ABSTRACT

Short circuit condition is a condition in which the input terminals of a power supply get in
electrical contact with each other causing huge current flow. This leads to very large heat
generation which can damage the system and also pose a threat to people nearby it. Thus
short circuit condition is necessary to be detected and be attended immediately. Short Circuit
Indicator Project does the task of detecting the short circuit in a circuit in which it is
connected automatically. With the help of regulator and a pair of transistor we lit up an
indicator LED that glows only when there is short circuit event occurring. In this way one can
easily understand the short circuit condition and take appropriate measure of cutting off the
power supply and removing the short circuit. We have demonstrated the short circuit in our
circuit board using a wire piece which has very low, close to zero value of resistance thus
creating a short circuit at the source connector.

1
 INTRODUCTION

A short circuit is an abnormal connection between two nodes of an electric circuit

intended to be at different voltages. This results in an electric current limited only by
the Thévenin equivalent resistance of the rest of the network which can cause circuit
damage, overheating, fire or explosion. Although usually the result of a fault, there are cases
where short circuits are caused intentionally, for example, for the purpose of voltage-
sensing crowbar circuit protectors.

In circuit analysis, a short circuit is defined as a connection between two nodes that
forces them to be at the same voltage. In an 'ideal' short circuit, this means there is no
resistance and thus no voltage drop across the connection. In real circuits, the result is a
connection with almost no resistance. In such a case, the current is limited only by the
resistance of the rest of the circuit.A common type of short circuit occurs when the positive
and negative terminals of a battery are connected with a low-resistance conductor, like a wire.
With a low resistance in the connection, a high current will flow, causing the delivery of a
large amount of energy in a short period of time.

A high current flowing through a battery can cause a rapid increase of temperature,
potentially resulting in an explosion with the release of hydrogen gas
and electrolyte (an acid or a base), which can burn tissue and cause blindness or even death.
Overloaded wires will also overheat causing damage to the wire's insulation, or starting a fire.
High current conditions may also occur with electric motor loads under stalled conditions,
such as when the impeller of an electrically driven pump is jammed by debris; this is not a
short, though it may have some similar effects. In electrical devices unintentional short
circuits are usually caused when a wire's insulation breaks down, or when another conducting
material is introduced, allowing charge to flow along a different path than the one intended.

In mains circuits, short circuits may occur between two phases, between a phase
and neutral or between a phase and earth (ground). Such short circuits are likely to result in a
very high current and therefore quickly trigger an overcurrent protection device. However, it
is possible for short circuits to arise between neutral and earth conductors, and between two
conductors of the same phase. Such short circuits can be dangerous, particularly as they may
not immediately result in a large current and are therefore less likely to be detected. Possible
effects include unexpected energisation of a circuit presumed to be isolated. To help reduce
the negative effects of short circuits, power distribution transformers are deliberately

2
designed to have a certain amount of leakage reactance. The leakage reactance (usually about
5 to 10% of the full load impedance) helps limit both the magnitude and rate of rise of the
fault current.

A short circuit may lead to formation of an electric arc. The arc, a channel of hot
ionized plasma, is highly conductive and can persist even after significant amounts of original
material from the conductors has evaporated. Surface erosion is a typical sign of electric arc
damage. Even short arcs can remove significant amounts of material from the electrodes. The
temperature of the resulting electrical arc is very high (tens of thousands of degrees
Fahrenheit), causing the metal on the contact surfaces to melt, pool and migrate with the
current, as well as to escape into the air as fine particulate matter.[

A short circuit fault current can, within milliseconds, be thousands of times larger
than the normal operating current of the system. Damage from short circuits can be reduced
or prevented by employing fuses, circuit breakers, or other overload protection, which
disconnect the power in reaction to excessive current. Overload protection must be chosen
according to the current rating of the circuit. Circuits for large home appliances require
protective devices set or rated for higher currents than lighting circuits. Wire gauges specified
in building and electrical codes are chosen to ensure safe operation in conjunction with the
overload protection. An overcurrent protection device must be rated to safely interrupt the
maximum prospective short-circuit current.

