any . .ection. the stre!>se~ produced by the
prcl>tress force mu:-.t he considered in conjunction with the \tres~es cau~ed by maximum
and rmnimum values of applied moment.
Unlike rernforccd concrete, the primary analysi\ of pre'>tressed concrete is b:t\ed on
serv1ce condition'>. and on the U\)..Umption thai stres:-.es in the concrete are limited to
values which will correspond to elu~tic behaviour. ln this l>Cction. the following
assumption-. arc made in analy~'"·
 Prestressed concrete 325

I
lo= -
y, rr___ b---, - Top fibre
Figure 11.7
Sign convention and notation
e-ve
y,

h
' Centroidal
- - - -T - f- -- - - axis
e
)'b
lb
I
=-;;;: Q t+ve
,. _.___ _,__ L - -- - --' _ _ Bottom fibre
t a Compressive stresses +Ve Prestressing tendon
nent Tensile stresses - ve

t1ble
1. Plane section~ remain plane.
be
of 2. Stress strain rclation1>hip1. arc linear.
f'!C:d 3. Bending occurs ahout a principal axb.
tiber 4. The prc1-trcssing force is the value remaining al'tcr all lo~l.es have occurred .
JOg
5. Changes in tendon stress due to applied load~ on the member have negligible effect
on the behaviour of the member.
l~tf
ded' 6. Section properlies are generally based on the gro~s wncrete eros~ ~ection.
and
The ~tre~~ in the ~tecl is unimportant in the analy'>i'> of the concrete ~ection under
the
wor~ing condition~. it being the force provided by the 'tccl that i., con.,tdered 111 the
) of
analy'>i~.
mm
The sign convention!> and nmalion~ used for the analy'•' are indicated in ligurc 11.7.
mto
11 .3.1 Member subjected to axial prestress force
If secuon BB ol the member shown in figure II.X i\ subjected to moment' ranging
between Mm 3 , and M111111 • the net \lrc~sc:. at the outer fibres of the beam urc given hy

{! A
P M~,
, ---+---
;:,
at the top (II. I)

fo p Mrnu'
ut the bottom ( 11.2)
A ~b
p Mmiu
-- I at the top (11.3)
under M,,;n {fi A
p
:::c

Mmln
./i. at the bottom ( 11 .4)
;\ Zh
:Is
where Zh nnd ::1 are the ela&tic section moduli and P b the final pre~tre!>s force.
The critical condition for tension in the beam is g1ven by equation J1.2 which for no
of tens ton, that is fh = 0, becomes

or

. d
p -Mm;,,i\ -= mmtmum
. . r
prestress •orce requtre
<:t>
326 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 11.8
Stresses in member with axial
prestress force

PIA Mlz, f,

0![7PIA
Prestress
Mlzb
Bending
f.,
Total
Stress distribution- Section B-B

For thi~ value of pre!>trcs!> force. subl>titution in the other equation~ wi ll yield the ~trcs~e!>
in the beam undt:r maximum load and also under minimum load. Similarly the stressc~
immediately after prestressing, before losses have occurred, may be calculated if the
value or los~es i!. known.
For example. the maximum stress in the top of the member is given by equation I l.J

\\here
Mma\ A
P---
~~

therefore
p p ~h
,t;
A ;\ <:t

p
;\
cb ~z')
q

lt cun be seen from the stress distribution~> in figure 11 .8 that the top tlbre is generalI) n
consiucrnble compression. while the bottom f1hrc is generally at lower strcssc~. Muc
better u~e of the concrete could be made if the ~tresses at both top and bottom can ~
caused to vary over the ful l range of permissible ~tresses for the two extreme loadm;
conditions. This may be achieved by providing the force at an eccentricity e from 1 te
centroid.

11.3.2 Member subjecte~ to eccentric prestress force

The ~tres!> distributions will be similar to those in section 1I .3.1 but with the add1tion
the term ±Pe/<. due to the eccentricity e of the prestressmg force. For the (Xl'-lt. ,
shO\\ n in figure 11.9. e will have a positive value. So that
 Prestressed concrete 327

at the top ( 11 .5)

under Mm...,
a1 the bottom ( 11.6)

at the lop ( 11.7)

under Mm10
at the bottom ( 11.8)

'ote that. as the prestressing force lies bel(lW the neutral axil-., it hu~ the effect of
caul>ing hogging moments in the section.
The critical condition for no tension in the hottom of the heam il. again given by
equation 11 .6, which becomes
P Mm.,, Pe
0
A ::b Zb
or
p minimum prestrc~o.s force required for no tension in bottom ntm:
'-b +<' )
(1\
Thus for a given value of prestrc:-.~ force P. the beam may can·y a maximum moment of

Mll\ii\ -
::h + l' )
p (A
=
When compared with Mm.u P::b/A for an axwl prc~tre~" force it md1catel> an
increase in moment carrymg capacity of Pe.
The maxunum stress 1n the Lop of the beam b gi\'en hy equat1on 11.5 a\
J> MIIIJ\ Pt•
!. A
t
::, :;,
where

n 11
l .... B
rl~:-
Figure 11.9
Stresses in member with
eccentric prestress force

PIA Mlz1 Pelz, 11

D! \ .[}
Axial
PIA
Bending
Ml zb
Eccentricity of
Ptl lo '•
Total
prestress prestress
Stress diStribution - Section 8-B
328 Reinforced concrete design

which is the same a~ lhat obtained in l.ection l I .3. I for an axially prestressed member.
Thus lhe advantages of an eccentric prestre s force with rcl-pect to the maximum
moment.carrying capacity of a beam are apparent.
If the stress distributions of figure 11.9 are further examined. it can be ~ecn that lhe
differences in the net stress diagrams for the extreme loading cases are solely due to the
differences between lhe applied moment terms Mm1u and Mm.n· It follow!; that by
increasing the range of the strc~se by the usc of an eccentric prestres' force the range of
applied moments that the hcam can carry is also increased. The mtnimum moment Mmm
that can be resisted is generally governed by the need to avoid tension in the top ot the
beam, as indicated in equation 11.7.
In lhc design of prestressed beams it i' important that the minimum moment
condition •~ not merlooked. c'~c1ally \\hen \tr:ught tendon' arc employed. a' streJ..!>C!>
ncar the ends of beams \\here momenb are ~mall may often exceed lho'>e at section~
nearer mid-span. Thi~ fcmure i11 illustrated 11y the result~> obtained in example II. I.

( EXAMPLE 11 . 1
Calcu lation of prestress force and stresses
A rectangu lar heam 300 x 150 mm is simply ~ upporled ovcr :1 4 rn ~pan. und supports a
live load of 10 t..N/m. I f a straight tendon is provided at un eccentricity of 65 mrn below
the centroid uf the section. find the minimum prc,tre...:. force nece~sary for no tension
under li\'e load at mtd-~pan. Calculate the corrc~ ponding ~trcs\e~ under self-weight only
at mid-span and at the endl> of the member.
(a) Beam properties
Self-weight = 0.15 > 0.3 < 25 = 1.12t..N/m
Area = 45 x 10' mm 2

Section moduli Z1 =Zh = :.

(b) Loadings (mid-span)

( 1() 1.12) X 4 2
Mm.., = - 22.2L m
8
1.12 X 42 k.N
Mmm
8
= 22. · m

(c) Calculate minimum prestress force

For no tcnston ut the bonom under Mnn,
~ _ Mmox -1 Pt! =O
A .: =:
where
e=65mm
 Prestressed concrete 329

hence
p_ Mm3 , _ 22.2 X 106 X 10 3
(5;_ +e) - x
:1.25 106
\A 45 X 101 + 65
= 1931<1\
(d) Calculate stresses at mid-span under Mlliill
Stresc; at top}; = -P + -Mmon
_- - Pe
~
A , '·
where
p 193 x 101
- 4.3 N/mm2
45 X 10 1
A
Mmlu 2.2 x 1011
1.0 N/mm2
'·
~
2.25 X 101>
Jle l 93 X I ()~ X 65 _ N/
(.
= '>-·25 X 1Q6 5.6 mm2
lienee
Stres1. nt top}; = 4.3 + 1.0 - 5.6 = - 0.3 l\lmm 2 (tension)
and

stri!Sl> at hottom ft>

.
= -AP - --
M nun
::
+ -Pe
::
::: 4 10 - I 0 .._ 5.6 = - 8.9 N/mmz
The calcula11on ~howo, that '"ith minimum load it is pos~ihle for the benm to hog with
ten-.1le 1>tn!~ses Ill the top libre~. TI1is is paniculatl) likely at the iniunl transfer of the
prestress force to the unloaded beam.
(e) Calculate stresses at ends
In this situation M 0. Hence

4.3 5.6 - - 1.3 N/mm 2

A
and
I' 1'1'
jj, - A+ 7 = 4.3 + 5.6 = 9.9N/mm2
'·

11.4 Design for the serviceability limit state

The destgn of a pre:.tressed concrete member is based on maintaining the concrete

'> tresses within specified limits at all stages of the life of the member. Hence the primary
design ,., bac;ed on the serviceabilicy limit state. with the concrete ~tress limits based on
the acceptnble degree of flexural cracking. the necessity to pre\ ent e\cc~\ive creep and
the need to eno,ure that excessive compressiOn does not resuh in longitudinal and micro
cracking.
330 Reinforced concrete design

Guidance regarding rhe allowable concrete compressive stress in bending is given in

EC2 as limited to:

(i) 0.6/c~ under the action of characteristic loads

and (ii) 0.45/ck under the action of the qua.~i-pen11anem load~ .

The qzwJi-permwzemloads are the permanent and preme~~ing load. Gl + Pm.t· plus
a proportion of the characteristic variable impo ed load. This proportion is taken as 0.3
for dwellings. offices and stores. 0.6 for parking areas and 0.0 for snow and wind
loading.
Jf the tensile stress in the concrete is limited to the values offc1m given in table 6.11
then all stresses can be calculated on the a~sumption that the ~ection is uncracked nnd
the gross concrete section is re~isting bending. If th11> is not the case then ca l cu l ation~
may have to be based on a cracked section. Limited cracking is permissible depending
on whether the beam is pre- or pol>t· tensioned and the appmpriate exposure class.
Generally for prestressed members with bonded tendons crack witlths shoultl be limited
to 0.2 mm under the action of the frequent loading combination taken as the permanent
characteristic and prestre~sing load. Gk Pm I· plus a rroportion of the characteristic
variable imrosed load as given by equation 2.3 and table 2.4. ln some, more aggre!.sive
exposure contlitions, the pos~>ibility of decompre~sion under the quasi pemument load
conditions may need to be consitlered.
At initial tran1.fer of prestrest. to the concrete. the pre,tress force will be considembly
higher than the 'long-term· value a' a result of sub~equent losses which are due to a
number of causes including elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of the concrete
member. Esumation of losses is dc).cribed in section II .4. 7. Since these lossc'
commence unmedtately. the condition at tran.,fcr represent\ a trunsitory stage in the life
of a member and further con<;ideration 'hould be given to limiting ooth compre,sive and
tensile stresses at this stage. In adtlition. the concrete, at thll- \tage. i' usually rclativcl)
immature and not at fulll.trength and hence tran1>fer i). u critical stage which 'hould be
considered carefully. The comprcs\ive stress at transfer \hould be limited to 0.6/,~
wherefc• is based on the Mrcngth on the concrete at transfer. The tcn1.ile stress should be
limited to I N/mm 2 for sections designed not to be in tension in service. Where limited
Aexural 'tress under service loads h. permillcd, some limited tensile stress is permitted
at transfer.
The choice of whether to permit cracking 1.0 take place or not wil l depend on a
number of factors which include condllions of exposure nnd the nature of loading. Ira
member consists of precast segments with monnr joint~. or if it is essential that cracking
~>hould not occur. then it will be designed to he in comprcs~ion under ulllond condition~.
However a more efficient use of materials can be made if the tensile strength of the
concrete. f~tm· given in table 6.11 is utilised. Provided thet--c ~trcs~c~ arc not exceeded
then the section can be designed, ba!-.cd on the gm1>s uncrad.ctl section.
Unless the section is designed to be fully in comprcs~ion untlcr the characteristic
loads. a minimum amount of bontlcd reinforcement ~hould be provided to conrrol
cracking. Thio; j., calculated in an identical manner to the minimum reqULrement for
reinforced concrete (sec ~ection 6.1.5) with the allowance that a percentage of the
prestressing tendons can be counted tO\\ ards this m111imum area.
The de\ign of prestressing requirements ts based on the manipulation of the four
basic exprc!.1>ions given in section 11.3.2 descnbing the stress distribution acros~ the
 Prestressed concrete 3 31

m concrete section. These are used in conjunction with permissible ~tresses appropriate to
the type of memher and covering the following conditions:

1. Initial tran~fer of prestress force with the associated loading (often JUSt the beam's
sel f-weight);
2. At ~ervicc. after prestress losses. with minimum and maximum characteri~tic
loading;
3. At !>ervice with the quasi-permanent loading.

The loadings mu~t encompass the full range that the member will encounter dunng its
life, and the minimum values will thus be governed by the construction techniques u~ed.
The partial factors of safety applied to these loadl> will he those for serviceability limit
~o.tat e, that is 1.0 for both permanent and variable load!-.. The qunsi-permancnt loading
situation is considerc<.l with only a proportion of the characteristic variable load acting.
For a beam with a cantilever span or a continuous beam it is necessnry to con~ider the
loading patterns of the li ve loads at service in order to determine the minimum and
maximum moments. For a singlc-:-.pan, simply ~upported beam it is u~ua ll y the
minimum moment at tran~fer and the maximum moment at f>Cf\ 1cc that wil l govern. as
shown in figure I 1.1 0. From tigure 11.1 0 the govcmi ng equauon~ for a ~i nglc-span
beam arc:
At tran~fer

Po Pue M mon = f'1 > J.'mm ( 11.9)•

A :. .......
Po Po<' M mon
.f~ ~f/na~ ( II 10)
A ;:h ;:h

At ~ervice

KPn KPoe Mmnx -;· <f,

-r - - - I onux ( I 1.1 I)*
A ~( ~l
KPo KPoe M,n~• - jih >J,.
A t Zh - mon (11 .12)*
Zh

where }~ 11 ~, ;;~in· j;11 u~ nnd };nln arc the appropriate permissible ~ trcssc~ ut tram, fer anti
~erviccnbi lity conditions. Po is the prc:-.tressing force at transfer and K is a loss factor
that account~ for the prestress losses - for example, K = 0.8 for 20 per cent loss.

w ,.,·ln
Figure 11 .10
f f f +

Transfer
' + + r•, > r;...,. Prestressed beam al lransfer
and servoce

I'• -~ I'm.,
w"'...
f f f f f f f,c;f.,.,

[7
Service
332 Reinforced concrete design

11.4.1 Determination of minimum section properties

The two pairs of expres~ions can be combined as follows:

11.9 and 11. I I

( 11.13)

II.!Oand 11.12

(Mmu~ - KMnun ) :::; (Kfm:tx - .fmm):Oh (11.1 4)

Hence. tf (Mmal KMmm ) is written as M,. the moment variation

M,
•,>---- ( 11.1 5)
.. - ifrru, KJ~,n)
and
M,
Zb> - - - - ( ll. J6)
. - ( KJ~., - };mn)

In equations 11.15 and 11.16, for~~ and ::11 1t can be assumed with ~uftic.:ient accuracy,
for preliminary siting that M10. , will depenu on both the imposed and dead (self-weight)
load ami Mnun will depend on the dead (self-weight) load only. ~o that in effect the
c.:n lculations for Mv bec.:ome independent of the self-weight of the beam.
These minimum \ulues of section moduli muM be ~atistied by the cho,cn section in
order that a prestress force and eccentricity exist which will permit the stress limits to be
met; but to ensure that practical con~iderntion~ arc met the chosen section must have a
margin above the minimum values calculated above. The equations for minimum
moduli depend on the difference between maximum and minimum values of moment.
The ma\imum moment on the section has not directly been included in these figure ...
thu~> it i!. possible that the rc:-.ulttng prestresl> force may not he economic or practicable.
However. it is found in the majority of cases t·hat if a section is cho,en which satislles
thel>c minimum requirements. coupled wtth any other speci fied requirement!. regarding
rhc shape or the section, then a snw;fuctory dc~>ign is usually possible. The ratio of
acceptable '>pan to depth for a prcstres~cd beam cannot he categorised on the haiotis of
dcnccttons as ea~tly as for reinforced concrete. In the ab~ence of any other criteria, the
following formulae may be used as a guide und will generally produce reusonably
consen ative de,ignc; for post-tensioned memhcr~.
spnn
span< 16m I1= .,-+
_s 0.lrn
span
span > 36m II :::.-- m
20
In the case of :-.hort-span members it may be possible to use very much greater span-
depth ratios quite satisfactorily. although the resulting prestress forces may become ver)
high.
OU1er factors which must he consic.lcred at this stage include the slencleme~>s ratio or
beams. where the same criteria apply as for reinforced concrete. and the possibility of
web and flange splitting 111 tlanged members.
 Prestressed concrete 3:

(EXAMPLE 11 . 2

Selection of cross-section
Select a rectangular <,ection for a posHensioncd beam to carry. in addition to 1ts 0\\11
~elf-\\ eight.
a uniformly di:.lributed load of 3 k:-.f/m O\'er a simply l.upponed span of
I0 m. The memher is to be designed with a concrete strength cla~s C40/50 and i:.
restrained aga111~t torsion at the ends and at mid-span. Asc;ume 20 per cent lo~~ of
prestre~s (K O.M).
ll.! Design concrete stresses
At service:
j;,,~~= (U\ft~ 0.6 x 40 = 24 N/mm2;
I 1.5
};n,n = 0.0 \1/111111
2

At transfer:
J;:,u~ 16 N/mm 2 ~ 0.6 strength at tranr.l'er;
16
1;:, 111 1.0 N/mm2
M, 1.0 X 102/8 = 37.5 kN 111
rrom equation, 11.1 5 and 11.1 o:
M, :n.5 x 106 ,, ,
:l ~ (J, = ("> 4 _ 0 S{-l}) =- 1.50 > 10 mm·
_ Kj'' )
ma~ mtn - ·

M, 37.5 X 10" ., ft \
;:~ > (O _ O) =- .93 X 10 111111'
(KJ;:,.,-.f.n-
111 ) .8 16 0.
Take b 21X) mm. I Jcnce
~ 2()()11~ / 6 2 93 )' 10(>
Therefore

h ' /(2.93 x 106 x 6/200) - 297 mm

The minimum depth ol' beam b therefore 2'->7 mm and 10 allow a mnrgw 111 subsequent
det<\i lcd design u depth of 350 mm would be appropriate 11s ll first attempt.
To pn:vl.!lll lateml buckling 8C2 ~pccili cs a maximum 'pan/hrcadth rat111 rcquin.:mcnt:
lm 50
with h/ b ~ 2.5
/) (11/1>) 1/3
where /.,1 the diswncc between torsional re~traint' = 5.0 Ill in this cx~1mplc.

