Kernel:

Definition: Let F: G → 𝐺 ′ bejajhomomorphism then kernel of a ‘F’ is define as,

kerF = {x : x ∈ 𝐺 ∧ 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑒′}

(where e’ is identity element of G’) is called kernel.

Theorem:

If F: G → 𝐺 ′ be homomorphism jthen

(1) Kerf is ajnormaljsubgroup of G.

(2) Kerf = {e} iff is one-one.

(i).

Proof.

First we show that Kerf is a subgroup.

Letja,b ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓

jf(a) = e’ =jf(b)jF(ab-1) = jf(a) f(b-1) j by def.

 F(ab-1) = f(a)[ f(b)]-1

 = e’(e’)’

 = e’

 ab-1 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓

 Kerf is a subgroup.
Now,

To show that kerf is a normal subgroup.

Let a ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓 & g∈ 𝐺.

We prove that

gag-1 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓

 jF(gag-1) =jf(g) f(a) f(g-1) j

 = jf(g) e’ f(g-1) j

 = jf(g) f(g-1) j

 =jf(g) j [f(g)]-1

 = e’

 gag-1 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓

So

Kerf ⊳ 𝐺.

Hence proof.

(ii).

Proof. Let kerf = {e}

We prove that

F jis one- one

 Let x, y ∈ 𝐺

F(x) j=jf(y)

 jF(x)[f(y)]-1 j= e’

Since

F is a homomorphism

 F[xy-1] = e’

 xy-1 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓 = {𝑒 ′ }

 xy-1 = e’

 jx = yj

 Jv F is ajone-one.

Conversely,

Let f is one-one.

We show that

Kerf = {e}

Let x ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓

Then

jF(x) = e’ …

(2.5)

Similarly
 F(e) = e’ … (2.6)

From (2.5) & (2.6)

F(x) = F(e)

 x=e

Which is Contradiction

 Kerf = {e}

Fundamentaljtheoremjof groupjofjhomomorphism.

Statement:

Let jF: Gj → 𝐺 ′ be an onto homomorphismjand k = kerf in thejKernel ofjF then

G/K ≅ 𝐺 ′

Also called isomorphism.

Proof.

Let F: jG/Kj → 𝐺 ′

 jF(gk) = F(g)

(i) We prove ‘F’ is well defined’

𝐺
Let g1k, g2k ∈ 𝐾

Such that

g1k = g2k
 g2-1 g1k = g2-1g2k

g2-1g1k = k

 G2-1g1 ∈ 𝑘

 F(g2-1g1) = e’

 jF(g2-1) F(g1) j = e’

 F(g1) = F(g2)

 F is well defined.

(ii).

F is one one.

𝐺
Let g1k, g2k ∈ 𝐾

 F(g1k) = F(g2k)

 F(g1) = F(g2)

F(g2-1) F(g1) = F(g2-1)