In an improper installation, the overcurrent from a short circuit may cause ohmic
heating of the circuit parts with poor conductivity (faulty joints in wiring, faulty contacts in
power sockets, or even the site of the short circuit itself). Such overheating is a common
cause of fires. An electric arc, if it forms during the short circuit, produces high amount of
heat and can cause ignition of combustible substances as well.In industrial and utility
distribution systems, dynamic forces generated by high short-circuit currents cause
conductors to spread apart. Busbars, cables, and apparatus can be damaged by the forces
generated in a short circuit

3
BLOCKDIAGRAM

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Short circuit condition is a condition in which the input terminals of a power supply
get in electrical contact with each other causing huge current flow. This leads to very large
heat generation which can damage the system and also pose a threat to people nearby it. Thus
short circuit condition is necessary to be detected and be attended immediately. Short Circuit
Indicator Project does the task of detecting the short circuit in a circuit in which it is
connected automatically. With the help of regulator and a pair of transistor we lit up an
indicator LED that glows only when there is short circuit event occurring. In this way one can
easily understand the short circuit condition and take appropriate measure of cutting off the
power supply and removing the short circuit. We have demonstrated the short circuit in our
circuit board using a wire piece which has very low, close to zero value of resistance thus
creating a short circuit at the source connector

4
LOSS OF LIVES IN ANDHRA PRADESH DUE TO FIRES

Year No.of fire No.of lives lost

accidents

1996 12741 79

1997 13569 184

1998 12459 58

1999 14456 81

2000 16987 123

2001 12584 58

2002 12999 78

2003 18456 156

2004 16271 249

2005 15631 183

2006 17452 129

2007 18975 149

Short circuit arcing was made intentionally in this study. Although insulating
materials have been increased their quality, fires are still caused by these failures. It is
necessary to doubt about their safety and to make a study on the mechanism of the beginning
of short circuit arcing in order to prevent these fires.

A short circuit (sometimes abbreviated to short or s/c) in an electrical circuit is one

that allows a current to travel along a different path from the one originally intended. The
electrical opposite of a short circuit is an "open circuit", which is an infinite resistance
between two nodes. It is common to misuse "short circuit" to describe any electrical
malfunction, regardless of the actual problem.

5
SHORT CIRCUIT INDICATOR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The connect the circuit to the output of the Power supply observing polarity.Output
of the circuit is used to power the circuit board under test.

Here is a valuable Add on circuit to save electronic components in the assembled

board from damage. It gives warning beep if there is a short circuit in the assembled board.
Thus it helps to switch off the power supply immediately to save valuable components. If the
circuit board is OK, Green LED lights indicating that power supply is normal. If there is a
short in the PCB tracks or pins of components, Green LED turns off and Buzzer sounds
indicatingtheshortcircuit

The circuit uses two NPN transistors BC 547 to sense the short circuit. If the
assembled board is normal, current flows from the power supply through polarity protecting
diode D1. The Assembled board gets power and Green LED lights. At the same time T2
forward bias and its collector goes to ground potential. This makes T1 off due the absence of
base bias. Buzzer and Red LED connected to the collector of T1 remains off. If there is a
short circuit in the board under test, D2 reverse biases and T2 turns off. Now the base of T1
becomes high and it conducts. This turns on Buzzer and Red LED to indicate short circuit.

6
COMPONENT REQUIREMENTS

1.Trasformer

2.Rectifier

3.Fliter

4.Regulator

5.buzzer and led

SHORT CIRCUIT

A short circuit is a fault. It means there is a very low resistance conducting path from one
side of a component to the other. For example a wire might have come loose which connects
two sides of a circuit together. Or perhaps there's some moisture on the surface of a
component that means current can bypass it.The wire or the moisture 'shorts' the circuit
because the length of the conducting path back to the battery has decreased.

Simple activity showing the effect of shorting out a bulb.

A short makes the circuit behave as if the component wasn't there. The component
stops working (it isn't there, after all) and the current everywhere in that circuit will increase,
which can damage other components or, in extreme cases, cause a fire.So how can we explain
shorts? A very misleading way of explaining them is to say that current takes the easiest
path.

7
SHORTING OUT A SINGLE COMPONENT

When you connect a wire across the terminals of a bulb you're effectively creating a
little parallel circuit. The thing with parallel circuits is that the effective resistance is less
than the smallest resistance. In this case the smallest resistance is just the wire, and this has a
very low resistance indeed.

Simulation A full explanation of what happens when a bulb is shorted out.Now you've
reduced the resistance of the series circuit and so the current everywhere increases. The
current through the unshorted bulb increases and so it gets brighter. But brightness isn't just a
function of current.

You have a low resistance (the shorted bulb) in series with a higher resistance (the
unshorted bulb) and this changes the way the voltage is shared around the circuit. The bigger
resistance takes a bigger share of the total voltage. So the second bulb is bright for these two
reasons, bigger current through it AND bigger voltage across it. Remember that voltage and
current are connected. The current through the second bulb can only increase because the
voltage across it is bigger.