!,., 5000
Actual
b
--
200
= '?5
-
1,~ 50
rna\imum -- - - =41.5
b (350/ 200) I J

0 I hence the cho\cn dimension), arc satisfactory a~ an initial c~timatc of the required beam
~ of SI7C
334 Reinforced concrete design

11.4.2 Design of prestress force

The inequalities of equation\ 11.9 to 11.12 may be rearranged to give expression)> for
the minimum required prestrc~s force for a given eccentricity:
p < (-.Jma' - .Mill;J, ) ( 11.17)
0
- K(<.t/ A e)
p > {~J~lin- Mmao) ( 11.18)
0
- (~/A - e)
p > {;:.hfrniu + Mrnax) ( 11.1 9)
o_ K(<.t./ A + e)
( ;:tf~., -1 Mmin )
P0 < -- - - ( 11.20)
(~h/A + e)
:'\ote that in cquatton~ 11.17 and 11.18 it is pos),ible that the denominator term,
(-. 1/A e). might be negative if e > ::1/A. Tn this C<L~e. the sense ol the tncquality would
have to change as the cl'fect of dividing an inequality by a negative number is to change
lh sense.
These equations give a range wi thin which the prestress force must lie to en~urc that
the allowable stre's conditions arc met at all stages in the life of the member. ln the case
of a :.imply supported beam, the design pre•areso; force ~ill generally be based on the
minimum value which Stltt~li es these equations at the critical section for bendi ng in the
member.
Although a range of value\ of permisstble prestress force can be found, this maJ..es no
allowatH.:c for the fact that the corre~rondi ng cccentricity must lie within the beam. It is
therefore neceso.;ary to con\ider the effect of limiting the eccentricity to u maximum
practical value for the 'ectton under con)>ideratton. Such limitil ~ill include
consideration of lhc required minimum cover to the prcsLressing tendons which will
depend on the e\po~urc and ~tructural cia~' assumed for the design. The ciTect of this
limitation will he moM severe when considcnng the maximum moment' acti11g on the
:-.cction. thnt is, the inequalities of equations II . II and 11.1 2.
If the !uniting value for maximum eccentricity e""''' depend~ on cover requirements.
equation I 1.11 becomes

Mma' $ };nax:.l KPoC · ema~) ( 11.21 )

nnd equation 11.12 becomes

Mm." $ KPo e~ t <'m•') fmm'-h ( 11.22)

These rept·esent linear relutionshipl- between MrTWJo. ond P0 . Por the case of n beam
suhjcct to sagging moments enux will generally be positive in value, thu\ equation 11 .22
is of positive slope and represents a lower limit tO P0 . It can al..,o be shown that for moM
practical cases !(;:1/ A) - ern•~ I < 0, thus equation 11 .21 is similarly a lower limit of
positive. though 'imaller c,lopc.
Figure 11.11 represents the general form of these cllpresston:-., and it can be seen
clearly that providing a pre~·.tress force in excess of Y' produces only ~mu ll benelits of
additional moment capacity. The value of )' ' is given by the intersection of the'>C two
expressions, when

KPo (~ + ema,) fmm:.t> =fma,:.l KPoC elll3,)

 Prestressed concrete 335

22 21 Figure 11 .1 1
h Maximum moment and
prestress force relationship

Max. moment
lnequahttes satisfied
In thts zone

'--'+---___;___;_ _ _ __ Po
Y'

thus

p _};nax";t +};n.n;.h
()- K (- A<-~
+-) •·b
( 11.23)

Thus the value of prestress force Po Y' may he conveniently considered a~ a

maximum economic value beyond whi~.;h any incrca:--c in prestress force would be
matched hy a diminishing rule of increase in moment-carrying capacity. If a force larger
than thi~o. limit i ~ required for a given section il may be more economic to increase the
siLc of this section.

(EXAMPLE 11.3

Calculation of prestress force

The 10 metre ~pan heam in example 11.2 was determtned to have a breadth of :!IXlmm
and a depth ot 150 mm (~ ~• 4.0!! x 106 mm3 ). Determine the min1mum 1nit1al
prestress force requtred for an assumed maximum ccccntnclt) of 75 mm
From example 11.2:

Self-weight of heam 0.2 x 0.35 x 25 - 1.75 kN/m

2
M mm 1.75 X 10 / H 21.9kNm

Mm,1, "" 3.0 X 102/8 + 2 1.9- 59.4 kN m

(a) l·rom equation 11 .17:

p < (~tfma\ Mmux)

11
- K(:.,/A l.'max )

< (4.08 106 X 24 59.4 X 10'')

X X lO 3
- 0.8(4.08 X I<Y>/ 70000- 75)

and allowing for the division b) the negative denominator

Po~ - 2881 kN
336 Reinforced concrete design

Similarly from equations 11.18 to 11.20:

Pn s; +1555kN
Po;::: +557kN
Po s; -r65~k ·
The minimum 'alue of prc~trc~s force i!> therefore 557 kl'\ '' ith an upper limit of
654 kN.
( h) Check the upper economic limit to prc.:~trc.::-.' force
From equation 11.~3:
p < fma,'l.t -1 /min:.h = 24z;\
0
- Kc:b; : ,) 2K~
s; 12A/ K
s; 12 X (350 X 200) X 10 ~ /0.8
<;,. 1050kN
Sinc.:e thi~> b greater than the urpcr limit already eslabli~hcd from c.:quatiun 1 I .20 a
design with an initial prc~tressing force between 557 lN and 654 kN will be
acceptable.

11.4.3 Stresses under the quasi-pe rmanent loading

The calculauon in example 11.3 " balled on the characteristiC load\. Once a value of
pre~..trC'>S force lying between the minimum and upper limit value '' cho en. the
cornpre.,.,ive ~tress at the top of the '>ection under the quu,i-pcnn~Ulent load' should also
be calculnted and compared \\ith the les'ier allowahle value of 0.45!.:1 • If thi' proves to
be critical then the section may have to be redesigned w~ing the quasi-permanent load
conditiOn a~ more critical than the charactcmtic load condition.

( EXAMPLE 11.4

Stress under quasi-permanent loads

ror the previous example. using minimum preMress force or 557 kN. check the su·e~s
condition under the quasi-permanent loading c.:ondition. Assume thtll the 3 kN/m
imposed lo:~d consist~ of a permanent load ol'2kN/m as Jinishe~ and I.OkN!tn variable
load. Tale 30 per cent of the variable load comributing to the quasi-pcnnancnt load.
From the previou~ example:
Moment due to ~elf-weight -= :! 1.9 kN m
Moment due to finishes = 2 >.. 10'/8
= 25.0\.:N m
Moment due to variublc load I < I0' 1 8
= 1~ .5k~m
Quas1-pennanent moment 21.9 I 25.0 I (0.3 x 12.5)
= 5065kNm
 Prestressed concrete 337

Strcs'> at the top of ~cclion is given by:

j; = KP0 _ KPoe + M
A ~~ ~,
0.8 J( 557 J( 103 0.8 J( 557 X 10' X 75 50.65 X 106
= 70000 4.08 X 1()6 + 4.08 1<f'
6.37 8.19 12.41
I 0.59 ~/mm~

Allowahlc compres,ive ~tress 0.45/cl. - 0.45 x 40 - I H "'/mrn 2

lienee the maxrmum compre,sive stress is Jess than the allowahle figure.
l~·-------------------------------------------)

11 .4.4 Magnel diagram construction

Equmlor1s l J . 17 to 11 .20 can be used ro determine u mnge possihlc vulucs of or
prestress force for n given or nssumed eccentricity. For different ussumcu value'> of
eccentricity further limit& on the prestress force cnn be determined in an iucntknl
manner although the ca l culation~ would he tedimt' and repetitive. In uddition. it is
po~~ihle to U\sumc values of eccentricity for which there is no '\olution for the prestreso;
force a~ the upper und lower limit~ wuld overlap.
A much more u,cful approach to design can be developed if the equations arc treated
graphicully a~ follow~. Equal ron-. 11.9 to II. I 2 can be rearranged into the following
fonn:

K( I 1 A - t•/':.1)
{ equauon 11.1 I } ( 11.24)
Pn (fmJ\ - Mm." /~.)

Pu
. ( 1/A- t•f:.,)
({~1ln- M111u1 /~l)
{ equauon I 1.9} ( 11.25)

K ( 1/ A e/':..h)
< {equation 11.12} ( 11.26)
Po (/;,"' I Mmu\/":.t>)
I ( l /A +e/:.h)
">-- {equntion 11.10} ( I I .27)
Pn • ({~,.., I M1111n/ /.h)

These equations now express li near relationships hctwcen 1/Pu and''· Note that in
equation 11 .25 the ~l.!nse or the inequality has been reversed to account for the fact that
the dcnnminutor is negative (/~1 ; 11 i~ negative according 10 the chosen !.ign convention).
The relationships can he ploued as shown in figure I 1.12(a) and (b) and the area of the
graph to one ~ide or each line. as deli ned by the inequality. can be climtnated, resulting
in an area of graph withtn which any combination of force and eccentricity will
'>imultaneously ~atisly all four inequalities and hence will provide a satisfnctory destgn.
The ltncs marked I to 4 correspond to equations 11.2~ to 11.27 re~pectively. This form
of con~truction is known as a Magnet Diagram.
The additional line (5) ~hown on the diagram correspond-; to :.1 po.,~ihle physical
limitauon of the max1mum eccenmcicy allowing for the over.tll depth of secuon. cover
10 the preMres~ing tendons. provision of shear link:- and so on. Tv.o 11cparutc ligures are
shown :t\ tt "po'>!.tble for line I. derived from equation 11.2~. to have either a po~itive
or a negative '>lope depending on whether fm.t, is greater or less than Mm., /:.1 •
338 Reinforced concrete design

Figure 11.12 Q)
Po
Magnel diagram construction

--~~-L----LL--~• e
z.IA zJA
r · I· · I
(b)

The Magnel diagram is a powerful design tool as it cover<; all possible solutions of the
inequality equ:11ions and enables a range of prestress force and eccentricity values to be
investigated. Values of minimum und maximum prestress force can be readi ly reutl from
the diagram as can intermediate values where the range of possible eccentricities for a
chosen force can he easily determined. The dwgram also 'how~ that the minimum
prcstrcl>s force (largest value of 1/ Po) corresponds to the maximum eccentricit). and as
the eccentricity is reduced the prestress force mu11t be increased to compensate.

( EXAMPLE 11 .5
Construct ion of M agnel diagram
Construct the Magnel diagram for the beam given in example 11.2 and determine the
m1nunum and maximum po~'ihlc valuct:. of pre~tre's force. Assume a maximum po!>sible
eccentricity of 125 mm allo'' mg for co' er etc. to the tendon,.
From the previou' examples:

-"~"'= 16 N/mm2 };n,~ 2

24 N/mm
2
/~'" = - I .0 N/mm 2 /m n 1 0 0 N/mm
Mm1n - 21.9 k\1 m Mm." 59.4 kN m
K 0.8 Zb = ~~ 4.08 x 1011 mm 1
!\ = 70 000 mm1
From equation 11 .24:

11
59.4 X 10 )
4.08 X 1()6

which can be re-arranged to give:

106
Po -
> 1210 20.77e
 Prestres5ed concrete 33~

and similarly from the other three inequalities. equation~ 11.25 ro 11.27:
lOa
Pu -
> 2243 + 38.50e
t011
- < 785 -r l3.5e
Po
tot.
- > 669 +- 1l.5e
Pn
These inequalities arc plotted on the Magnet diagram in figure 11.13 and the zone
bounded by the four lincll defines an area in which all possible de!\ign solutions lie. The
line of maKimum possible cccemricity is also plotted but, as it lies outside the .wne
hounded by the four inequalities, does not place any restriction on the possible ~olulion~.
From figure l 1.13 it can he ~ecn that the maximum and minimum values of prestn.:ss
force tire given by:
Maximum 106 /Po = 24 15: hence minimum P11 414 kN (e 121 mm)

unum Minimum IOh/Po = 862; hence ma,ximum P11 11 60kN (e 17mm)

TI1e intersection of the two lines at position A on the diagram cone~pond~ to a value
of Po I 050 kN. established in example II '\ a' the max1mum econnm1cal value of
prcstre~), force for this section (sec equation 11 23). Hence the inter,ection of the'e tWtl
line~ 'ihould he taken as the maximum pre,tres' force and. <h can he seen. this
mformatHm can be readily determined from the diagram wnhout the need for further
calculation.
Thl' Magnet d1agram can now be used to ime~tigate other po'i\lhle \Olullons for the
• the de~ign prestn:s~ing force and eccentncity. For a fixed value of pre~tre\~ force (and hence
le fi\ed Hlluc of Ij Po) the corre~ponding range of permissible eccentncity can he read
directly from the dwgram. Ahemauvely. if the eccentricity is tixed. the diagram can he
u\ed to mvesugatc the range of pos ible preSLrCSl> force for the g1ven eccentricity.

Figure 11 .13
10•
Po " 414kN
Po
Minimum
--~- -
Permissible zone
Magnet diagram for
example 11.5

Maximum economtc
prestress Ioree .,..
N
~ · ~

~I II
II' j
"I
I!
-r
- 60 --40 -20 20 40 60 80 100 120
340 Reinforced concrete design

11 .4.5 Design of tendon profiles

Having obtained a value of prcstres)> force which will permit all stress conditions to be
:-.ati~fied at the critical section, it is necessary to determine the eccentricity at which this
force must be provided. not only at the critical section but also throughout the length of
the member.
At any section along the member. e is the only unknown term 111 the four equations
11.9 to 11.12 and these will yield rwo upper and two 10\\er limits '' hich mu~t all be
simultaneously satisfied. This reqturemenr must be met at all sections throughout the
member and \\ill reflect both \'ariations of moment. prc:.trcs~ force and section
properties along the member.
The design expressions can be rewritten as:
At transfer

( 11.28)

(11.29)

At service

fmJ,:t] -r- NJ_ma\

e> [x KPu !\Po
( 11.30)

l' ~
[-~ fmm::t>] + Mm3.\
KPo KPn
(11.3 1)

Equauons 11.28-11.31 can be C\'aluated at any 'cct1on to dctcrmmc the range of

ccccntncltles "11h111 which the resultant force Po mu't lie. The moment-. Mn 1a~ and Mmm
arc those relating to the secuon be111g con\ldcrcd.
For a memher of constant croso,-~ection, if minor change., in prc~tress force along the
length are neglected. the terms in hrackct~ in the uhovc expre:.s10ns are constant
Therefore the LOne within which the centroid mu:-.t lie is governed by the :.hape of the
bending moment envelopes. a~> ~ohown in ligure 11.14.
In the case of uniform loading the bending moment envelopes arc p<trubolic, hence
the u~ua l practice i1. to provide paruholic tendon profiles il a stnught prolilc will not lit
within the zone. At the critical section. the tone is generally narrow and reduces to zero
if the v:1 lue of the prc~ trc:.s force i~ taken ns the minimum value from the Magnet
diagram. At sections away from the critical section. the zone hccome~ increa~ ingl y
greater than the minimum required.

Figure 11 .14
Cable zone limili
--- .- ---- Equation 31

,_
t ·- Centroidal axis

Equat1on 28

z,
[+A
f._z,
- -;;;;-
1L---- - - ---....----__;
M,...
Po
 Prestressed concrete J

(EXAMPLE 11 .6
115 o be
llCh thi~
Calculation of cable zone
lngth of Determine the cable zone limits at mid-span and ends of the member designed in
examples 11.2 to ll.5 for a constant initial prestrcs~ force of 700 kN. Data for this
[UJIIOn' question arc given in the previous example~.
~ all be
(a) Ends of beam
lou• the
secuon Limits to cable eccentricity are given by equation 11 .29. which at 1he end sec1ion can be
readily shown, for this example. to be more cri1ical than equation 11 .28:

(' < [ ~~ +f~11 xZh] -1 Mmin

- A Po Pu
and equation 11.31:
II 2S)
1, > [- ~ +/,ninZh] I MnM'
- A !\Po KPn
II 29)
As there are no moment\ due to c.xtcrnalloadmg at the end of a 'unpl} 'upported hcam
equation 11 .29 bccnme~
< [- 4.0H X 10~ -~)( 4.08 10"] t ()
(!. (350 X 200) 7()() X 10 1
-58.2!i 93.25
c. 35 111111

Similarly equation 11.31 become:.

4.08 v 106 ]
I' > [ • (350 200) I O I· ()

>-58 29mm
At the ends of the beam whcre the moments are lero. and for : 1 ;:h. the im:quality
cxpre~sions can apply with the tendon eccentricities above or below the neutrul axis
(e po,itive or negative). So that e must lie within the range ±35 mm.

(b) Mid-span
Rq ur~lion 11 .2H hecomcs:
4.08 X 1011 (- I )4.0X )' 10~] 21.lJ y 1 0~
(! ~ (350 200) -]()() I~
[ + 700 X JO'
< 64. 1 i 31
< 95. 1mm
Equation 11.29 mighl be more critical than cquauon ll.2X r~nd -.hould be ubo
checked. From equation 11 .29:
4.0!-l x 106 16 x 4.08 x 106 ] 2J.9 X 1()6
C' ~ [ - (35() X 2()()) +-700 )I 103 f 700 10 1
~ 58.3 + 93.3 + 31
~ 66 mm
Hence equation 11 .29 is critical and the eccentricity mu-;t be less than 66 mm.
342 Reinforced concrete design

Equation 11.31 gives

e > - 4.0H X JW -0]

- [ (350 X 200) 0.8 X 700 X 1() 1
~ -58.3 + 106.1
~ 47.8mm

Hence at mid--.pan Lbe resultant of Lbe tendon force mu!>t lie at an eccentricity in the
range of 47.H to 66 rnm.
Provided that the tendons can be arranged Ml that their resultant force lies within the
calculated l imit~ then the dc11ign will be acceptable.
If a Magnet diagram for the ~tress conuition at mid-span had been drawn. a:. in
example 11.5. then the eccentncity range could have t>een determined directly from the
dtagram without further calculation. For tendon<, ,.. ith a combined prestrcs\ force at
transfer of Po= 700kN (10t./ Pn = 1428). plotting this value on the diagram of
figure 11.13 will give the range ol possible eccentricity between 48 mm and 66mm. )
l______________________________________________.

11 .4.6 W idth of cable zone

rrom the Magncl diagram of ligure 11 . 13 it Cllll be seen that for any chosen value of
prcstre~s fon.:c there i~ an ccccntncity range within which the resultant tendon force
must lie. 1\' the Ioree approache' a value corresponding to the top and bottom limits of
the diagram the width of the available cahlc ;.one tlimim11he~ until at the very
extremitic11 the upper and lower limits of eccentricity coincide. giving :!ero width of
cable zone.
Practically. therefore. a prestre's force will he chosen which ha' a value in between
the upper and lower limits of permissible pre-.trcs~ force v.hil\t. at the same time.
ensuring that. for the cho,en force, a rea•.onahlc width of cuhlc lOne ext~!\. The
prcstrcs~ing cahlc~ must also sati,fy requirements of cover. minimum spacing hctwccn
tcn<.lon:.. avnilahle size of tendons and so 0 11. A number of alternative l.cn<.lon
combination' and configurations are li~ely to be tried so that all requirement~ are
'imultaneou,ly met. Tile athantage of the Magnet dtagram i-. that a range of alternatives
can be quid I) con . . idercd wtthoutthe nece:.~IIY tor any further calculation. as tllustrated
at the end ol example I 1.6.

11.4.7 Prestress losses

From the tune that the prestre-..,ing force ts fir.,t applied to the concrete member. los<,cs
olthi' force will take place bct:aU'.c of the following cause':
1. Elastic shortening of the concrete.
2. Creep of the concrete under su~tained compression.
3. Rclaxauon of the pre~.trc"ing steel under !.U\truned ten,ion
4. Shrinkage of the concrete.
These los!.es will occur whichever fonn or construction is used, although the effccLs
of elastic 'hortening will generally he much reduced when post-tensioning i!; u~cd. Thi~
is becaU'. e stresc;mg i<> a <;equential procedure. and not tn<;tantancous as with pre-
tensioning. Creep and shrinkage losses depend to a large extent on the propertie~ of the
 Prestressed concrete 343

concrete wirb particular reference to the maturity at the time of stressing. ln pre-
tensioning, where the concrete is usually relatively immature at transfer. these los<;es
may therefore be expected to be higher than in post-tensioning.
[n addition to lo&ses from these causes. which will generally total between 20 and
30 per cent of the initial prestress force at transfer. further losses occur in post-tensioned
concrete during the ~trcssing procedure. These are due to friction between the :.trands
and the duct. especially where curved profiles arc used. and to mechanical anchorage
slip during the stressing operation. Both these factors depend on the actual ystem of
ducts. anchorages and stressing equipment that are used.
Thus although the basic losses are generally highest in pre-tensioned members. 10
~>ome t nstancc~> ovcrull losses in post-tensioned members may he of ~imilar magnitude.

Elastic shortening
The concrete will immediately shorten elastically when subjected to comprc~s i on , and
the steel wi ll generally shorten by a similar amount (as in pre-tensioning) with u
corrcsp1mding Joss of prestress force. To calcu late this it is neces~ury to obtain the
compre!>sive ~<tra in nt the level or the steel.
If the transfer force is Pu and the force after ela~tic l o~scs is P' then
P' Po - loss in fore~.:
and the corrc~ponding stress in the concrete at the level ol the tendon
P' (P'r) x ('
A + I + ITcg
where <1,, ts the !.tress due to self-we1ght which \\ill he relatively small \\hen averaged
over the length of the mcmher and may thus be neglected. lienee

l1cp
P'
1\
(I t £'2'\)
I

and concrete <.train ITer / t;cm· thu~ reduction in steel strain a c11 / l:.~ rn unci

reduction in steel stress = (~·P) £, (l-c<Tcp

fcm

rhus with A 11 area of tendons

loss in prestress force = C~eact>Atl
= CXeAP
Ap '( I

hence

P' - Po rlcA
A,
p' I( +-' )
e-A
1
-

so that
344 Reinforced concrete design

detailed calculation could be undertaken it is normally adequate to a~sume 50 per cent

of the abo,·e losses. In thi~ case the remaimng presrres<; force is

P' = Pu ,
·1-0.5c.l/: (1 + e~A)
and it is this \'alue which applies to sub~cquent loss calculation-;. In calculating Oe,
"-~m may be taken from table 6.ll where /.• ~hould be taken a.-. the tran~fer strength of
the concrete.

Creep of concrete
The ~ustained compressive stress on the com;n:te will abo cnu~e a long-term shortening
due to creep. which will similarly reduce the prc~tress force. As above, it is the stress in
the concrete at the level of the steel which il> important. that i'i

and
lo~~ of steel stress E,rrq, specdic nccp .,tr:un
then

L', Ap
A p'(l /'~")
1
x ... pcc.:if1c creep '>tratn

1l1c \aluc of ~pecific creep used m thi~ calculation \\'Ill be mflucnced by the facto~
di\CU'>~cd m <~ection 6.3.2. and ma) he ohtaincd from the \uluc'> of the final creep
coefficient o( :x.. tn) given in table 6.12 in chapter 6 ll'-lng the rclation,hip
•
Spec1ftc creep Mram
• ,In)/
= -1."1(1. 05 c.:m
r:
,
N/mm ·

Tobie 6.12 may be used where the concrete MI'C'>'> doc~ not exceed 0.45/.:• m transfer.
where f<~ relate~ ro the concrete strength at tran.,rer.

Relaxation of steel
Despite developments in prestrcs~ing steel manufacture. rclaxutlon of the wire or strand
under su~tai ncd tension may Mill be expected to he a signilicant factor. The precise
value w11l dcpe11d upon whether pre-ten~ioning or po~t-tcn:.iolllng i!-. used and the
charncteri~tics of the steel type. Equntions allowing for method of construction are given
in EC:! section 3.3.2(7) which should he applied to 1000-hour relaxation values
provided hy the manufacturer. The amount of rclaxmion will also depend upon the
initial tendon load relative to ib breaking load. In most practical situations the transfer
-.tee! stre\'> i~ about 70 per cent of the characteristic -.trength und relaxation los\cs are
hkely to be approximately 4-10 per cent of the tendon load remainmg after ti".Ul'ifer.

Shrinkage of concrete
Thi'> I'> based on cmptrical figures tor hnnkugc/unit length of concrete (£C>) for
particular curing condjuono; and transfer malllrity a... di~CU\ ed 1n chapter 6. Typical
values range from 230 x 10 6 for UK outdoor expo~ure (SOtq relative humidil}) to
346 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 11 . 7

Estimation of prestress losses at mid-span

A po~t-tensioned beam shown in figure 11 .15 IS stressed by two tendons\\ ith a parabolic
proille and having a total cross-<;ectional area Ar = 7500 mm2. The total initial prestress
force IS Po= 10500kN and the tom! charactensllc strength l'i Pp.._ = 14000k~.

Figu re 11.15
Post-tensioned bec1m -1. Cenltoidal axis
taO -- - ·e. =640 · - · - · - -

30m
...I
I
1>411200--1
CrosHeclional area A= 1.05m7 Cross-section at
Second moment of area I = 0. 36m• mid-~pan

A~sumc the following data for e~timating los'>c':

of friction 11 = 0.19
Cm:lfi<.:i~nt
\\Ohhle factor J.. 0.0 1/mc tr~
l~la,llc modulu~ !:.'.em (transfer) 32 ~N/mm~
£, = 205 k\J/mm 1

Creep cocflicient o( · .to) = 1.6

Shrin~age ~tntin !,, = 330 < 10
11

The tendon supplier specifics clas.., 2 strands \\ ith a I 000 hour relaxation lo\~ of 2.5 per
cent at 70 per cent of the charactcri~tic l>Lrength.
(1) Friction
The equation of the pnrabola is I'= c~ and with the ongin at mid-span when
15000. y = 640. so that C = 640/15(}()(!1 2.844 x 10 11
The gradient (J at the ends i~ given hy
0 dy/ dt 2Cr 2 X 2.84-t X 10 6 X 15000
= 0.0853 radians
At mid-span

los!> ~P(x) = Po ( 1 - e_,,(OH•))

= Po( 1 _ e - o111 (UI~Sl+U.tll x 15))
0.0-MPo = 460k..~ = 4.-t per Cl!nt
(2) Elastic shortening for post-tensioned construction
p
P' = ----.,.----- -
l - 0.5nc ~ (I e~ y)
ra~c lht: 3\erage eccentriClly for the parabolic tendon a:o. 5/8e, 5/8 x 640 = 400 mm
und Oe = E-/E,m = 205/32 = 6.41.
 Prestressed concrete 34;

P' Po
3
- 7.5
X 10 ( , 1.05 X IOIJ )-
1 + 0.5 X 6.41 X 1.05 X 1Q6 I + ..f()()· 0.36 X JO I2

0.968P0 = 10 160kN
Los ~J = 10500 lO 160 340kN = 3.2 per cent
Total l)hort-term los~es = 460 -'- 340 = 800 k.~
p' P0 - short-term losses
= 10500 - 800 9700kN

(3) Creep

Los!. t:.P m F.,Ap

' ( 1.05£.m)A
(I+e2 ~)I P'
1
6 205 10X 7.5 X 10] ( ' 1.05 X IO'')
- I , l ( 1.05 x 32) x I 03 x 1.05 X 1()1> I + ..JOO OJ6 Xi(iTi 9700
992 kN ( = 9.-1 per cent of Pn)

(4) Shrinkage
Los~ .:::,p = •c,c',Ar
1
- JJ() J0 ' X 2()5 X 7.5 X 10'
507 kN ( = ..J .8 per cent of Pu)

(5) Relaxation
Long-tc.:nn rda\atJOn IO\S !actor = 2.5 for cia<;, 2 \trand estimated rrom equation 3.29
I~
of EC2
IO~\ ~,, (2.5 X 2.5/ IOO)P' = 0.0625 X 9700
606 k.N ( = 5.8 per cent of flo)
Total c~timatc<.l losse!. 800 + 992 ,.. 507 l 606 = 2905 !..N
= 28 pt.:r cent of Po

11.4.8 Calculation of deflections

The anticipated <.lcncction of a prestressed member mu<;t alway'> be checked since <;pan-
dfeetive depth rutios arc not specified in the code for prestrc.:ssed concrete member~.
The deflection due to the eccentnc prestress force must be evaluated and aducd to that
from the normal pennunent and variable load on the member. In the maJonty of ca~cs.
particularly where the member is designed to hi! uncracked under full load. a simple
linear elastic analy~i~ ha,ed on the gross concrete \Cction ''ill be ~ufficient to gi'e a
reasonable and realilltJC e~timatc of deflections.
Where the member ic; de<;igncd ~uch that, under the characten ... uc loads. the tensile
'ltrength c\ceeds the cracking \trength of the concrete, /.1m. it may be necessary to base
the calculation of detlecLion on the cracked concrete section and reference o;hould be
made to the Code tor the method of dealing with th1s ~ituation.
348 Reinforced concrete design

The basic requirements which should generally be sausfied in respect of deflections

arc ~imilar to tho~e of a reinforced concrete beam (~ection 6.3) which are:
1. Deflection under the action of the qumi-permanent load ~ span/250 measured
bekl\\ the level of the ),Upports:
2. Span/500 maximum movement after other element'>, \vhich are susceptible to
damage by movement, are applied.
The evaluation of dellections due to prc~trcss loadtng can be obtained by double
integration of the expresston
d2v
M,=Pe,=Eid·~
t·

over the length of lhe member, although this calculation can prove tedious for complex
tendon profiles.
The simple case of straight tendons in a uniform member however, yields
M = - Pe a wnstant. which is the situation evaluated in 5CCtion 6.3J to yield a
rna xi mum mid-~ pan dellection of ML1fHHI Pe/.2 /81:.'1. H the cables lie below the
centroidal axi'>. I! is po~itive. and the dellection due to pn.:we!>s is then negative. that is
upwards.
Another common ca~c of a ~ymmctrical pambolic tendon pronlc in a beam of
coll\tant ~ection can also be evaluated quite simply by considering the bending-moment
di'>lrihution in terms of an equivalent uniformly distributed load.
Fm the beam in figure 11.16 the moment due to prestre-., loading 31 any section is
A1, -Pe, but 'Iince e~ t puroholic, the prestre'l-. loading may be IJkened to a
umfonnly dt<;trihutcd load lie on a 'tmpl} -.upponed beam; then mtd-span moment
lleL~
M - - = -Pe,
8

XPe,
~''c = --,
1.·
Bul since the mid-span deflection Juc 10 a uniformly dimihutcd load w over a span L i&
given by
5 wL4
y
384 !:..'/
the deflection due w H'e i::.
2
5 (Pec) L
----
-+8 £1

Figure 11.16
Parabolic tendon profile

L/2
 Prestressed concrete 34~

Figure 11.17
Parabolic tendon profile
eccentric at ends of beam

[0

le

Jf the prel>tress force does not lie at the centroid of the section at the end' of the beam.
but at an eccentricity eo as shown in figure 11.17, the expression for deflection mu:.t be
modified. ll can be shown that the deflection is the same as thm cau,ed by a force P
acting at a constant eccentricity eo throughout the lengt.h of the member, plu' n force P
following n pnrabolic profile with mld-span eccentricity t< as shown in figure 11.17.
The mid-::.p<Hl detlection thus becomes
2 2
,.. -
.
(Peo)L 5 (P<)L
-- -----
Rt:t 4R £1
11 '
DcHcctions due to more complex tendon profile~ are most conveniently estimatcu on
f the basis of coeftic1ents wh1ch can be evaluated for commonly occurnng arrangements.
These are on the ba i' y = ( Kt})jEl where K incnrporate~ the varwtion'> of curvature
due to prestre~s along the memher length.
IS There arc three pnncipal 'otages in the life of a prestrcs\Cd member m whtch
a deflections may he critical and may need to be as\e:o..,ed.

1. At tranllfcr - a chcd. of actual dcnection a1 tran~fcr for compari,on "ith estimated

values i-. a useful guide that a pre. tres. ed beam hal> been correctly wnstructcd.
2. Under dead load, before application of lini!>he!-. - dcOecuons muo;t he evaluated to
permit :-.ubscqucnt movement and possible damage to he csumated.
3. Long-term under full quasi-permanent action:-. deOect1ons are reqlllrcd. both to
determine the sub~equent movement and al!lo to a~sess the arpearuncc of the final
structure.

Short-term dellections will be based on materials rroperrie!> u!.socimcd with

characteristic strengths hm = I ) and wi th actual loading ("}1 I ). Long-term
ns~essment however must not only take intn account loss in prestrcs~ force, but al!.o
the effects of creep both on the applied louding and the prestress loading component~ of
the del~ection. Creep is allowed for hy using an cffectivl! mmJulus of elusticity for the
concrete, us discussed in section 6.3.2.
Thu~ if f:..'.:r ~ 1 is the in~tantancou~ value. the effective vnlue after creep is given by

where the value of ¢{-x:.r0 ) , the creep coefficient can be obtained from table 6. 12
It can be ~hown in -.omc instances that when net upward deflections occur, the~e often
increa.,c bccau~c of creep. thus the most criucal downward deftectton mny well be
before creep IO!>~es occur. while the most critical upward dcftecuon may he long-term.
This further complicates a procedure which alread) ha:-. many uncertainties as di)o.Cll~\ed
in chapter 6: thus deflection!. must always he regarded as e~;ltmute-. only.
350 Reinforced concrete design

( EXAMPLE 11 . 8

Calculation of deflection
Estimate transfer and long-term deflections for a 200 x 350 mm beam of I0 m span. The
pre,tressing tendon has a parabolic profile with mid--.pan eccentricity 75 mm and the
end eccentricity = 0 at both ends. The initial prestre:,-. force at traru.fer. Po. i~ 560 kl
and there arc 20 per cent losses. The imposed load consbts of 2.0 1-N/m finishes and
L.O kN/m 'ariable load. Ecm = 35 kl\/mm~ and the creep factor ~( oo.t0 ) = 2.0.
Self-\\ eight= 0.2 x 0.35 x 25 = 1.75 kN/m
bh3 2()() X 35()3
1 =-= 715x 106 mm4
12 12
(a) At transfer
. 5 ~~'minL4 5 (Poer)L2
DeflccLtOn Yn = 384 Ecml -48 E,.ml
5 1.75 X JO~ X 10 12 5 560 X 103 X 75 X 102 X 106
- 384 35 X l 03 X 715 X I 06 48 35 X I 01 X 7 15 X l 06
9.1 17.5
= -8 mm (upward~)

(h) At application of ftni~hes

A~sume that only a small proportion of pn:strcss lo..sc-. have occurred:
Weight of fini~hes - 2 0 kN/m
therefore
5 ~ 2.0 : 10~ 10 1 ~
\'~ - ,.-
· -.a 384 x 35x 101 x 715 x I(J<'
-
- R 1 IOmm 2mm (downwards)
(c) In the long term due to the quasi-permanent action plus pre~>~ res~ force after losses
Assuming 30 per cent of the variable load contribute), to the qua~i-pcrmancnl
acrion:
Quasi-permanent action self-weight I finishes I OJ x vuriablc load
= 1.75 + 2.0 + 0.3 x 1.0 4.05 kN/m
Prestres~ forces after losses = 0.8Po
0.8 x 560 44l'l kN
, Ecm 35 ,
Ecetf=( ( )) =-
( 1- ., ) = 11.7kN/mm·
l + cJ> oo. ru i -· 0
5 4.05 X 104 X 10 11 5 448 X 10 1 Y 75 X 102 X (()6
."c = 38411.7 X 103 X 715 X !Qfl 48 11.3 X t01 X 715 ~
63.0- 43.3 = 20mm (downwards) < span/ 250 40 mm
1l1eretore sat.J\factory.
(d) \t1ovement after application of finishes
)'d y., - )'b = 20- 2 = 18 mm $ spnn/ 500 = 20 mm ('>allsfactory).
 Prestressed concrete 35

11.4.9 End blocks

In pre-tensioned members. the prestress force is transferred to the concrete by bond over
a definite length at each end of the member. The transfer of !>tre~s to rhe concrete is thus
gradual. In post-tensioned members however, the force is concentrated over a small area
at the end faces of the member. 11nd this leads to high-tensile forces at light angles to the
direction of the compression force. This effect wi ll extend some distance from the end
of the member until the compression has distributed itself aero:.' the full concrete cross-
~ection. Thi~ region is known as the 'end block' and muo;t be heavily reinforced by steel
to resist the bursting tension forces. End block reinforcement will generally wnsist oJ
closed links which surround the anchorages. and the quantities provided arc u~uaily
obtained from empirical methods.
Typical 'How line~· of compressive stre~~ arc sho\\n in figure 11.18. from \\hich it
can be seen that ~hmever type of anchorage il> u~ed. the required di:.tribuuon can be
expected to have been attained at a distnnce from the loaded face equal to the lateral
dimension of the member. Thil> is relatively independent of the anchorage type.
In dc:.igning the end block it i~> ncccs~ary to check that the bearing strcsl-. behind the
anchorage plate due to the prestres:.ing force doc~ not e'\cecd the limiting ,\Ires\. /ll.du·
given by
/Rdu = 0.67f._k(Ad/Aco) 0'5 "' 2.Qf:k
where
A<"<lb the loaded urea of the anchorage plate
A.t is the maximum aren. having the ~ame ~hape a<. Ad1 wh1ch can be in~cribed
in the total area A., as ~hown in figure 11.19(a)
The lateral tcn~ile bursting fmces can be established hy the usc of a ~ tatil.:all y
dcterminnte strut and tie model where it is a~sumed that the load is carried by a truss
consisting of concrete !>truts and linJ..s of reinforcement acting a' steel tics. In carrying
out these calculations a part1al factor of safet> of ') p = 1.2 i:-. applied to the prestre~sing

Figure 11.18
Stress dtstributton In end
blcxks

Flat plate anchorage Contcal anchordge

O.SP
Figure 11.19

_l _ Sursttng tensile force In

end blocks

O.SP

LJ (a) Anchorage LOne

(end vtew)
(b) Strut and tie model
of load dtspersion
352 Reinforced concrete design

force. EC2 suggests that in determining the geometry of thi!> truss the prestressing force
can be a!>sumed to disperse at an angle of 33.7 to the longitudinal axis of the beam as
shown in figure 11.19(b). The comprelosivc sLrc:.sc~ in the assumed struts should not
exceed 0.4 ( 1 - {;~))i~k and the reinforcement is designed to act at a design strength of
OJn(yk· ltowever if the ~tress in the reinforcement is limited to 300 N/nm1 2 then no
checks on crack widths are necessary. This reinforcement, in the form of closed links, is
then distributed over a length of the end-hlock equal to the greater lateral dimension of
the block. this length being the length over which it is assumed that the lateral tensile
strel.sel. are actmg.

( EXA MPLE 11 .9

Design of end block reinforcement

The hcum in ligure 11 .20 is stres~cd by four identical 100 mm diameter conical
anch(lrage<, located :lS shown. with a jacking force of 250 kN applied to each. The area
may he ),Ubdivided into four equal end tones of 200 x 150 mm each. Determine the
reinforcement required around the anchorages:!.:~ = 40 N/mm 2• J,. • 500 N/mm 2 .
Consider one anchor.

(a) Ched: hearing Lress under the anchor

~rcs tre~s10g force
Actual bearing strl!ss
l.oadcd urea
l.2 X 25() X 1() 1
- - - ; . >( 1002/ 4-

1
= 38.2 N/mm

\llowable bean ng 'lrc" .f~tdu 0.67.f..k (A.t / A<"~·d' 5

o.67 <.~o("" 150~/4 )

0

~
7TX !()()1j4

-10.2 N/mm2 ( > 38.2)

Figure 11 .20
End block reinforcement
example

8....
•
~-
l lOOOkN ~,

400

(a) (b)
End section. four anchorages Area for combined anchorage
 Prestressed concrete 353

(b) Reinforcement
Front figure ll.l9b. the tensile force in the tie of the equivalent trUl>S is given by
T = 0.33 X 1.2 X 250 lOOk'
Area of tensile steel required (assuming strc~s in the \tee I is limited to 300 !'\/nun')
10
I()() X 103
A, - 300
330 mrn 2
Thi), can he provided by Lhrcc 10 mm closed links (471 mm 2 ) at, say. 50. 125 ami
200 mm from the end race: that i~. djstrihuted over a length equal to the largest
uimcnsion of the anchorage bloc~ (200 mrn). Note that in each direction there arc
two legs of each link acting to rcsi~t the tensile force.
(c) Check cornpres!>ivc stress in the stmts
Allowable compressive stress 0.4( 1 - ./~~ /250)j~k
0.4( I - 40/250}40 13.44 N/mm 2
. Force in strut
Actual ~tres~ 1n strut = -C .
1
ross-~ecl!ona an::~

0.60 X 1.2 X 25() X JO~

=.,.,...,.-:----:--
(200 X 150 X CO\ 33.7 )
= 1.21 m11D
2

'Jhe effect ol the combined anchorage can he con'>Jdered by con\idcnng the total
pre'> tress Ioree of I000 k • acting on an cffecuve end block of 400 400 mm.
The ten,Jie force in the tic of the equivalent tru'\s i\ given by
O.B x 1.2 I()(X) = 4001..N
Area of tensile \tccl rc4uircd
4()0 X )() I
A.\
300
1333 mm 2
This can be provided by six 12 mm closed links (1358 mm 2 J distributed over ll length
___________________________________________)
cqual to the largest dimension of the anchorage block, thm k 400 mm.
l-·

11 .5 Analysi s and design at the ultimat e limit state

After a pn:~trc~'ed member has been designed to sali~fy \crviceability requirement~. a

check must be carried out to ensure that the ultimate moment of resistance and shear
resi~tancc arc adequate to satisfy the requirement~ of the ultimate Iunit '> tate. The partial
factors of l>afct) on loads and materials for this analysis arc the normal values for the
ulumme limit state which are given in chapter 2. However. in con:-.iderauon of the effect
of the prestress force this force should be multtplled by a partial factor of safety. ir·
of 0.9 (UK l\ational Annex) when the prestress force is considered to be, as '' usual. a
·favourable effect·.
354 Reinforced concrete design

11.5.1 Analysis of the section

A~ the load~ on a prestressed member increase above the working values. cracking
occurs and the pre.,trcssing steel begin~ to behave as conventional reinforcement. The
behaviour of the member at the ultimate limit state is exactly as that of an or<.linary
reinforced concrete member except that the initial strain in the steel must be taken into
w::cuunt in the cak:ulations. The 'ection may easily be analy:.cd by the u~c of the
equi\'alent rectangular stress hlock <.lescribed m chapter 4.
Allhough illu~Lrated by a simple example thi., method rna) be applied to a cross-
section of any ~hape which may have an arrangement of prestressing wires or tendons.
Use is ma<.lc of the l.tres~-sLruin curve for the pn:stressing steel shown in figure l 1.21 to
calcu late tension forces in each layer of steel. The total steel <;train is that due to bending
added to the mitial ~train in the steel re~ulting from prestress. For a series ol al.sumed
neutral axi~ posn1on". the total tension capac1ty 1s compared with the compressive force
developed by a unifonn ~trel>~ of 0.567f<k· and when reasonable agreement is obtained.
the moment of rc~is tancc can be evaluated.

f,o,to
Figure 11.21
Ym
Stress-strain curve for
prestressing ~teet

lz
205kN/mm'

Str.lln

( EXAMPLE 11.10

Calculation of ultimate moment of resistance

The section of n pn.:tcnsioned beam shown in ligure I 1.22 is :-trcs~-.cd by ten 5 mm wires
of 0.1% proof ~lri!~S fPJ 1, 1600l'\/mm2• If these wires are initially ~trc~~>ed to
I 120 .:--l/mm~ and 30 per cent ((h~C~ are anticipated. estimate the ultimate moment of
n.:l>istance of thl! ~cction it clas~ C35/45 concrete ~~ used. The ~tre~s-!>Lrain curve lor
prcl>Lre~sing wirc i~ ~hown in tlgure 11.23.

Area of 5mm wire rr x 52 /4 19.6 mm 2

Stress in 'tccl after los.,cs )p :>-. 1120 x 0.7 =0.9 x 11 20 x 0.7 = 705 N/mm2
thcrdore

S . .111 'tcel alter

• rra111 . lossc~ = ·£(,., - ., -705 = ()·{)<)34
- 05 X I 01

wh1ch is les' than _ , the yield l>train.

 Prestressed concrete 355

b= 120 lee= 0.0035

Figure 11 .22
1 -1 Ultimate moment of resistance
example

8.....
_j _ __ neu.t~a!___~
ax~ 1
l

• ••••
~
F,
'
•••••

Section Bending Strains Stress Block

(~O,Ih : '1600 :: 1390

Figure 11.23
Ym 1.15
Stress-stra!11 curve For
prestressing wire

205kN/mm 7

0.00678 Stram

A depth 1 ot neutral axis must be found for which the compre-;,tve force /~ in the
conm:te ~~ halanced b) the tensile force r:
in lhe steel. Then the ultimate moment or
rcsi~~tuncc i' given by

( 11.33)
where :: is the lever ann between Fe and F,.
As a first attempt try x =
130 mm, approximmely cqmtl to 0.5tl.

(a) Steel strains

Final steel strain,!\ prc!.lrcss strain -t bending srrain, -~
(In cnlculating < the initial concn.:te strain due w prc!.trcs~ cnn be ignored without undut:
error).
Top layer

'"~a - 0.0034 I E~a

therefore
r)
t~ = 0.0034 + .._ ( 175-
.I
ec-c ( I 1.34)
175 130)0 003~
= 0.003., 1 (
130 . .)
0.0046
356 Reinforced concrete design

Bottom layer
!:,IJ = 0.0034,.. e:~b
(275 -x)
= 0.0034 -r e,.~ ( 11.35)
X
275 130
-- 0.0034 I ( -
130 ) (.
) 0035
•.
- 0.()()73

(b) Steel stresses

hom the :mess-~train curve the corresponding \tccl ~trc1.ses are:

Top layer

J..3 =. 3 )( £, ( 11.36)
=0.0046 )I 205 )I 103

2
- 943N/mm

and
f..b 1390 ;-.Jfmm 2
as the str;Hn in th~.: bollom \tee I cx~.:ced~ the yield strum (c ~ 0.00678).
(c) Forces in steel and concrete
Stcd tensile force /·,=I>~;\, (f,a -l f,h)5 x 19.6 ( 11.37 )
(94~ + I WO} X 9X
229 1< 10'
W1th a rectangular stre's block
Concrete compressive force "'~ =0.567f.•b x 0.8x (11.38)
0.567 > 35 ')( 120 X 0.8 X 130
= 248 < 10' N
The force f· c in the concr~w i~o. lurge1 than the lnrt:e F, in the steel. therefore a :.mallcr
depth of neutral axis mu~t hi! tried.
Tahlc ll.l shows the re),ults of t:lllculation11 for further trial depth~ of neutral ax•'· For
.\ II 0. F, became 'mallcr than F , therefore \ 120 and 123 were tried and it wa<,
then found that /•~ = I• c.

Table 11 .1

X Strains Stresses Forces

(mm) ,. >b f...
(N/mm1 )
'~b F~ Fe
( >< I 03) (kN)
130 4.6 7.3 943 1390 229 248
110 5.5 86 1121 1390 246 210
120 5.0 79 1026 1390 237 229
123 4.9 7.7 1000 1390 234 234
 Prestressed concrete 357

In terms of the tensile force in the steel. the ultimate moment of resi tance of the
::.cction is given by

Mu = F,:. = L lf-A,(d- 0.4x). ( I 1.39)

5 Y 19.6[1000( 175 - 0A x 123)+ 1390(275-0A x 123 )
= 43.1 x IOfl 'mm

H x had been incorrectly chosen as 130mm then u&ing equation I 1.39 M. would equal
42.0 kN m, or in terms of the concrete
Mu 0.56~/~\b X 0.8x~

~ 0.567 X 35 X 120 X 0.8 X 130(225 -0.4 X 130) X 10 I>

~ 43kNm

Comparing the average of these two val ue~> of Mu ( 42.5 kN m) with the correct
an~o.wcr,
it can be seen !hat a 1>light error in the position of the neutrul axis does not have
_____________________________________________)
l
any significant effect on the calculated moment of rc~>i ~>tance.

11.5.2 Design of additional reinforcement

If it i~ found that the ultimate limit -.tate requirements arc nm met, additional
untcnsioncd or partially tensioned Mccl may be added to increase the ultimate moment
nf rc~>i,tancc.

(EXA MPL E 11 .11

Design of untensloned reinforcement

=
o c.. ign UntCll\ionc<.l high yield reinforcement rjyl 500 N/mm 7 ) for the rectangular
benm::.cction ::.hown in figure 11.24 which is stres~u by live 5 mm wire,, if the ultimute
moment of resistance is to exceed 40 kN m for cl a~s 40/50 concrete. The characteri ~tit
strength of te n~ toned steel.jj,o t\ 1600N/mm 2• =
(a) Check ultimate moment of resistance
Maximllm tensile force if prestre~sing steel yielded
1600
=0.9 X [5 X 19.6 X
1.15
] X 10 3
= 123kN
123 x 101
Concrete compres:-.ive area to balance = . )( - 0.8 1:!01
0 567 40
thus ncutral-axi!. tleplh x = 56 mm.
1\~~uming prcstrain as caJculated in example 11.10

tollll ~tccl \train prestrain +bending strain

0.0034 ~ ~X 0.0035
X

219
0.0171 ( > yield)
- 0.0034 +
56 x 0.0035 =
Lever arm 275 0..+0 x 56 253 mm
358 Reinforced concrete design

-
Lee= 0.0035 0.5671"
Figure 11.24 120
Ultimate moment of I
resistance example

~ "'
~ - ----
X
neutral 0.8x~
-- i.
-
N
axis

•
•••••
• 2Hl0
F, '

Sect1on Bend1ng Strains Stress Block

hcm;c
ultimate moment of resistance = 253 x 123 x 10 1 31.1 kN 111
Unten~ioned steel is therefore required 1t1 permit the beam to support an ultimate
moment of 40 kNm.
Additional moment capacity to be provided 40 3 1.1 8.9 kN m
Effective depth of additional steel 245 m111
then
IC\'Cr arm to additional steel :::: 220 m111
and

add .lll()na
. I . r
tcn~ton .orce required - 8900 ..'(l _,"
c 'N
220
lhll'
CMtmatcd arcu of untensioned &~eel required at its yteld stress
40500 '
0.87 x 500 = 93 mm·
'lry two lOmm diameter bars ( 157mm\
(b) Check steel strain
{(' additional steel has yielded, force in lwo 1110 burs 157 X 500 X 10 1/1.15
68.3 kN. therefore
total ten~ilc force if all the steel has yielded = 123 -+ 68.3
191.3 kN
thus
, , , 191.3 X 103
depth ot neutral axts at ulnmate = 0. 567 x 40 x 120
x O.S
88mm
TI1ereforc

. !>teeI SlraJO
. esb 275 - 88 00035 0003
pn!\ti'Cl>l>lllg = gg X • · 4

= 0.0108 (>yield)
 Prestressed concrete 359

and
. d !Ilee! stram
untenswne . :..., = 245 - 88 x 0.I)()35
88
0.0062
Thi~ value b greater than the yield strain of 0.00217 from ~ection 4.1.2.
(c) Check ullimale moment of resistance
Taking moment' about the centre of compression
Mu 123(275 - OAO., ) + 68.3(245- 0.40x)
,123 (275 - 0.40 X 88)- 68.3(245 - 0.40 X 88)' 10 - J
= 43.!lkNm
If it had been round in (b) thtll either the prestressing l>tecl or untcnsioned i>li.!CI had not
yielded. then a trial and error approach !>i milar to example ll.l 0 would have been
nc;cessary.

11 .5.3 Shear
Shc;ar in pre~lre,l.cd concrete is considered at the ultimate limit ~late . Design for shear
therefore ill\ olve., the rno~t 5everc loading condilion1-.. with the u~ual panial factors of
safet)' being applied to the actions for the ultimate limit state being con.,idcrcd.
The respon.,e of a member 111 remting shear is ~imilar to that for reinforced concrete.
hut with the additional effects of the compression due to the prer.~res!lmg force. TI1is will
incrca:.e the 1-.hcar resistance con.,iderahly and thi-. is taken into account in EC2 by
enhancing the equnuon for the shear capacity ( VRLI J of the section without shear
reinforcement. With a few slight modifications. the Code gives an almost 1dentical
approach. ba'icd on the Variable Strut Inclination Method of shear dc.~ign. in prestressed
l.ections as i'l U'led 111 reinforced wncrclc sections as outltned in Chapter 5.
In calculating the design shear force, V!Zd. it is permissible to take into account the
verucal component of rorcc in any inchned tendons which will tend tO uct in a direction
thm resists ~heur. thu~ enhancing the shear capacity of the section. In ~o.uch a case the
prestressing force .~hou l d be mu ltiplied by the partiul factor of safety, / p 0.9.

Sections that do not require designed shear reinforcement

In regions of prcstrcs!>cd beams where shear forces arc small and. taking into account
any beneficial effect of forces attributable to inclined prestrc~~ing tendon~. the concrete
~cction on it~ own may have sufficient shear capacity {VRd c) to resist the ultimate ~hear
force ( VhJ). Notwithc;tanding this it is usual to provide a minimum amount of shear links
unless the beam IS a minor memher \Uch as a short-span, lightly loaded lintel.
The concrete shear strength (\' Kd.c ) is given by the empirical expressiOn:

( 11.40)

\\ith a minimum value of:

VRu..:
rl0.035k3' •t,k
? 11 +0.15u, p] b... d ( llA l)
360 Reinforced concrete design

where:

VRd.c =the design shear resistance of the secuon without shear reinforcement

k= (1 _~_ \~) < 2.0 with d expressed tn mm

A, t
Pt - b.,.d ~ 0.02

A~ 1= the area of tensile reinforcement that extend~ beyond the section being
considered by at lea~t a full anchorage length plus one effective deprh (d)
b,. = the smallest width of the section in the tensile area (mm)
a,r = axial stress in section due to prestress (')1,KI'o/ M ( < 0.13~/~~)

It can be seen rhat equations I I .40 and 11 .4 1 are pruc:ticully identical to equations 5. 1
and 5.2 for 1-hear in reinforced conc:rctc sections. The additional term of 0.15crcp
indicates rhalthc effect or the prestress i~ to enhance the ~->hear capacity of the section hy
15% of the longitudinal ~tress due to prc)otre~~>ing.

Shear strength without shear reinforcement - regions uncracked in bending

(special case)

For the spedal ca.-;e of a .1i11Kie Sf/all beam. in regiom. which arc uncracketl in bending
(t.e where sagging moments arc relati\ely l>lllallnear to the 'upports). the 11hear strength
of the concrete :.cction could be governed by the development of excel>\hc tensile
'ilrc~,c~ in the concrete. These regions are defined as "here the llcxural ren..,ile stress in
the uncrad.ed <,ection does not exceed f ctk he· where }~ 1 ~ i:. the charactemtic axial
tcn'iilc ~ l rength of the concrete. Tile applicable equariow; tn EC2 can be developed as
follow~.
At an uncracked section. a Mohr'~ circle analyM' of a beam element shown in
figure 11.25 \\>hich b subject to a longitudwal compressive stress.}~ and a shear stress
''cu give~ the principal tensile stress as:

Figure 11 .25
Stress ln uncracked section

This can be re-nrranged to give the shear stress

"'"- Jw -JJt)
The actual shear stress at any level of a beam subjecr 10 a shear force. \1, can be
shO\\ n to be:

where Ay tS the first moment of area of the part of Lhc :-ection ahove the level considered
about the centroidal axis of the beam, 3!> :.hown in figure 11.26, b i~ the breadth of the
section at the level considered and I h. the second moment of area of the whole section
about its centroidal axis.
 Prestressed concrete 361

Figure 11.26
Shear stress distribution

Cross-section Shear stress Yeo

Hence if }~cJ IS the limiting value of principal tensile stress. the ultimate shear
resistance VRd,c of the uncracked sectjon becomes:

bJ
Ay

Th i~ equation rorm~ the bu~i~ or the design equation given in 13('2 which is
cxprc~>:-.cd as:

( 11.42)

where:

11cp axial ~tres~ in <.,ection due to prestress C!pKPot A)

/.:cd the de,ign tcnl>ilc ~trcngth of the concrete (- l~c~ h.>
n1 I for poo.,t -tcn~ioned tendon~;

< I for pretens1oned tendon!-. and in thi:-. ca!'te the value of n 1 is given 10 t.C2
according to the di,tancc of the !lection being considered Ill relation to the
transnms1on length of the tendon.

EC'2 ~>tate~> that. for lhc l!pccial case of n simply supported beam. equation II .42
~hould be used in thO~>C regionl> where the flexuralten~ile Mres~ in the uncrackccl section
docs not exceed}~ckhc and where the beam i~ cr:1cked in bending equation 11.40 1>hould
be used. Determming where the beam is uncracked al the ultimate limir ~;tate is not
straight-l'orwarcl and. in practice, both these equations ~hou ld he upplied at each section
considered and the lowest of the two va lues calcu lated then taken as the t-hcar caracity
of the section.

The variable strut Inclination method for sections that do require shear
reinforcement

A~ prcv10u~ly noted the design for shear and the prov1ston of shear reinforcement in
prel>tre,!>cd concrete is practically idenucal to that for reinforced concrete and is
~ummarbcd below.

(7) The diagonal compressive strut and the angle 0

The maximum design shear force that a section can carry <VRtt.m•\) is governed by the
requtrement that excessive compressive strc~ses should not occur in the diagonal
362 Reinforced concrete design

compreo;sive struts of lhe assumed truss. leading possibly to compressive failure of the
concrete. The maximum shear force is given by:
V Ctcwbw'Z.V!}~~
Rd. max - 1.5 (cotB+tanB )~

where ;: = 0. 9d and 1• 1 = 0.6( I - .fc~ /250). Hence:

I - }~k/250).f~k
VRd max < -ll'cwbw0.9d0.6(
- ,..---,:-:-- ~--..::....:.::.:,..,..,--
- II .S (c01 0 I tan B)j
( 11.43)
< C\cw0.36b.,..d( J .fck /250lfc~
- [col() + tan OJ

This equation i~ practically identical to equation 5.4 in Chapter 5 except that it

includes a coefficient ac.,.. given by:
(~cw = I 1- l .5rJcp//c~ for 0 < CTcp < O.l67fck
l~cw = 1.25 for 0.16 7./:~ < 17'cp ~ 0.333/cL
o •.,. = 2.5( I - 1.5rJcp/.fcd for 0.333,/;;~ < O'cp <... 0.667fcL
where <Tcp - the mean compressive stress, taken as positive. in the concrete clue to the
prestress force.
For the two limtting values of cot lJ comparison with equations 5.6 and 5.7 gives:
with cot 0 2.5: VRd ma~(22J = ncw0.1241>\.,t!( I - .fck/250lJ~L ( t 1.44)
and with col I) 1.0: VRd. mux '4~1 - Ocw0.18h.,.d( I - }~k/250)f..~ ( 11.45)
and ror values of Bthat lie between these two limiting values the required value of 0 can
he obtained hy equating V~:d to VR<I.mux· Thu!. the equauon. analogous to equation 5.8,
for the calculation of 0 is as fol low:-:

0 ·
0.5 SIO I { - -- l'~.t- . - , } < 4.5 ( 11.46a)*
Hcw0.18h.,..t/{I /ck/ 1_50lJ~k -
which alternatively can be expressed as:

0 0.5 Sill I
{ VRd.vma~(4~
El } ~ 45 ( 11.46b)
)

where Vnr is the shear force at the section being con:.idercd and the calculated value of
the angle Bcan then be u\ed to determine cot Band to calculate the ~hear reinforcement
A,.,. j s at thatl!ecuon fmm equation 11.47 below ('"hen 22 < 8 < 45 ).
If the web of the section contains grouted ducts with diameter greater than one-eighth
of the web thickne%, in the calculation of VRd ma•· the web thickness should be reduced
by one-half of the sum of the duct diameterc; measured at the most unfa\(>urable o;ection
of the web. For non-grouted duct~. grouted plastic duct~ and unbonded tendons the web
thickness shou ld be reduced hy 1.2 times the !-Um of the duel diameters. u· the de:.ign
~hear force exceeds VRd m3~ then it will be necessary to increase the !tiLe of the ~cct ion.

(2) The vertical shear reinforcement

As in reinforced concrete. ~hear reinforcement musl he provided to resist the shear force
if it can not be sustained by the concrete '>ection including tbe enhanced shear resistance
364 Reinforced concrete design

4. The shear links required can be calculated from equation 11.47

A"' VEd
s 0.78df~L cotB

where A~" is the cross-sectional area of the legs of the links (2 x 1r9~ / 4 for 1>ingle
stirrups).
For a predominate!) unifonnly distributed load the maximum shear Vw can be
calculated at a distance d from the face of the ~upport and the shear reinforcement
should continue to the face of the support.
The shear resistance for the links actually specified is
Asw
Vmin - x 0.78d/yL cot f)
s
and this value will be used together with the shear force envelope to determine the
cunailment position of each set of designed links.
5. Calculate lhe minimum links required by EC2 Ji·om
A,w ndn _ 0.08fc~ ~bw
s .r-~
6. Calculate the additional longitudinal ten<>ile force ct~uscd hy the shear
:::.f td = 0 5 \ '~"A~ cot 0
The al.1o'e procedure ~hould be repeated at different ~cctions along the beam. as
allustrated in the following example

( EXAMPLE 11 . 12
Design of shear reinforcement
l hc beam cross-section l>hO\\-n in figure 11 .27 1s constant over a 10m :-.imply supported
l)pan with a parabolic tendon prolile and an eccentricity varying between 300 mm at the
ends and 750 mm at mid-span, measured hclt>w the ncutrulllxis in both cases. The beam
1.upports an ultimate uniformly distributed loud of 40 kN/rn and j~~ 35 N/mm 2•

1000
Figure 11.27
Shear reinforcement example
0
"'
0\
II
0
"'""+
0
~
I

8
___._,"'"
location of tendons
at the supports
 Prestressed concrete 36:

Given data:
Prc...,tres~ force after losses 2590 kN
I = 145 106 x 106 mm4
A = 500 X I03 mm 2
Ar = 3450mm2
/yL = 500 1':/mm~ for the shear links
fctk = 2.2 N/mm~

The calculation~ will he presented for a section at the ~upport nnd then repeated and
tnbulntccl at 3m intervals along the span.

(1) Calculate shear force at the section

Although th e m:~ximum shear force can be taken at the fac;c or the ~upport , in thi~
example we wi ll, for illustrative purpo~e:., luke the 'ection nt the middle of the support
itself. llcncc:
Vrd 40 x 30/2 600 kN

(2) Check if shear reinforcement is reqwred

rrom equation I 1.40 the concrete ~hear \trength i., gi"cn hy:

I'Rd, = [o. I2k( lOOpJ.~)

1
'+ O.ISa,"• b,.d
\\here:
cl :: 1.5 0.85 e 1.5 0.85 + 0.3 = 0 95 m at the ~uppurt

1. (1 -1 ~2~)) (1 ~ f:o) = 1.46 (::; 2.0)

3450
0.0242 ( > 0.02) ... PI - O.D2
150 X 950
rr,p = "'fq,KPn/11 - 0.9 x 2590 x 10 1/(500 x 101 )
4.66 N/mm 2 {5 0.133.f.·L = 0.133 X 35 4.66 OK}
lienee:

VRLI c [o. I2k( IOOpt/~k) l/l + 0. I5crrp] b,..d

111
[0.12 X 1.46(100 X 0.02 X 35) -j 0.15 X 4.66] 150 X 950 X JO-J

202kN

Noll!: a check on equation 11.41 will show that the minimum value of VKd, as given by
equation I 1.41 1., not cruical in this case.
As thb is u \imply supponed beam equation 11.42 should also he used to check the
l>hear capac it) of the concrete ~ection. From equation 11.42:
b~J ~ )
VMt~c= AJ vU~id+nlacJc•d
366 Reinforced concrete design

where:
rr,p = axial stress in section due to prc:-.tress = 4.66 Nlmm2• as before
.f.ld = the design
tensile strength of the concrete = 2.2/ 1.5 = 1.47 N/mm2
o 1 = I for post-tensioned tendonl>.
Hence by reference to the dimensions shown in figure 11.25:
bwf . j , -
VRd .c = 1\y V (fc~d + (I I rTq/tld)

150 X 145 106 X 106 f. , -3

= ~;{-IO_OO_x_l-75-x-56-2-.5-)_t_( 150 x 475 x 237.5 )) V ( l.47- + I x 4·66 x 1.4? X lO .
S66kN
This is considerably greater than the figure of 202 k~ calculated from equation II .40.
We will take the lower value of202 kN as representing the shear capacity of the concrete
section
The effective resistance of the section is the sum of the shear resi~tnncc of the
concrete. VRd , . plus that of the ,·crlical 'hear rclobtance of the inclined tendons.
Shear strength Including the shear resistance of the inclined tendons
The vertical component of the prestress force is P sin 11 where r3 tendon slope. The
tendon profile" y - c,.:! with the origin of the cable prohlc taken at mid-lipan; hence at
.1 15000. ~ 750 - 3CXl 450 and
,150 c x 15 ooo2
c 2.0 . . . 10 (,
Therefore the tendon profile '' .' 2.0 x 10· 11 rl and tendon :.lope dy/dt 2C\ .
At end
dyj dx = 2 X 2,() X 10· <> X 15 000 = ().()60 - tan i
lienee,
,J 3.43 und 'in ;3::::: tan ii = 0.06
Therefore vertind component, V1• of prc~trcs~ force at the suppo11s i~:
111 259!1:-in i = 2590 x 0.06 1551..1'\
and the total shear capacit) i-,:
VRd. c + V1 202 I / p X 155 202 + 0.9 X 155
142 kN at the support!-..
At the end ot the beam the design ~hear rorce is (40 >< 10/ 2) = 6001.:-1 and hence the
shear capacity uf the concrete &ection i~ inudequatc and ~hear reinforcement mu~t be
provided.
(3) Check the crushing strength VRd max of the concrete diagonal strut
A check must be made to cnwrc that the !-hear force doc:-. not cause excessive
cnmpression to develop in the diagonal strut:. of the assumed Lrus~.
From equation 11 .4-l (COle - 2.5):
VRu mn.t1 2~ = U<',O.I24b,.t/{l /.k / 250lf~~

where the value of n,w depends on the magnitude of I'Tc~ given by:
rTql = rpKPn/A = 0.9 X 2590 X 103 /(500 X I(P) = 4.66 N/mm 2
 Prestressed concrete 367

Bence:
17q~ 4.66
t.~ 35 - 0. 133 ( < 0.167)

... o,,.- I r 17q,

1.5-- I t 1.:>
-
X 0.133- 1.200
!.:k
:. VRd m"' 22) = oC\\O. l24b.. d(l- /ck / 250lfck
- 1.200 X 0.124 X 150 X 950(1 35)
250
X 35 X I0- ·l = 638 kN
As the ~hear force at the end of the beam is 600 kN then the upper li mir to the shear force
i~ not exceeded.

(4) Calculate the area and spacing of links

Where the shear force exceeds the capacity of the concrete section, allowing for the
enhancement from the inclined tendon force. shear reinforcement must he provide to
resist the net shear force taking into account the beneficial effect of the inclined tendons.
From equation I I A~ thi~> is given by:
A,w ~ = (600 - 0.9 X 155) X 103 = 0.497
S 1.95dfyk 1.95 X 950 X 500

(5) Calculate the minimum link requirement

2
A,"•'"'" - 0.08fc~ b" = 0.08 X 35 1 ~ X 150 = O.l 4
} J..... 500
Therefore provide I 0 mm links at 300 mm centres (I\ ,.. h 0.523) \Uch that the 'hear
rcsi,tance of the linb actually ~pecified is:
A,.
Vnun - X 0.18dfy~ COL 0
I
0.523 X 0.7!! X 950 X 500 X 2.5 X 10 J 4X4 kN

(6) Calculate the additional longitudinal force

The additional longitudinal tensile force is:
AF1d 0.5Vt:ucot() 0.5 x (600 0.9 x 155) x 2.5 575 kN
Hence:
575 X 101 1
- - - - = 1322 mm
0.87 X 500
Thi!. additional longitudinal steel can be provided for by four untensioned II25 burs
(1960 mm 2) located at the bottom of the beam's cross-seclion and fully anchored pa~t the
point required using hooks and bends as nece~sary. Umen ioned longitudinal
reinforcement mu~t be provided at every cross-~ection to resist the longitudinal ten~ile
force due to ~hear and the above calculation must be repeated at each :.ection to
determine the longitudinal ~teel requirement.
All of the above calculations can be repeated ar other cross-section)> and are tabulated
in table 11 .2 from wh1ch it can be seen that, from mid-span to n liection approximately
9 111 from mid-1.pan, nominal shear reinforcement is rcquin.:d and in the outer 6 m of the
!-.pan fully designed shear reinforcement is required. This can he provided a!.
368 Reinforced concrete design

Table 11 .2 Shear calculations at 3m intervals

Prestress (1) (2) (3) (4) (S) (6)

X D VRd.c 'Yp v, VEd VRd c ~Pvt VRd""'~ A,wfs Asw/S m1111 ~Ftd
(m) (mm) (kN) 1 (kN) (kN) (kN) (kNi (kN)
Mid-span 0 1400 281 0 0 281 941 Minimum 0.14
- -0 -
3 1382 278 28 120 306 928 reinforcement 0.14 115
6 1328 270 56 240 325 892 only 0.14 230
9 1238 255 84 360 339 832 Reinforcement 0.229 345
12 1112 234 112 480 346 747 carries all the 0.339 460
End-span 15 950 202 140 600 342 638 shear force 0.497 575

1 Equation 11 .40.
2 Equation 11.44.

Figure 11.28
600 Ultimate sheM force v,,.
Shear resistance diagram z
..
~
~ ...c
Concrete plus tendon
~hear resi5Lance
t:
2 ~ 0
.."'
~

..c
400 :2
:::?
Q.
Q.
::>
V'l

'
V'l

200

6 9 12 15
Distance alonq IPMI (m)

(figure 11.28) 10 mm link::. at 300 mm centres in the outer 3 metres (A,..., / .1 0.523)
changing to I 0 mm link' Jt 450 mm centres (A "/1 - 0 ~49) between 3 and 6 m from the
end of the heam and then 8 mm at -150 centres (A ,,J 1 0 223) throughout the rc~t of
the ::.pan.
 CHAPTER 12
Composite
construction
CHAPTER INTRODUCTION

Many buildings are constructed with a steel framework composed of steel beams and
steel columns but mostly with a concrete floor slab. A much sliHcr and stronger
structure can be ach1eved by ensuring that the steel beams and concrete slabs act
together as composite and so, effectively, monolithic units. This composite behaviour
is obtained by providing shear connections at the interface between the steel beilm
and the concrete slab as shown in figure 12.1. These shear connect1ons reSISt the
horizontal shear at the interface and prevent slippage between the beam and the slab.
The shear connectors are usually in the form of steel studs welded to the top flange of
the bec~m and embedded in the concrete slab.
The steel beam will usually be a universal 1-be.:~m. Other .:~ ltern<ltives are a
castellated beam or a lattice g1rder as shown in figure l 2.2. These alternative
types of beam prov1de greater depth for the floor system and openings for the
passage of service conduits such as
) for healing and air conditioning
systems.
Two other types of composite
fl oor system are shown ln figure
12.3. The stub girder system consists
of a main beam with transverse
secondary beams supported on the
top flange. Short lengths of stub
members similar in section to the
secondary beams are also connected
to the top flange of the main beam.
The stub beams and the secondary
beams are connected to the slab
with steel studs as shown.

369
370 Reinforced concrete design

Shear stud connectors

Figure 12.1
Composite beam sections

Ribs parallel to beam Ribs perpendicular to beam

Composite beam with ribbed slab

t~www~.·p
']~
Figure 12.2

~
Composite floor beams

~~ k ~
' (a) Composite la ttice gird er

~~J (b) Compos1te castellated beam

Secondary \teet
figure 12.3 be.1m
Compos1te floor systems

Steel beam

(a) Typical sub-girder system

Steel beom
Concrete slab
Profiled sheeting

(b) Compos1te profiled slim deck system

 Composite construction 371

The Sllmdec system shown in Figure 12.3 is manufactured by Corus. The

special steel beams have a patterned tread on the top flange that provides an
enhanced bond with the concrete slab so that a composite act1on can be
developed without the use of shear studs. Deep ribbed profiled sheeting 1s used
to support the slab with the deep ribs resting on the bottom flange of the beam.
With this arrangement the steel beam is partially encased by the concrete which
provides it with better fire resistance. Openings for services can be cut in the web
of the beam between the concrete ribs.
The concrete slab itself can also be constructed as a composite member using
Lhe profiled steel decking on the soffit of the slab as shown in figure 12.4. The
steel decking acts as the tension reinforcement for the slab and also as permanent
shuttering capable of supporting the weight of the wet concrete. It is fabricated
with ribs and slots to form a key and bond with the concrete. Properties of the
steel decking and safe load tables for the decking and the compos1te floors are
obtainable from the manufacturing companies.
Many composite beams are designed as simply supported non-continuous
beams. Beams that are continuous require moment resisting connections at the
columns and additional reinforcing bars in the slab over the support.
The method of construction may be either:
• Propped
• Unpropped
With propped construction temporary props are placed under the steel beam
dunng construction of the floor and the props carry all the construction loads.
After the concrete has hardened the props are removed and then the loads are
supported by the composite beam. The use of temporary props has the
disadvantage of the lack of clear space under the floor during construction and
the extra cost of longer construction t1mes.
Unpropped construction requires that the steel beam itself must support the
construction loads and the steel beam has to be designed for this condition,
which may govern the size of beam required. The beam can only act as a
composite section when the concrete in the slab has hardened. This also means
that the deflection at setvice is greater than that of a propped beam as the final
deflection is the sum of the deflection of the steel beam during construction plus
the deflection of the composite section due to the additional loading that Lakes
place after construction. The calculalions for this are shown In example 12.4
which ~ets out lhe serviceability checks for an unpropped beam.
As there are differences in the design procedures for Lhese two types of
construction it is important that the construction method should be established
at the outset.

Shear studs
- ___ -_--------- Profile steel decking
figure 12.4
Compos1te slab with steel
deck1ng
372 Reinforced concrete design

12.1 The design procedure

The design procedure for composite beams follows the requirements of:
(a) EC2. (E:\ 1992-1-1) for lhe design of concrete structures.
(o) EC3 (E:\ 1993-1-1) for the design of Mecl!ltructures, and
(c) EC4 (E:-.=1994-1-1) for the dc!.ign of compo:.itc Mecl and concrete structures.
At the tune of writing this chapter the CK National Annex for EC3 and EC4, and the
Concise Eurocodes are not available. Parh of these code~ are quite complex: for
example the li~>l of symbols for the three codes extends to 21 pages. Tt is intended in this
chapter to try and simplify many of the complications and enable the reader to gain a
grasp of the basic principles of the design or composite heams.

12.1.1 Effective width of the concrete flang e (EC4, cl 5.4.1.2)

An early step in the design of the composite benm section is to determine the effective
breatlth bcrr or the concrete flange.
For builtling structures at mid-span or an internal support
bru = L:b.,
where be~ i!> the effective width of the concrete flange on each side of the steel web and
i'> taken as 4 /8. but not greater than half the dist:lnce to the centre of the adjacent beam.
The length 1-t is the approximate di!-.tance ~tween points of cero bending moment
"hich can be taken as L/ 2 for the mid-.,pan of a continuou:. hcam, or L for a one-span
simply supported beam. The length L is the \pun of the hcam being conl>idered.
For example. for a continuous hcam with a span oft 16m and the adjacent beams
being at 5 m centre to centre the effective hrcatlth. hd1 , of the concrete flange is
bell 2 >. Lc/8 = 2 X 0.5 x 16/ 8 2.0 m
If the beam wa.~ a nne-span ~imply supported beam the effective breadth. bttt. would
be 4.0 m.

12.1.2 The principal stages in the design

These stage~ arc listed with brief description~ u~ fo ll ow~>:

(1) Preliminary sizing

The depth of a universal steel beam mny be taken as approximately the ~>pan/20 for a
simply l'lupported span and the span/24 for a continuous heum. The yield strength. j~.
and the section classification of the steel heam ~houltl he determined.

(2) During construction (for unpropped construction only)

The loading i:-. taken ac; the self-we•ght of the steel beam with any 'buttering or ~lecl
deckmg. the \\eight of the wet concrete and an unposed con~truction load of at lea1.t
0.75 kN/m~. The following design checkc; are reqUired:
(a) At the ultimate limit state
Check the strength of the steel !>ection in bending untl 'hear.
 Composite construction · 373

(b) At the serviceability limit state

Check the deflection of the ~tccl beam.

(3) Bending and shear of the composite section at the ultimate limit state
Check the ultimate moment of rcsio;tanee of the composite section and compare 1t v. ith
the ultimate design moment. Check the shear strength of the ~tccl beam.

(4) Design of the shear connectors and the transverse steel at the ultimate
limit state
The shear connecters are required to re~>iM the horizontal shear at the interface of the
~>teel and the concrete so !hut the steel beam and the concrete llange act as u cnmposih.:
unit. TI1e shear connectors can be either a full shear connection or a partial f>hcur
connection depending on the design and dewiling requirements.
Tmnwerse reinforcement is required to re~>i:-.t the longitudinal 'hear in the concrete
flange and to prevent cracking of the concrete in the reg1on of the ~hear connectors.

(5) Bending and deflection at the serviceability limit state for the composite
beam
The deflection of the heam i~> chcc"-ed to ensure it is not exces!.IVC and so cau:-.ing
crac"-ing of the architectural hni\he~.

12.2 Design of the steel beam for conditions during

construction (for unpropped beams only)

The steel beam muM be des1gned to support a dead load of its e~timated self-\\ eight. the
weight of wet concrete ond the weight of the proflled ~teel dec"-ing or the formwork.
plus a construction li ve loud or til leu:-.t 0.75 k.N/m 2 covering the lloor urt:a.
A preliminary depth for the siling of the Meel beam can be raken m. the '-pan/ 20 for a
one-::.pun simply ~.upported heam.

(a) At the ultimate limit state

(i) Bending
The plastic section modulu~ Wpt y· for the steel beam may he calculated from

IVpt.y = MrcJ
r
Jy
( 12 I)

where
MP.t i~ the ultimate de~rgn moment
J; i~ the dc,ign strength of the steel as obtained from EC3. tahlc 3.1
1l1is as.,ume!. that the compre1.sion flange of the steel beam is adequatel> n!strallled
against bud.. ling by the steel decktng for the ~lab and the !.tccl sect1on used can be
classified a~ a plastic or compact section a~ defined in EC3. sections 5.5 and 5.6.
374 Reinforced concrete design

(ii) Shear
The <>hear iJ. considered to he carried by the steel beam alone at the con~Lruction stage
and also for the final composite beam.
The ultimate shear strength of a rolled 1-beam is based on the following shear area.
A,. of the section
(122)
where Aa is the cros!.-scctional area of the ~tecl hcam and h.,. is the overall depth of the
web. IJ can he taken as 1.0.
The other dimensions of the cross-section arc detined 1n figure 12.5.

Figure 12.5
Dimensions for
1-sectlon beam
an

1-I
h., d

'
~

-
-
b"----'

/'
fw

'
r''
r " radius ol roof f1llet

For class I and cla-.r. 2 1-beams with a predominately uniformly di~trihutcd load the
design shear ~tre~se:-. arc seldom ex~o:c),~ivc and the shear area. A, may be con~c rvatively
tal.cn a<; the \\Ch area so that
( 12.3)
where d i:-. the depth of the \tntight port10n of the \\Ch.
The dc,ign plastic shear re~btance \ 'r1 Rd of the ~cction is given by:
A,f>
VpiRd - - ( 12.4)
'i\loJ3
\\hCrC ') \10 1.0 is the material parti<ll factor Of flafety for the 1->lCCI.

(b) At the serviceability limit state

The deflection f, at m1d-span for a uniformly di~trihutcd loud on n steel beam is given
by:

( 12.5)

where
w is the ~crviceability load per metre at conMruetion
LIS the beam's span
Ea is the cla.... tic moduluo; of the <.tee] = 210 k\l/mm 1
1. is the second moment of area of the steel ~ecuon
fhc deflections at the consLruction -.tagc due to the permanent loads arc locked into the
beam a'> the concrete hardens.
 Composite construction 375

(EXAMPLE 12. 1 I
Design of steel beam for construction loads
Figure 12.6 show!> the ~ection of an unpropped composite beam. Check the ~trcngth of
the universal 457 191 x 74 kg/m steel beam for the loading at con~truction. The Mccl
•s grade S355 with ./~ = 355 N/mm 2 and the plastic modulus for the ~tee! section i::.
Wr1 ~ 1653 em 1• Th~ one-span simply supponed beam spans 9.0 metre and the width
of loading on the concrete flange i~ 3.0 metres.

Profiled steel decking Figure 12.6

Comlruclion design example
J

457 X 191 X 74
Universdl Be~m

Section
'
I Span L

Elevation
9 Om
....

(a) Steel strength and classrfication of the steel beam (see EC3, tables 3, 7 and 5.2)
The web thid.nel>~. t.., = 9 0 mm and tJte flange tluckne~~. t1 I t4 mm. and both arc
h!\l> than 40 mm. Therefore from EC3. l>CCtion 3.2. table 3.1 the yield -.trength.
f> 355 N/mm 2 .
From EC3, sccuon 5.6, table 5.2

E (235 O.R I
Vh
t! 407.6
45.3 < 72 X f - 58.3
lv. l) .0

therefore the steel ~cction i:. class !.

(b) Loading at construction
Average depth of concrete ~l aband rib!>= 90 + 50/ 2 = 115 mm
Weight of concrete 0.115 x 25 x 3 8.62 J..N/m
Steel deck = 0.15 x 3 = 0.-15
Stee I beam = 74 X 9.8 1 X ( ()-) = 0.7]
Tmal dead load = 9.8kN/m
Jmpo~ed con~truction load = 0.75 x 3 = 2.25 kN/m
Ultimate load U5Gk I 1.5QL = (1.35 x 9.8 + 1.5 x 2.25)
= 16.6 k '/merre
376 Reinforced concrete design

(c) Bending
Maxunum bending moment = wL~ /8 = (16.6 x 9~) /8 = 168 kN m
Moment of re~istance of Meel section = Wpl J, 1653 x 355 x 10 3

= 587kNm > 168kNm OK

(d) 5heor

Maximum ~>hear force V = lrL/2- 16.6 x 9/1 74.7 kl'\

Shear Cl!sbtancc of M:clion - vpl Rd - AJ)!'>

l\10 v 3

For the steel ~>eclion tile web depth. d = 407.6 mm and the weh thic\..ness 1 = 9 mm.
U),ing the conservative value of
1\, dt.,., 407.6 x 9.0 3.67 x 101 mm 1
1\ v.f~ 3.67 X 101 X 355 _,
Shenr rc&i~tnnce of section = Vpl. Rd - - --;:::-- " I 0 ·'
"/Mo/3 1.0 X /3
7'i2 I..N 74.7 kl\1
hom the calculation!- for bending and shear il can he seen lhe loading on the beam
during l'OINrul·tion is rdati\'cly IO\\ wmpan:d to the '-lrength of the beam. Abo, U1c
'reel th:ckmg "uh the COJTuga!lon~ Jl right angk' to I he 'pan g1vcs lateral and torsional
re,lr:Jilll to the 'teeI heam. For the~e n!n,on' it i' con,idcn:d unnecc,sary to carry out tile
Jmnht.>d calculatinn' for lateral and tor,ional stabllit} which arl! descnhcd in EC3.
De,1gn ol ()reel Structure'
I or the calculation of the deftccuon of the ~reel be;1m during construcllon at the
M!I'\ICCahllll) hmll state see Example 12.4.
l~·----------------------------------------------------------------)
12.3 The composite section at the ultimate limit state

At the ultimate limit state it h. necc11sllry lll check the compo~ite section tor its moment
cupacily and its shear strength, and compurc them aguin~t the maximum design ullimate
moment and shear.

12.3.1 Moment capacity with full shear connection

Th~: moment capacity M, of the composite sed ion i ~ derived in terms of the tensile or
comprcl>~ive ~trl!ngthsof the variou~ clement~ of the section as follows:
Rcststancc of the concrete flange R" 0.56~f,lhcrr(h- h11 )
Resistance of the steel sccti(m R, f~A·
Re,i'>tance of the steel flange R,1 J; btr
ResiStance of overall web depth R" R\ 2R,r
Resi,tancc of clear weh depth R, J.,dt.,
Resi,tance of the concrete above the neutral :ms R., 0.567/.kbcnx
Re'>l\tance of the ~teeI flange above the neutral axts R x -/>b.\ 1
Rest\tance of the \\eh O\'er dl'>tance X• R.,.., =f-,tv."<1
The dimensions used tn these expressiOn!!> are defined in ligures 12.7 and 12.8.
 n
Composite construction 37i
b.t~

,-- j_
h
Figure 12.7
Composite section dimension
h '-
hp
I
J
- -, c,

Note: dis the distance between the fillets of the steel section

ft is important to note in the figures Lhm the SlrC!-!> hlock for the concrete extends to
the depth of the neutrnJ nxis as specified in EC4 for compo~>ite design.
There ttre three pos~ible locations or the neutral axis a~ shown in figure 12.8.
These are:
(a) The neutrul axis in the concrete flange:
(b) The neutral axis in the steel t1ange:
(c) The nculrttl uxis in the steel web.

Figure 12.8
Stress blocks at the ultimate
limtt state

A
(a) Neutral axis In the concrete flange X< h: Rc~> R,
b,,

c, ' !!I

,, • .... b ...1

(b) Neutral axis In the steel flange II < x < h 1 t, and R, > Rtt > Rw

(,

It

(c) Neutral axis In the steel web x > h + t,: R.:t < R.,.
378 Reinforced concrete design

The location of the neutral axis is determined from the equilibrium equation of the
rel>i~tance
forces R at the section.
i.e. 'E,R = 0
The moment of resistance at the section is then obtained by taking moments about a
convenient axis such as the centreline of the ~teel section. 1>0 that

where : is the lever arm about a chosen a xi'\ for the resistance R.
For Calle~ (bland (c) the analysis i' facilitated by considering an equivalent system of
the re~istaoce forces a shown in the relevant diagram~.

(a) Neutral axis in the concrete flange, x < h Figure 12.8(a)

This condition occur" when Rcr > R,.
Then the depth x of the neutral axi1. is given by
Rex = 0. 567]~kVettX- Rs
. R, R$(11 - hp)
Therefore x ::.. ," b
0 ·567J~~ eff 1?d
The moment of resistance is
M, = R,:.
where the lever arm ~ i\
(11.12 +"- ,,2)
Therefore

( 12.6)

(b) Neutral axis in the steel flange, h < x < h + t1 (Figure 12.8(b))
This condition occurs when Rs > Rd > R..,.
l·or the equilibrium of the rcsiMancc forces
Ret I 2/?,, 1?,
i.e. 2R,x = 2Jyi)),1 1?, I? cf
(R,- R, t ) (!?, l?d)lt
and = ~{yb
Xt 21?,,
where b i!. the breadth and ft is the thickness of the ~tee t nange.
The moment of resistance is given by
M, R.r:.t + 2 Rs~Z~
l?d::.t + (R\- R,r):.1
,.. here :. 1 and :.2 are the tc.. cr arms as shown tn figure 12.R(b) and
:1 (h4-" + hp)/2
;:z = (ha :rt)/ 2
 Composite construction 37

;he Therefore substituting for z1• z~ and x1 and rearranging

( 12.7)
ow a
(c) Neutral axis in the steel web, x > h + t1 ( Figure 72.8(c))
Thi\ condition occurs when Rcr < R-.. and is mostly associated \\tth hutlt-up beam
!>Cctions wtth small top flanges and larger bottom flanges and also with ~tiffcncd weh~ to
of avoid wch buckling.
For equilibrium of the equivalent arrangement of the rcsi~tance force~

2R-..x = 2/y lwX2 = Rcr

Therefore

where x2 is the distance between the neutral axil> and the centreline of the steel section .
The moment of re~ismnce of the composite ~ection is the moment of the two couples
produc.:cd hy R, and Rc~ with 2Rwx so that

Me
\4
I ' -f
R.r(h1
"2
hp X2)

or

A{ I Rc (h. + h + 1111 ) R~rd

A' -~o 2 4R,
( 12.8)
':!6

(EXAMPLE 12.2

Moment of resistance of a composite section

Determine the moment or resistance or the tompo).itc scctinn shown in Jigure 12.9. The
universal 457 x 19 1 x 74kg/m steel beam has a cross-sectional area ()fAn 94.6em 2
and is grade S355 t'. tcel with .fy 355 N/mm2• =
Usc concrete clnss C25/30 with characteristic cylinder strength J:k 25 Nlmm 2.

0.5671,,
btl1 : 3000 Figure 12.9
Moment of resistance examp

h,- 50
h.= 457

457 x 191 x 74 UB py
Section Stress Blocks
380 Reinforced concrete design

(a) From first principles

Resi~tancc of concrete flange Ret - 0.567/..~berr(h hp )
= 0.567 X 25 X 3000 X ( 140- 50) X 10 J
= 3827 kN
Resistance of Meel beam R~ /yAu 355 X 9460 x 10- 3 = 3358 kN
As R, < R., the neutral axis is within the concrete flange.
Determine the depth of neutral axis:
0.567AkbeffX = R, 3358 1...1\
3358 X 101
Therefore x= 79.0 mm
0.567 X 25 X 3()()()
Moment of rcsi~Lance:
Lever mm z to the centre of the steel section is
(/lu /2 I h ~/2) = 457/ 2 -f 140 - 79.0/2 329 mm
1
M, R,z 3358 x 329 x 10 - 1105 kN m

(b) Alternatively using the design equat1ons derived

From pari (a) the neutral axi'> i~ \\ Hhlll the concrete flange therefore. from equation 1~ .6.
the moment ot resi~tance of the o;ect1on 11- g1vcn by

M, 1?,{';" .. h - :c't (h ~ hr) }

BSR{457 140 _ 3358 ( 140 50)} IO 3 = ( 5 k
... 2 t 3827 2 I l J Nm

12.3.2 The shear strength VRd of the composite section

f·or the compoc;ite section. as for the con~tmction ~tage. secunn 12.2a(u). the shear is
rclliMcd by the shear area A, of the ~teel beam and the shear resistuncc VR.J ic; given by
A..(y
VRll Vpi , Rd = ----r,; (12.9)
'}MO V 3

and the !\hear (!rca A,. is given hy

( 12.10)
where A1 ll. the cross-sectional area of the steel beam and the othe1 dimension:\ of the
cro!ls secuon are defined in figure 12.5.
For class I and cia.,~ 2 I-beams with a predominately uniformly dt!>tributed load the
des1gn shear stress is seldom exces.,ive and the !.hear area, A,. may be safely taken
conservattvely as the area of the web.
1\. - d X fw

For heams where high shear force:- and moments occur at the same ~eel ion such Uu11
VFAI > 0.5VRd it is necessary LO usc a reduced moment capacity for the composite
section by reducing the bending stress in the steel weh a~ de~cribed io EC4,
c;ection 6.2.2.4.
 Composite construction 381

12.4 Design of shear connectors

The shear connectors are required to prevent slippage between the concrete nange and
the Mcel beam thus enabling the concrete and steel to act a' a composne unil. Stud 'hear
connector~; welded to the steel nange are the most corrunon t} pc u'ed. The head on the
<;tud acts to prevent the vertical lifting or pri'>ing of the concrete a\\:.t) lrom the \teet
beam.
Figure 12.1 O(a) shows the slippage that occur'> '' tthout 'hear connector.... The
"li ppage is a maximum at the ~up ported end or the beam ''here the shear I' and the rate
of change or moment dM / d1 are a maximum. The 11lippage reduce:. to tcro at mtd-span
where the moment is a maximum and shear V = 0 for a uniformly tlistrihutcd load
The connectors restrain the slippage by resisting the horizontal shear at the interface
of the concrete nnd the ~tccl. The design is carried out for the conditions at the ultimate
limit state.
The design shear resistance, PHu· of a hended stud automatically welded i~ given hy
I ~C4 as the lesser value of the following two equation;,:

0.&/~ 1Td~ /4
plld : (12.11 a)

or:

0.29nd~ ../J..J.Ecm
( 12. 11h)

n-1 for ll..,j d >~

) where
-,, t~o. the ptU1tnl safety factor 1.25
d the diameter of the shun~ of the stud, between 16 mm and 25 mm
11o.

j;, 1s the ullimutc tensile ~o.trcngth of the stud 500 t'oilmm 2 or 450 N/mm, when
equation 12.12b npplie~
fck is the cylinder c:haraclcrislic compressive strength of the concrete
£,111 is the ~cctmt modu lus of eluMiciry of the concrete. sec table 1.1

A further reduction factor. k1 or k, is w he applied to PKtl ~~~ ~rcctticd in EC'4,

section 6.6.4 and its value depend), on whether the ribs of the profiled ~heetulg arc
parallel or tranwer~e to the supporting beam.

figure 12.10
Horizontal shear
Slippage <1nd horizontal shear

-. /.

(a) Slippage (b) Horizontal shear at beam-slab interface

382 Reinforced concrete design

(i) For ribs parallel to the supporting beam

l..t = 0.6 bo ( 11'"'

hp lip
1) ~ 1.0 ( 12.l2a)

(ii) For ribs transverse to the supporting beam

/.. _ !:.:!.._ bo
I - yll,hp
(h"'/tp _1) ( 12.l2b)

n, is rhe number of stud connectors in one nh at a beam connection, < 2

/1 5, is the overall nominal height of the srud
hp is the overnll depth of the pronicd steel ~heeting
bo is the mean width of the concrete rib
Al~o in this ~econd case the ulumare tensile -.tcel stress of the studs};, < 450 N/mm2 •
There is an upper limit k1,,11111 for the retluction factor k, which is given in EC4,
sc<.:tion 6.6.4, table 6.2.

12.4.1 Full shear connection

The change in hori7ontal shear between zero and maximum moment is the Jesser of the
rcsi~ranct: R, of the ~ted ~ection und R. the resistance of the con~.:n:tc 11ange. Thus. to
ue"elop tht: full hcnuing \trength of the composite section the number of shear
connector.. 111 required O\'er half the ~pan r~ the lc~ser of
R, R
II( = - \ll llr - ( 12.13)
k,Prhl k,PKd
!'or a full ~hear connection. where

P1<.t rs the effectrve '>tren!•th of a ...hear ... tutl

k1 is the reduction tactor applied ro the characteristic Mrcngth PRu
Rc 0.567./',;kb,.lr(h lip)
R, .fA1
hrll scale tcsh \\ 1th unilom1ly distributed loading have shown thm "llh plu~tic
~.:ondition~ during the ultimate limit ~tate the ~>hear stutl-. can develop their full strength
when spaced uniformly ulong the ~ran of the hetun.

12.4.2 Partial shear connection

In ~ome callc~ it i~ not necessary to have a full -.hear connection in order to resist an
ultimate dc~ign momenr that is somewhat less than the ful l moment capacity of the
composite r.ect ton. Also. u~ing fewer shear stutb can often provide a simpler detai l for
the layout of the '>tud connector!>. For panial !.hear connection the degree of '>hear
connection tJIS defined ac;
II
II ( 12.14)
llj

where 111 is the numher of shear connectors for full shear connection over a length of a
hcam and 11 b the number ot shear connector~ prO\•ided 10 that length.
 Composite construction

EC4 provides limits to lhe degree of shear connection TJ hy two alternative equations
accor<.ling to the distance L, for steel sections with equal flange .
2 l~a)
1. 1l1e nominal diameter d of lhe shank of the headed stu<.l i~ within the runge:
I6 mm $ d < 25 rnm and lhe overall length of the !>tltd after welding i'> ;::: 4d:

~ 2b) 1.~ < 25 TJ ;: : I-(~ 5 ) (0.75-0.034) 11 0.4 ( 12.15a)

2. The nominal diameter d of the shank or the headed ~tu<.l ic; d = 19 mm and the
overall length of the stud after welding ;::: 76 mm:

1-'t < 25 T
17 ;::: I - ( 355) (1.00 - 0.044) 1) > 0.4 ( 12. 15h)

where 4 i ~> the distance in sagging between the pomt:, or t.cro moment in mctre~>.ln both
cases, where /,~ is greater than 25 m, the factor ~houlcl be greater than I .
There urc also a number of other conditiont-. us listed in EC4 section 6.6. 1.2.
The ultimate moment resistance of lhe composite section with rm1ial shear connection
is delive<.l from lhe nnaly~is of the stress bloc!-. system)) shown in figure 12. 11. In the
annlysi~ the depth of the concrete stre~~ blod. 1· i\
4
fthe _ RQ
1
,..to 0.56~f.:kb,.u
shi:ar
where Rq i!. the ~hear resistance of the '>hear <;tud~ prm ided.
A'> pre\'iOU\Iy o,hown in ection 12.3 lhc depth of the 'ecuon·, neutral aX I\ I\ obtamed
hy con'>idering the cquihhnum of the material remtanceo, R. The moment of re~t\tance
M, i-; obtained by laking moment!'. about a con,enient aw. 'uch a' the centreline olthc

0.5671,,
Figure 12.11
Stress blocks for part1al sh

IJ I -
connect1on

h, d

j
't I, ~ b -1 p.,

(a) Neutral axis in the sLeel flange h < x < h + 11: R, > Rq > R,

b,,,

(b) Neutral axis in the steel web x > h + t, : Rc < R.,

384 Reinforced concrete design

steel section. followed by some rearrangement of the equations. The diagrams for this
analyo;is are shown in figure 12.11 for the two pos~ih1e ca~cs of:
(a) the neutral axis in the steel flange R4 > R...
(R, - Rq )~tc
RJ1a
Me = - -
2
+ Rq lrlI - Rq (ll2Rct
-llr)]
- --
4R,I
-- (12.16a)

(b) the neutral axis in the steel \\eb Rq < R,.

R ["a2 - I1 Rq (ll- lip)] dR~ (12.16b)

Me = M, -1 q - 2/?d - 4R,

Figure 12.12 ~haws the interaction diagram for the moment of resistance of the
composite ~ection against the degree of shear connection 11 where
II
'I =- {equation 12.14)
llj

The curved interaction line (a) is based on the Mress blod. equations of 12.16a and
12.16b whil:h give the more precise resu lt'>. The ~traight interaction line (b) represen ts a
lincnr relation between the moment capacity anti 11 which provide:- n simpler and safer
hut Jess economic ~o lutinn.

12.4.3 Shear connection for concentrated loads

When the beam !-.Lipp011~ concentrated load~ the \lope dM jdx of the bending moment i!>
greater and the "hear is more inten<.e. Thi" mean'> that the shear eonnecto~ have to be
'paced clo,er together between the concentrated load and the adjacent support. The
d1:-.tnbuuon of the shear connectors l'i then ~pcc1 hed hy the equation.
N,(M, M,)
N, (Ale- M, ) ( 12.17)

where
N, is the number of <;hear connector'> between the conccmrutcd load and the adjacent
support
N, "the total number of '>hear connector~ required between the support and the poinr
of maximum moment (M 01,")
M, IS the bending moment at the eonccnlrmed load
M, is the moment capacity of the steel member
M, is the moment capacity of the composi te section
Figure 12.13 shows n beam !.upporting conccntraleu loncls and the distribution of the
~hear connector'>.

Figure 12. 12 Fully composite sectoon M,

Interaction diagram for partial (a) Stress Block Method
shear connection
(b) Lonear Interaction Method

Steelloection M,

0 0.4 1.0
Degree or shear connection 11
 Composite construction

Figure 12.13
N I -1 NzLI
-L - - , ~- ' ]
---
--- -L
N, (L
2-
L)
1 Distribution of shear
1 w. W1 1
connectors with concentr;

' t loads

6a
~ B.M Oiagrdm
Mz M.,,., (all loads including thE' pomt load~ shown)

6h

lhe
12.5 Transverse reinforcement in the concrete flange
1:!) Transverse reinforcement is required to re1.iM the longitudinal sheur in the concrete
Range. Thb shear ucts on vertical planes either side of the shear connectors as shown in
:md figure 12.14.
t, a
er fransversc reinforcement
Figure 12.14
b b
Transverse reinforcement l
the concrete flanges

Potential failure
be planes
The

.- Ribs parallel to beam Ribs perpendicular to beam

Tile analy'>i\ uno de!>ign for the trallS\'Cr!>C rcinron:cment to rt.!\i\1 the longiludma)
shear in a flanged hcum follo\\s the variable strut inclination method all required 111 PC:!
nt and dellcrihcd in thi' hooJ.. in ~ections 5.1.4 anti 7.4. in COilJI.IIlt:lion with C\Hmple 7.5
part (2).
nt F...C2 ~peci lie' a mini mum of tranwerse ~teet area equal to (0.1311 1 > l 000/ I 00) mm 1
per metre Width.
The method of de~igning the tranwer~e steel for u composite beam is ~>hown in
example 12.3 part (b) Tra11sverse reinforcellll!l/1.

(EXAMPL E 1 2.3
Shear coonectors and transverse reinforcement
The compo~>itc beam of example 12.2 and ligurc 12.9 srans 9.0 m..:1rcs ant! ill provided
with 80 ~hear stutl connectors in pair~ at 225 mm ccntn:s. The stud' arc 19 mm tliumcter
and of IOOmm hc1ght.
The plal>lic -.cction of modulus of the steel ~ection is IV111 ) 1653 N/mm2 ant! the
tlestgn 'trc\~ of the \teet. J., - 355 "lmm • The characteristic material strengths are
1

/..-L 251'\/mm, for the con~rctc and frk 500 Nlmm 1 for the rem forcing bal'\.
= =
(a) Calculate the degree of shear rcsiswncc and the mom..:nt of rcsi,tance ot the
compo,ite heam based upon the l>hear conncctorll proVIded
(b) Dcllign the transverse reinforcement required to rcsi~t the tranwcrsc llhear in the
concrete tlange.
386 Reinforced concrete design

(a) Degree of shear connection and moment of resistance

The design :.hear resio;tance. PRd· of each shear 'tud i~ the le~ser value obtained from
equations 12. ll a and 12.llb wilh/0 • the ulttmate ten~lle \trcngth of the steel. equal to
450N/mm~.
Us~ng these equations it is found from equauon 12.1I a th<ll
0.8j~rrd2 j4 0.8 X 45() X ii X 192 / 4
P Rd =-~--=
,,
..,
1.- 5
x w- -
1
Sl.7k

A reduction tactor. k1• is calculated from equation 1:!. 12b with an·uppcr limit taken from
table 6.2 of EC4. from equatton 12.12b. with reference to EC4. figure 6.13 and taking
dimension h11 80 mm for the profiled ~teet sheeung

k, = ~ ho (11,.,.. _
Jiir111, flp
t) = 0.7J2 x HO ( 100
50 50
1) 0 _79

The upper limit of k, = 0.8 !"rom EC4 tuhle 6.2.

lienee the design !.hear resistance, P~ct. of a stud 0.79 x 8 1.7 64.5 kN.
For full shear w nnection the number of <;t ud~ required over half the spnn i~

R, = 3358 = 52
111
pll.d 64.5
CR, = i )-A. 3358k.i'\, i~ the resi~tance of the stee l beam as obta1ned from
example 12.2.>
Hence tor full ~hear connection the total numhcr ol .,tud . . rl.!qUtred over the whole
'pan I o.t
The degree of shear connection. 'I· i<.
80
IJ- J{)4 0.77

I he lower lim1t lor q i~ calculated from equation 12.15a :.1\

355) 355
IJ ?:;. I- . (0.75 - 0.031...: ) ( 355 ) (0.75 0.03 X 9) 0.52 < 0.77 OK
( ./)
Th~ moment. of the rc!>iSLance A·1r of the compo~i t e heum hascd on the panial ~hear
n:sistancc can he obtained using the linear interaction method of ligurc 12. 12. From the
proportion!' of the straight line rclation:-.hip
M11 tJ(Mc M,) + M,
where Me is the moment capacity of the compo~ lle M!ction with full shear connection
frum example I 2.2. M, i~ the moment capaci ty of the steel beam where
M, l¥p1 / y = 1653 x 355 w-·' - 587 ~N m
Therefore
Mr IJ(M( - M,) - M,
= 0.77 x (1105- 587 )- 587 - 986kl'\ m

(b) Transverse reinforcement in lhe concrete flange

The de~ign follow:. Lhe procedure~ and equauons \Ct out in ~ection 5. I .4 and
example 7.5(2).
 Composite construction

(i) Calculate the design longitudinal shear vg.1 at the web-flange interface
irom For a 1>agging moment the longitudinal ~hear stresses arc th~.: greatest O\er a di~tance of
hl to .l.1 measured from the point of zero moment and u.x is talo.en all half the di~tancc to the
maximum moment at mid-~pan. thus
~X = 0.5 X L/ 2
= 0.5 x 9 x 103/ 2 - 2250mm
For a one '>pan ~imply ~upported beam wtth a uniformly di!.trihuted load the change in
m moment. uM over di~tance .6.x = L/ 4 from the 7ero moment at the ~upport is
ling
I:::..M = ll'u X f. X f. _ ll'u X L X ~ = 3~1· 11 [} _3 (11\,L~)
--X --
2 4 4 8 32 4 8
Therefore
t::..M 0.75 x 9S6 = 740k.N m
The change in longitudinal force t::..Fd in th\: <:on~:re tc llangc nl section h b in
fi gure 12. 14 is
A , O.M 0.5(belC - b)
u/'d -
;: X
h.~,

where the lever arm ~ is taken as thc di,tance lrom the cclllr~: ot the 'tecl bc<tm 10 the
om centre of the concrete flange. so that
: lta / 1 II h, /~
le
457/ 2 + 140 - 90/2 = 324 mm
Therefore
74Cb 10 1 0.5(3000 - 191 )
X --'---:-::-::-::-- ..;.. 10691-..
324 3000
I hc longttudinal ' hear ~trcl!~ indu<:ed. l'f.d· i!>
OK .6.Fti
I'I;J
(/11 X ~1 )
1
bear X 10
uhe = 1069
()0 X 2250
5.3 N/mn1 2

(II) Check the strength of the concrete strut

Prom equntion 5.17. to prevent crushing ol' the concn.·tc in the eotnprc:-.sivc strut in the
llangc
0.6( l - ftd250)fck
I'UJ <
- 1.5(cot Or tan Ot)
Thc moment~ are sagging so the Oa11gc is in compression and the limit' tor 81 arc
26.5 < o, 45
With 81 = the minimum value of 26.5
0.6( I - 25; 250) x 25 _ , N/ , ., • ,
_..:........,-::-:::--'---=--::-:-- = ::> .... 1 mm- ( > 5··' /mm-)
(2.0 t 0.5)
and the concrete strut has sufficiem strength with Or = 26.5 .
388 Reinforced concrete design

(iii) Design transverse steel reinforcement

Tran~vcrse ~hear reinforcement is required if \'w > 0.27fc1~:. where f~ck is the
characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete = I 8 l'\/mm1 for class 25 concrete.
Therefore
''t-..J "''" = 0.27f<~ 0.17 x 1.8 = OA9 N/mm1 ( < 5.3 N/mm1 )
and tn.msverse shear reinforcement i\ required. The area required is given by:
A,, ''~o<~ A hr 5.3 x 90
sr 0.87/vL A cotO, 0.87 x 500 x 2.0
= 0.55
If bar:. are provided at (say) 175 mm cemres then A,1 = 0.55 x 175 % mm 2. lienee
provide 12 mm bar~ (A, 113 mm 2 for one bar).
This ~t eel area ~ati sfies the minimum requirement of 0.13% 11 7 mm 2/m.
Longitudinal reinforeement shoultl also be provided in the Range.
l~--------------------------------------~)

12.6 Deflection checks at the serviceability limit state

At the ~erviceabiluy limit \late it i~ nece~~ary to check the maxunum deflections of the
hcam for the followmg condit1on~:
(a) Dunng con~truction \\hen the concrete nangc ha\ not hardened and the 'tee I beam
~ection alone has to carry all the load' due to the permanent and vanable actions at
that time.
{b) At 'er\1ce when the concrete ha' hardened and the comrx,.,ite steel and concrete
section carrie' the additional pem1ancnt and \'ariahlc load-..

12.6.1 Deflections during construction

The dencction h at mid-span for a uniformly di~trihuted loau if>
511•/}
( L2. L8)
384£010
where
1v is the !.ervicenbiliry load per metre at construction
Lis the beam's span
E~ i\ the ela,tic modulus of the steel 210 kN/mm,
1. i~ the second moment of area of the steel section
The deflection due to the permanent ac11on or dead load 1s locked into the beam as the
concrete harden~.

12.6.2 Deflections at service during the working life of the structure

At this stage the concrete has hardened and form' a cnmpo-.ite section together .,.. ith the
-.tccl beam and the shear connectors.
 Composite construction

The composite ~ection is convened into a transformed ~ection ~o lhat the area of
concrete in compression is transformed into an equivalent ~tccl area wnh a flange width
U!> ~hown in figure 12.15. where

II
E,tcd . h _.~ I .
and 11 = -- ts t e mvuu ar ratiO
Ec dl
Figure 12.15
For building~. EC4 states that Ec.eft may be taken as E,m/ 2 \\here F.,m il> the llecant
The transformed sectton
modulus of elasticit) for concrete (see table 1.1 ). service
It i~> al~o staled in EC4 lhat for calculating dencctions at llerviec the effect~ of partial
:-.hear Ctlllnectton can be ignored provided that the degree of shear connection. 'I ~ 0.5
and other practicnl requirements are satisfied.

The transformed composite section

For two an.:a~ A, nnd ,h the position of their neutral nxi~ may he found by taking aren
moments about the centroidol ax is of A 1 su.:h that
A2.1
l ---
te A, + A~

where
' is the di~tance to the neutral axis from the ccnrro1d o1 A 1
1 I!. the di<.tance between the centroid~ of A 1 and \ 1 .

The '>ccond moment of area of the total sect ton about the neutral a·w, of A 1 und A2
combllled can he calculated from

lr /1 I' ... A, ~ 2r
__.:.__;;__
At+ 1\2

where 1, nnd '=ure the 11econd moments of areas of A 1 and A~ rc'>pecuvely nboutthe1r
cemroidnl axes.
So with reference w figure I2.7 and taking A1 u~ the steel nreu A,, for tile u·an1.formcd
-)'
composite scclion .1 (II,, f h I /tp)/2 nnd the equations for rand I become
A,,n(h, I h I hp)
( 12. 19)
2~Anll +- brrr(h 111,)}
berr(h h1.)" h el l (h - hr )(h. - h t hp ).r
fu,on~r /J I + --- ( 12.20)
1211 211
~here

A. IS the area of the \!eel ~ection and

Ia b the c;econd moment of area of the steel 'icction.
TI1e depth of the neutral ax1s. x1 from the top of the concrete nange ~~
lz lzr
ture .\, ,\ -I- -2-
u'le 1f.\ < (/z lzp) then the neutral axi~ is \\ ithin the nange and the concrete is cracked at
~emee and these cquntion.;, cannot apply.
390 Reinforced concrete design

Deflection at service due to the permanent and variable loads

The deflections are calculated for the unfactorcd acllon\. The second moment of area of
the composite section is used in the calculation<,.
For lhe unpropped case the total dcncct1on i':

\\here
t,on~rr is the deflection of the Mecl beam due to the permanent load at construction
bl"'"l''"~'t i-; the deflection of the compo.,itc beam due to the quasi-permanent load
which i~ the additional permanent load plu-. a proportton or the variable load
depending on the type of ~tructure. (See section 2.4 and table 2.4 in
chapter 1.)

( EXAMPLE 12. 4

Serviceability checks for deflection

For the compo~itt> hcam of the prcviou~ cxamph:~ dctcnninc the tlellection~. at ~ervice.
The relevant \cctional properties for the -l57 x 191 x 74 J...g/m Untver~al Beam arc:
Cr(l,,.,cctinn:'ll area A,, 94 (H:m'
'\ccond moment of area 1., - 33 300cm4
A''umc the beam i., pan of a huildtng floor ')'tcm and " unproppcd during
Cllll\lruCI!Oil.
The uniform!) di-.trihuted charactcm.w.: uc11on' arc
During com.truction - permanent load 9.R 1.. "1/m. vanahlc load 2.25 1..:-.1/m
Ounng sef\ icc - permanent load II .0 I..N/m. vanahlc load IItO J..N/m
(Quust-permancnt component)
(a) At construction
The cont.TCIC ha~ not hardened so that the :-tcel beam supporh the load or the wet
COilt'l'clC.
The tknection at mid-span of u beam with u unifmmly di:-tributc.:d loud i!-. given by
5wTJ

Figure 12.16 b••• = 3000 - 222

1.. , .. n 13.5
Transformed section exdmpl('

l
x, .. 149

h, 457

'---
457 X 191 X 74 UB
Se<:tion
 Composite construction 391

Due to the pcnnanenr load. wo and the variable load, li'Q the mid-span deflection for the
steel heam i~:

= (9.8 2.25)
384 X 21() X JJ )()()
12 -3 = 15 mm - ~p:tn/600

Thl.! 12 mm deflection due to the permanent load at thh :-.tage i~ locked into the beam a~
the concrete hardens after constntclion.
(b) At service
The composite 1.ection is transformed into an equivalent :-.lcel section ~~s shown in
figure 12. 16.
For u class C25/30 concrete the scctLnt modulus uf elast icity of the concrete.
Etm 3 1kN/mm ~ (&cc tahlc 1.1).
Take the modular ratio
Eu 210
II 13.5
0.5£,m = 0.5 ,. . 31
The po~ition of the centr<lld of the transformed section i' given hy equation 12. 19 a'
A.n(ha + h l hr)
2{A.n + /1,11 (II hrl}
94.6 10? 13.5 I( (457 + 140 +50)
I04 mm
=2x {94.6x 10~ 13.5 3000> (140-50)}
11 ::- 1 -L (II- llr)/ 2 104 ( 140- 50)/ 2 149 mm 111 90 mm
therefore the concrete is not cracked.
lhc second moment ot area of the compo:-.tte ligun! j, given h) equation 12.20 a\
i
bttdh fir ) h.u (II - hp)(lt. I II +-lip) 1
'••J"'' I. + I,~n I ,.,-11
1
1000 >. ( 140 - 50)
333 X 1011 1 +
12 X 13.5
.3000 x ( 140 50) X (457 I 140 I 50) x IO·I
2 X 13.5
- (333 1 14 6n) " 10(\ mm 4
= 1019 x 1011 mm 1

Defleclions at service
At 'ervice lh~: addittonal permanent load = 11.0 -9.8 1.2 kN/m and the qua'i
pcnnanent variable load 18 0 kN/m. thus deflection
5L~
{I= (II'G +11'()) I( 184£ala
'i 9~ 103
= (1. 2
+ 18
) X 38~ X 210 " 1019
= I 17 Xmm=~pan/ 11 25
392 Reinforced concrete design

Therefore the total final deflection including that at the construction stage is
t 12 + 8 = 20rnm = span/ 450
At all !>tagcl> the deflection i~ well within the normally acceptable limits of span/ 250.
Deflection!> are seldom a problem for eompostte heams in buildings. but for long spans
the beaml> could be pre-cambered for a proportton of the permanent load to avoid vi~ible
c;tgn\ of the beam ·~agging·.
l~------------------------------------~)
 ...............................................
;5D. Appendix
_)
Typical weights and live loads
l kg ;;;; 9.8 1 N force
1 lb;;;; 0.454 kg ;;;; 4.448 N force
I lb/ft 2 ;;;; 4.88 kg/m~= 47.9 N/m2
I lb/ft 1 =16.02 kg/m3 = 157 N/m 3

Weights
J...N/m 1
Aluminium, cost 26
Asphalt paving 23
Brick~. common 19
Brick!., prcs~cd 22
Clay, dry 19 22
Cloy. wet 21 25
Concrete. re111forccd 25
Gin.,.,. plate 27
Lead 112
OaJ... 9.5
Pme, wlute 5
Sand, dry 16-19
Sand. wet 18 21
Steel 77
Water 9.!H
kN/m '
Brick wnll, 11 5 mm thick 2.6
Gypsum plaster. 25 mrn thick 0.5
Gltwing, ))inglc 0.3

Floor and roof loads

k 1m 2
Classrooms 3.0
Dance hulls 5.0
Flat., and houses 1.5
Garages. passenger can. 2.5
Gymna.,iums 5.0
Hospttal ward~ 2.0
llotcl bedrooms 2.0
Offices for general usc 2.5
Flat roof,, with access 1.5
Flat roofs. no aeccs., 0.75
393
394 Appendix

Bar areas and perimeters

Table A.l Sectional areas of groups of bars (mm 2 )

Bar size Number of bars

(mm)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 70
6 28.3 56.6 84.9 113 142 170 198 226 255 283
8 50.3 101 151 201 252 302 352 402 453 503
10 78.5 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 113 226 339 452 566 679 792 905 1020 1130
16 201 402 603 804 1010 1210 1410 1610 1810 2010
20 314 628 943 1260 1570 1890 2200 2510 2830 3140
25 491 982 1470 1960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 49'10
32 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 4830 5630 6430 7240 8040
40 1260 2510 3770 5030 6280 7540 8800 10100 11300 12600

Table A.2 Perimeters and weighlS of bars

Bar size (mm) 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40

Penmeter (mm) 18.85 25.1 31.4 37.7 50.2 62.8 78.5 100.5 125.6
Weight (kg/m) 0.222 0.395 0.616 0.888 1.579 2.466 3.854 6.313 9.864
BM w~ights b,rst'd on density or 7850 kg/rn 1•

Table A.3 Sectional areas per metre width for various bar spacings (mm 2 )

Bar size Spacing of bars

(mm) 50 75 700 125 150 175 200 250 300
6 566 377 283 226 189 162 142 113 94
8 1010 671 503 402 335 287 252 201 168
10 1570 1050 785 628 523 449 393 314 262
12 2260 1510 1130 905 754 646 566 452 377
16 4020 2680 2010 1610 1340 1150 1010 804 670
20 6280 4190 3140 2510 2090 1800 1570 1260 1050
25 9820 6550 4910 3930 3270 2810 2450 1960 1640
32 16100 10700 8040 6430 5360 4600 4020 3220 2680
40 25100 16800 12600 10100 8380 7180 6280 5030 4190
 Appendix

Shear reinforcement

Table A.4 Asw l s ror varying stirrup diameter and spacing

Stirrup Stirrup spocmg (mm)

diameter
85 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 30t
(mm)
8 1.183 1.118 1.006 0.805 0.671 0.575 0.503 0447 0.402 0.366 0.3?
10 1.847 1.744 1.57 1.256 1 047 0.897 0.785 0.698 0.628 0.571 0.52
12 2.659 2.511 2.26 1.808 1.507 1.29 1 1.13 1.004 0.904 0.822 0.75
16 4.729 4.467 4.02 3.216 2.68 2.297 2.01 1.787 1.608 1.462 1.34
Not£'. A,., I~ based on Lhc cross-sectional <~rca ol two leg~ of Lhe stirr

Wire fabric
Table A.S Secttonal areas for different rabric types

6 Fabflc reference Longitudinal wtres Cross wires

i!
Wire size Pitch Area Wife size Pitch Area
(rnm) (mm) (mm 1/m) (mm) (mm) (mm 1/m)
Square mesh
A393 10 200 393 10 200 393
A252 8 200 252 8 200 252
A193 7 200 193 7 200 193
A142 6 200 142 6 200 142
A98 5 200 98 5 200 98
Strucwral mesh
811 31 12 100 1131 8 200 252
8785 10 100 785 8 200 252
8503 8 100 503 8 200 252
8385 7 100 385 7 200 193
8283 6 100 283 7 200 193
8 196 5 100 196 7 200 193
Long mesh
C785 10 100 785 6 400 70.8
C636 9 100 636 6 400 70.8
C503 8 100 503 5 400 49
C385 7 100 385 5 400 49
C283 6 100 283 5 400 49
Wrapping mesh
098 5 200 98 5 200 98
049 2.5 100 49 2.5 100 49
396 Appendix

Anchorage and lap requirements

Anchorage and lap length coefficients (lenglh L = KA x bar size) for good bond conditions
1
Table A.6

KA for concrete strength, fck (N/mm1)

20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Straight bars
Anchorage in tension and compression 47 40 36 32 29 27 25
Curved bars
Anchorage in tension 3 33 28 25 22 20 19 18
Anchorage in compression 47 40 36 32 29 27 25
% of bars lopped
at section
Compression and tension laps~ <25% 47 40 36 32 29 27 25
33% 54 46 42 37 33 31 29
50% 66 56 51 45 41 38 35
>50% 71 60 54 48 44 41 38
NOI£'5:
1. For poor bond cond•t•ons (~~ llgurc 5.8) dev1de the coefficient~ by 0.7.
2. lor bars greJter than 32mm d1vide the coeffiCient\ by 1!132 •1>)100 where •I• Is the banile.
3. For.., curved bM in tension the anchorage length 11 qenerally thJt or a straight bo~r 0 7 but also depends on the cover conditions-
II'C ltlble 52
4. ThP.sP ligures dpply for"' " I .. "' n 1 'I (src Ldble 52). Abo 1ee the nddltlono~l requirement' for minln,um lap lengths ~f'd
dch11ling \pPclllcd 1n section> S 2 .md 5.3

Maximum and minimum areas of reinforcement

Table A.7 Maximum areas of reinforcement

(a) For a slab or beam, tem1on or compression reinforcement

·1OOA, I Ac 4 per cent other than at laps
(b) ror a column
1OOA,. A.: _4 per cent other than at laps and 8 per cent at laps
(c) For a wall, vertical reinforcement
1OOA,/A1 c. 4 per cent
 Appendix 397

Table A.8 Minimum areas of reinforcement

Tension reinforcement in beams Concrete closs (fy. ~ 500N/ mm 1 )

and slabs C25/ 30 C30/ 35 C40/ 50 CS0/60

\~"' > 0.26 '~= ( 0 001 3) 0.0013 0.0015 0.0018 0.0021

Secondary reinforcement > 20% main reinforcement

Longitudinal reinforcement in columns

A, min .;. 0 1ONKJ / 0.87 fyk ., 0.002Ac where NKl is the axial compression force
Vertical reinforcement In walls
A,,rnln "> 0.002At

Note: t>. os the ml'an width or the tension zone.

300 32 Figure A.1

E' Maximum bar size and
250 .§, spacing for crack control
E' 25 £
.§, '2
?;
g' 200 bar spacmg ti
~
20
sE
2 150 16 M
E
E 0
::>
E
i(
100 -~
"'
E 12
2
E
so 10
::>
E
sE
6
100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Stress In reinforcement under quasi-permanent load (N/mm~)

(see secuons 6.1.3 and 6.1.7)

Span-effective depth ratios

36 L Figure A.2
~ - ---+---1--- ---i--11--t-- Graph of basic span-effective
32 1I - i- - t - - t - - ---;---+-+ depth ratios for different
4 classes of concrete
K • 1 0 for a som ply supported span

100A,,...
12 ~------~----~--~--~~~----- bd
0.40% 080% 1.2% 1 6% 2.0%
398 Appendix

Summary of basic design equations for the design of

reinforced concrete
(a) Design for bending (see chapters 4 and 7)
For a swgl) reinforced section:
M
A,= . -
0.87})~;:

;:=d{0.5+(0.25-K/ 1.134) 1 ~}
K - M /bd 2}~k
For a doubly rcinrorccd section (K > KbJI) - ~cc ligurc A.3:
1
I (K - KbJilf.:khd
A, - --
0.8~/"ydd - d')

Kh.ltf.,hd 2 I
---'-A
0.87J;.k:.hal '
When moment rcdi),tribution ha~ been applted lhl'n th~.: above equation~ must be
modified - sec 1ablc -U.

Table A.9 Limiting constant values

Concrete class CS0/60

---------------------------------
xn.)ljd
Limit1ng 0 45
<

Maximum z1111, 0.82d

Khlol limiting K 0.167
Um1tmg d'td 0.171
Maximum percentage steel area 100Ab,,1/bd 23 Afckl fyk

1.00
Figure A.3
Lever-arm curvf.' m3x1mum valuf.' of 1/d
according lo Lh~ Concise Codf.'
and previous UK prt~clicc
0.95

~
II Compression
~ 0.90 rcmtorccment
requ1red (al M1.,,)

0.85

082
0 0.05 0 .10
K= M!bd1f(,.

The percentage values on the K axis mark the limits tor singly re~nforced secttons
w1th moment red1slnbulion apphed (see section 4.7 and !able 4.2)
 Appendix 3

(b) Design for shear (see chapters 5 and 7)

VRd ma\ (21 = O.l24b"d( I /ck/ 250}f..:l

I Rd m3, f-15 - 0.18h" d ( 1 - f~t , 250)/ck

0 = 0.5~>in- '{ l'f:.d .,- } ~ 45

0.1 8b" elf,~ (1 - fekf _)Q)
A," - I'Ed
0.78c/f}l COl()
!1,,.,,111n O.OSJ;.'~ 5b"
!>k
A,w . ()
\ln1in - - X 0.7'6c/}yk COl
.I

~Ftd = 0.511~-;.,cotO

(c) Design for torsion (see chapters 5 and 7)

Area ol the section II
t=
Perimeter of the section u
for rt rectangular section h x h
bll
Ilk - 2(b " :!t)
2(hhJ
' llr..s_ < 1.0
~1M m.l\ -
1 . 33lj~kA~t
cot 0 I tan (}
.,,..,
2Al0.8~/y1.. COl(}
Tt:..tllk cot n
211 ~.,0.8~/ylk

(d) Design for punching shear in slabs (see chapter 8)

VRtl , mJx - 0.5ud [ .r..')].fck1.5

0.6 (I 250
11 1 2(a /J) ~ 47Td
0.053 J.Tc.(.l, ..l·, )
r.,.. .
I'Rd c' 0.751'Rt.f c
A," > - - -
15/;"t.l d
lr llf
400 Appendix

Proof of equation conversions used in Chapter 5 -

section 5.1.2
1
To prove that !>in 0 cos() = () :
tan -cot 8
Con1>ider a right-angled triangle with sides length a, band ft. where h b the length of
the hypotenuse and () is the angle between :.ides of length a and b, and use the
theorem of Pythagoras where ~~~ = a 2 + b~.
abab ab I
l>in ()COS() - h X II = h1 =a1 + b2 = a2 !J2 tan 8 +COl (J
tlb -r- ab

A reason for using this type of conver~ion in the equations for the analysis for shear is
that it facilitates the selling up of quadratic equations which can he more readily solved.

Typical design chart for rectangular columns

14
Figure A.4
Rectangular columns 13
(d'·h 0 20)
12 e A, e
2
1.1

• 2 • l.
A,
d'

"' b •

0 .5 l--.:::....t-O-f''<'"7'~*""'""--~
04
0.3 1----+-+.....,.,'-F-Ir-'rl-'t--~_,...,.,.--.'\:

02
0.1

M
 Appendix

Reinforced concrete beam flowchart

EC2 Section
2.3.1 Variable actions Concrete class 31

D D
Estimated seJf.we~ght Concrete cover 44 1
f
D D
2.3.1 Permanent <Ktions

D D
s PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Durabtltty and 4 3 and
ltre reststance 44

D
Trial b

Estimdte d lrom

D
6.1 M
odl t, ~ Kb••t ( - 0.167) singly reinforced
1
M
K••' ::. bd1 f,~ :::, 8/f,. doubly reinforced

62

D
7A 2 Ch~k bdsiC \f)an-effec:tive depth ratios

D
Select h
,.....,
~
DETAILED ANALYSIS 6t DESIGN
Sendtng mom~t and shear force
envelopes

D
6.1 Bending reinforcement design

D
8.4 Anchorage

D
8 and 9.2 Bending reinforcemenl details

so
D
7.4.2 Check 1pan eltective
depth ratlo

D
6.2 Shear reinforcement design

D
7.3 Calculate crack wodths (•I required)

D
74 Calculate deflections (If requtred)

D
FINISH
402 Appendix

Prestressed concrete design flowchart

EC2 Section
2.3.1 Calculate moment variation
(non-permanent actions &. finishes) M,

D ~--- { Structure usage

5.10.2 Strrss llmtts
Concrete class

Tnal sectton ~--- { Shape, depth, cover.

loss allowance etc

2.3.1 Selr-weight
permanent ~ctlon moment

Total moment

D
Draw Magnel dtagram for wltcal section

D
Select prestress force and cccentroctty

D
Determine tendon proftle
~ l,.
5. 10.4-5. 10.9 Calculdte folie\
..n..
Check final ltrP~IPS olnd ~tresses
under quaso-pcrmdnent loads

D
7.-4 Check dell('(liom

8. 10 3 Design end block ..,_ _ _ Prestress system

D
6.1, 5.10.8 Ultimate moment ol rr1istDncc
..L.J..
Unlensioncd reinforcement - Ultlmot~ moment
..(l
6.2 Shear reinforcement destgn - Ultimate shear fore~

D
8.10.3 Check end-block (unbondt'd)

FINISH
 ...............................................................
Further reading

(a) Eurocodes and British Standards

I EN 1990 Eurocnde 0 H111i~ r!f' ltrucl/1/'til tle.1tg11
2 F.r\ 1991 Eurocode I Action\ 011 stmcturt''
3 I ~ N II.J92 Eumr'llll<' 2 /)e~igll of CO/IC/'f/(' 11/'IICII//'I'S
4 I:.NI91)4 f:'u ml'oth• -1 Desi[<ll 1~/' tOIIIfHI.Ii/1• ,\'tc•c•lund collt'l'l'll' wmc·t11rr.1
5 I:.N 191.J7 ,.,-/1/'(J('(/d(' 7 Geoterl111ir·al rli•.1ign
6 EN IY'JH l~llm(·ode 8 Devig11 o{ vlnti'IIII'<'V for t•an!Jqutt~e n•,,ivtnna
7 EN:!Oo I CmlCre/i• l'pel'i{i('(ltio/1, petji)lmmtc ·c•, produnin11
and confbnllill'
H 13S H'i00-2:2002 Complementan· Hmil'lt ~twttlard to H.\ IN ::!06 /.
~i1ecijimtinn .fin c·on 111/llt'll/ material.\ am/
('(J/1( /'('((!

9 IOOHO Sted for tilt reinforn'IIWIII oj nmcn•tc

10 L\J IOilH f'n•.\trt'.HIIIJ.I 11ed1
II 13S 4+W <2005) STeel ./i1r Tltt• remfon·l'llll'llf of cmwn•t1. ll'l'ldablt
reinforcmg .1/et'l. hw. n11/ and decoilecl pmduo'
I:! 13S 44!12 Cold reducetl 11m· far the l't'il!/on·emc•w of
concrete
13 13S 'i057 ClliiCI'CII! atfmi\1111'1'1
14 'lA to F.N 19Y2 UK Nmional 1111111' 1 to l.umrodc• 2
15 13S PD 66H7:2006 lJadlvound flliJJN to tht• UA Narimwl Awtl' lt'.l to
US I:.N I tJIJ2 -I

(b) Textbooks and other publications

16 J. 13ungcy, S. Mi llard. M. Gran1ham. 'l'hl' 1'1•s1in~ of Collc'/'1'11' 111 Stl'll<'llll'fl'. 4th cdn.
l'uylo1 & Franci~. London. 200o
I7 11. Gu lvanc\Sian. J.A Cal gam. M. Holic.:~y. /k1i~nf!l'.l' Guit/1' to f:'N /WI!. Thomas
1\:lford. London 2005
18 M.K. llurst. Prt•,trt'l'.led rrml'reu· D!!'it:n. ~nd cdn. Chapman & Hall. London, I <Jl)8
19 W. II. Mo'h:). J.H Bungey, R Hulse, Rem{or('('c/ (oncrt'le Dc•.1i~n. 'ith cdn. Palgran~.
Londun. llJlJlJ
20 R.S J\ar,tyanan. A Beehy. De.11gnen Guulr 10 /:..;\ II.JCJ2-I · I and F V/99::!-1-::!. Thoma\
Telford. London, 2!Xl5
21 R.S Narayanan. C.H Goodchild. 77/(• Cmu·llt' f.umcodt ::!. The Concre1e Centre. Surrey.
2006

403
404 Further reading

22 A.M. Neville. Properties of Concrete, 4th Edn. Pearson Education Ltd. E~scx. 2000
23 Manual for the Design of Concrete Building Stmctttrer to Eurocode 2, The Institution
of Structural Engineers, London. 2006
24 Swndard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete. 3rd cdn, The lmtitution of
Structural Engineers. London, 2006
25 Early-age 111ermal Crack Comrol in Concrete, Guide C660. ClRlA. London. 2007

(c) Websites
26 Eurocode~ Expert- http://www.curocodcs.eo.uk/
27 The Concrete Centre website - htlp://www.concrctcccntrc.com
 ............. .. .. .. .................

Index

Action~ ~ingly reinforced 63. 174-!!2

characteristic I!l sizing 171 - 3. 332
combination 2:1. 30, 2!l2. :II 0 I I. 313 Bearing pressures 284, 312
design values 24-7 Bending moments
frequent 2:1, coefficients 37, 2 10, 224. 227. 230
permanent 19. 21) envelopes 37. 43
qua::.i-pcnnam:nt 23 redistribution 53-7, 171:1-!12
typical value' 393 Bending with uxiul load H3-9 1, 260-4
variable 2:1, 29 Bends m1d hoo~ 11--1- J5
Age factors S Bent-up bars I08-9, 19 1
Analy!.is of Mructurcs Biaxial bending 272-5
beams 31 7 Bond, anchorage 112
column moment .f4, 4tl Bond length~ I 12- 16
damaged 'tructurc ISS. 163 Braced column~ 253
frame~ 38-48 Bundled bar' 133
lateral load' 4.5
reta1n111g wall\ JOR 12 Cantilever beam\ 197
Analy<tis ot the 'ecuon Cantilever retaining \\311'> 309 10.
bcndmg 6<~-!1\ 31--1-lR
claMtc 93. 324 !i Characteristic act1ons, IR
flanged 72 I) Characteristic matcnal ~trcngths 12. I~.
uncnH.:I-..cd 1)6 17. 354
v.ith axial load 83-91 Circumference of bar'> 39~
Anchorage bond I 12 16 (oerticients Of hending mllmcnl\ Und
Anchorage bond leng th~ 112. 202. 396 shear~ 17, 21 0, 224, 227, 230
Areas ot bar.\ 131 2 Columns
analysi' of section R:l-9 1
Bu lanced fai lure 64, !16 axially loaded R3, 253
Bars see Reinforcement biaxial bending 272- 5
Ru ... c~> .Vl'l' Foul i ng~ braced 253
Beam' design 252- 80
analysi~ of moments and <,he:m 31 design charts 85. 260-4
anulysi~ or sections 58- 9!1 effective height 254-.5
cantilever 197 loading arrangements 44. 253
continuous 3.1- 7. 191- 7 moments 44. 253
deflection' 136-45 non-rectangular section 269-72
tk\ign 63. 16l) 20!! non-sway 253
dc::.ign cha1h M. 70 reinforcement detail:. 258-60. :!80
doubl} reinfon:ed 67. 176-8, 180--2 ~hort 255-8. 260--75
effect!\ e 'pan' 171 \lmplified design 26&-9, 270
one 1>pan 12. 176-!17 ~lender 255-8, 275-9
prestressed 119- 6!1 substitute frame 38-9. 263
reinforcement dctai Is 192-7. 202-4 un~ymmctrically reinforced 265-7

405
406 Index

Combined footings 291-4 Earth-bearing pressures 284-6, 312

Composite construction Effective depth 61. 171
dc~ign 36Y-92 Effective Oange width 182-3
serviceability limit state 373. 374, Effective height of a column 25+-5
388-92 Effective span 171
~hear connector~ 381-5 Elasuc analy~i~ of a ~ection 93. 324-8
trans,crsc reinforcement 385 Elastic modulu<.
types 369-7 J concrete 4
ultimate limit state 372-4, 376-80 ~tccl 5
Compression reinforcement 67-72. 176-7 End block' 351 ·3
Concrete Envelope~. bending moment uno ~hear
age factor 5 force 37. 43
characteristic ~trength 12 Equivalent rectangular wes~ block 61
clu~s 12, 126, 285
cover 127-9. 285 Factor~ of safety
cracking 7- 10, 147-53 glohnl 27
creep I0. 138-9. 344 partial 18. 26, 282, 283
durabili ty I I, 208 Fire re~lstance 128, 158, 229
dnstic modu lu ~ 4. Flungccl~>cc t ion .vee T-he:nm
shrinh.agc 6. 153. 344 Flat ~lab 228-35
stn.:ngth dN 12, 126, 285 Floms l'ee S l ab~
stress-strain curve 3. 59. Footing~
thermal expan~ion 9. 153-4 allowable 'oil prc~~ure1> 284
Continuous beam; combined 291 -l
analy,is 33-7 factors of <.afety 282. 28.'
cunmlmcnt of bar; 202-4 honzontal load' 1<H
tbign 191-7 pad 2.85 91
eO\ elope<, 37-43 piled 30<~ ·8
loading arrangement' 30 ran 299 1()()
moment and ~hear coefficient:. 37 'tmp 295 6
Corbel~ 198-20 I <.trip 296 9
Counterfon retaimng wall~ 309 Foundations wt• Footing<.
Cover to rctnforccmcnt I27- 9. 285 hamc'
Cracking analyst' JH-48
control 152 bruccd 38 -44
nc.xurol 147- 52 latcmlly loaded 45 8
thermal and shrinkage 153 loadi ng arra n geme n t~ 3~. 39. 45
Creep 10. 138. 344 non-sway 38
Creep cocfricients 139 unhraccd 45
Critical section I06. 212, 28~. 305
Curtailment of bar' 202-4 Gravity retaining walls .108- 10
Curvtllun:s 137, 140
Hooh. ~ und bends J 15
Deflec tion~ 136-45. 347-50
De<.ign charts Lap length~ I 16 - 18. 396
beams 64. 70 Laps 116- 1H
columns 260-4 L-bcamc; I!!2 ~
Diagonal tension 100 Lever arm 63
Di,tnbuuon steel 217. 237 Lever-arm cun c 64. 175. 398
Doubly rcinfon.:ed beam~ 67. 176- 8, Limit ~wtc dcstgn 15-27
180-2 Limit t:lh!)
Dowcb 287 ser. iceabilit) 16
Ductility 13, 165 ulumate 16
Durability II. 156, 208 Lmks 103, 188- 9, 259-60, 362-8
 Index 4

Loads ser Actions Redistribution of moment~ 53 7. 79.

Loading arrangements 30. 253 179-82
Long-term deflection 136-lO. 349 Reinforcement
Los' of prestress 342-7 area<, 131, 132, 39+-5
bond lengths 112- 16. 396
Magncl diagram 337-9 charactcri~tic strength~ 13
Mmcrwl propcn1cs 1- 13. 17 circumference 39-1
Maximum bar sues 132 lap length~ 116. 396
Ma,.imum har ~pacing 130, 217. 259 maximum and minimum areac; 131,
Maximum steel areas 132. 217. 25g._{)(). 13::!. 217. 258-60, 280. 396-7
396 properties 5, 13
Minimum bar spacing 130. 217. 258-60 side face 132
Minimum C.:O\t:r 125. 127 9, 285 spacing 130, 217. 259. 280. 397
Mini mum member di m~:n~ions 128 surface 132
Minimum steel urea~ 131.217.258-60. torsion I 18- 23, 205- 7
397 untensioned. 357- 9
Modultll' ratio R. 94- R. 139. 343 Retaining wall\
Modulus ol' elasticity see Elastic modulus anulysis and design 308- 18
Moment cocffkicnts 37. 2l0, 224, 227. cantilevc1 309 10. 3 14- 1 ~
230 counterrnrt 309
Moment envelopes 37, 43 gravity .\OK I()
Moment redi~tribution 53- 7. 79, 178-82
Momenh in column~ 253- 79 Seismic Ioree\
de~lgn and uctmling tor 163- 8
Neutral -axi~ depth 61-4, 81 Sen u.:c;~bility limit state
1\ommal rcmforccrncnt I06. 131. 188. cracking 1-17 53, 329 10
W7 deflection~ I ~6 -45. 3-17 50
I\ on rectangular 'cct10n 269 72. durah1lit> II, 156, 208
factor' ot ~atct> 26 7
Ovcrturnmg 21. 310-11 tire re\istance 128. I '\8. 229
Shear
Pad fooung' 2R5- 91 beam~ 100. 187 91
Parahola, properlles ot 92 additional longitudinal fore~: 110. 196.
Partial safety factors 1!!. 19, 59, 282, 283 363
Permissible bearing pn:~surcs 284 concrete Mres,cs 21 I
Permissible :.trcs~>cs 97. 330 tlangcd section' II 0. I K4 5, 185
Piled fou ndations 300-8 footing!. 287 90
PrcMrc~>scd concrete prestrcs,cd beam!. 159 6H
o nal y~ i s and de'>ign 319- 68 punching 211 - 16, 2R7- 90. 306
cnhle zone 340-2 reinforcement 104, 189- 91.213 16.
deflections 347-50 J62 8, .195
end block 35 J 3 :.lab~ 210- 16
lo~se., 342 7 torsion 122. 204 7
magnel diugr<lm 337- 9 variable \lrut inclination
post-tcnsinning .124 method 101- 11
pretensionmg 322-3 Shear wall \tnu.:turcs
'hear 359 68 rc~i"ing horuontal load!> 48- 52
tran\fer stres<, 330-1 with opening<, 52
ult1mate strength 353-9 \\ ith c;tructural frame' 52
Punch1ng shear 211-16. 287- 90, 306 Short columns 2'\4- 8. 26(} 75
Shrinkage 6, 138. 153, 1-14- 'i
Raft roundations 299-300 Slab~
Rectangular :.tress hlock 62 continuous. spanmng one
Rectangular· paraholic \tre<,s block 61. 91 direction 22 I .1
408 Index

Slab~ (cont.) T-beams

nat 228-35 analysis 72-9
hollow block 23~ I dc~ign 182-6
one ~pan, ~panning one Oangc reinforcement I I0. I83-5
direction 2 I8-21 nangc width 182-183
ribbed 236-H span-effective dcptb rauo 133-5
spanning two directions 223-8 Tendon~ 321-4
l>tair 241-4 Thermal cracking 153
~trip method 245. 250-1 Thermal movement 6. 9
yield lines 245-50 Tic force~ 159-63
Slender columns 255-8. 275-9 Tor~ ion
Spacing of remforcemem 130. 2 17. 259. analy'il. 118-23
397 complex :.hapc~ 121
Span-<:ffcc:tivc depth ratios 133. 145. design 204 7
216-17. 397 with bending and shear 122. 204-7
Stability 158-63. 310-J I Transfer wcs~e~> .B0- 1
S t air~ 24 1-4 Trunsmission length 323
Steel l'riunguiUI sires!> block 93
characteristic \tresses 13
strcss-~train curve 5. 60. 354
yield \trains 6, 60 Ultimate limit '-lute
Stirrups see Lin~s factors of safety 19, 282
Strap footings 295· 6 loading arrangements 21 -5. 310 II.
Stres~ hlock~ 6 I. 9 I. 93 313
Stres,cs pn!,trc,,cd concrete 353-(,8
anchorage 112. 35 I-3 'tahility 310 II
bond I 13 Uncr3cked section 96. 137. 360-1
concrete. charucterhlic: 1::! Untcns10ned 'teet 111 pre,trc,M:d
pc:rmb,iblc 97. 330 concrete 357 9
~hear 211
\lt:cl. characteristic 13 Wall\ 279 -80
Stres-.-strain curve~ 3. 5. 59. 60, 354
Weighh or matenal\ 393
Strip footings 2%-9
Wind loading :25. 30, 45
Strip method 245. 250- 1
Substitute frame
braced 39 Yield line' 245 -50
column 44 Yield Mrains 6, 60
continuou~ beam 38-43 Young\ modu lus we Ela,tic modulus
ISISN : 9780230500716 - __
TI'TLE : REINFORCED CONCRETE
tCAT : T7S - CONCRETE