In the same way the shorted bulb has a very low voltage across it so the current
through it is very small and that's why it's out. The wire doing the shorting has the same
voltage across it as the bulb but it also has a very low resistance so the current through the
wire is big. The current through the wire and the current through the bulb add up to the
current through the unshorted bulb.

8
SHORTING OUT A WHOLE CIRCUIT

This is exactly the same as saying that the power supply is shorted out. In this case the
explanation of why the bulb goes out is slightly differentAnimation showing different ways
of shorting out a whole circuit by connecting one terminal of a battery directly to the other.

Again we've introduced a parallel circuit and the parallel circuit has an effective
resistance of a little bit less than the wire. This means that there isn't really any resistance
anywhere in the circuit and so the current supplied by the battery becomes very big. So the
battery has to work very hard.

When you work very hard you sweat a lot and this is similar to what the battery does.
The chemical reactions in the battery take place very rapidly and lots of the energy released
gets turned straight into heat rather than being given to the charges in the circuit. This means
the voltage is a lot less than it should be. The voltage across the components is very low and
so none of them work. This type of short can cause a battery to get very hot. It may even
explode!

SHORT CIRCUIT HAPPEN

When the cables of the electrical appliances are worn out or it's not connected
properly a short circuit may occur. A short circuit has a very low resistance that almost all
electric current flow through it. It'll affect the operation of the electrical appliances. Owing to
the heating effect the excess electric current would produce a large amount of heat without a
fuse or a circuit breaker a fire may be occured when there's a short circuit.

9
 A short circuit is an abnormal low-resistance connection between two nodes of an electrical
circuit that are meant to be at different voltages. This results in an excessive electric current
(overcurrent) limited only by the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the rest of the network and
potentially causes circuit damage, overheating, fire or explosion. Although usually the result of a
fault, there are cases where short circuits are caused intentionally, for example, for the purpose of
voltage-sensing crowbar circuit protectors.

In circuit analysis, the term short circuit is used by analogy to designate a zero-impedance
connection between two nodes. This forces the two nodes to be at the same voltage. In an ideal short
circuit, this means there is no resistance and no voltage drop across the short. In simple circuit
analysis, wires are considered to be shorts. In real circuits, the result is a connection of nearly zero
impedance, and almost no resistance. In such a case, the current drawn is limited by the rest of the
circuit.

Examples

An easy way to create a short circuit is to connect the positive and negative terminals of a
battery together with a low-resistance conductor, like a wire. With low resistance in the connection, a
high current exists, causing the cell to deliver a large amount of energy in a short time.A large current
through a battery can cause the rapid buildup of heat, potentially resulting in an explosion or the
release of hydrogen gas and electrolyte, which can burn tissue and may be either an acid or a base.
Overloaded wires can also overheat, sometimes causing damage to the wire's insulation, or a fire.
High current conditions may also occur with electric motor loads under stalled conditions, such as
when the impeller of an electrically driven pump is jammed by debris; this is not short, though it may
have some similar effects.In electrical devices, unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a
wire's insulation breaks down, or when another conducting material is introduced, allowing charge to
flow along a different path than the one intended.

In mains circuits, short circuits may occur between two phases, between a phase and neutral
or between a phase and earth (ground). Such short circuits are likely to result in a very high current
and therefore quickly trigger an overcurrent protection device. However,

10
 it is possible for short circuits to arise between neutral and earth conductors, and between two
conductors of the same phase. Such short circuits can be dangerous, particularly as they may not
immediately result in a large current and are therefore less likely to be detected. Possible effects
include unexpected energisation of a circuit presumed to be isolated. To help reduce the negative
effects of short circuits, power distributiot transformers are deliberately designed to have a certain
amount of leakage reactance. The leakage reactance (usually about 5 to 10% of the full load
impedance) helps limit both the magnitude and rate of rise of the fault current.

A short circuit may lead to formation of an arc. The arc, a channel of hot ionized plasma, is
highly conductive and can persist even after significant amount of original material of the conductors
was evaporated. Surface erosion is a typical sign of electric arc damage. Even short arcs can remove
significant amount of materials from the electrodes.A short circuit is an accidental path of low
resistance which passes an abnormally high amount of current. A short circuit exists whenever the
resistance of a circuit or the resistance of a part of a circuit drops in value to almost zero ohms. A
short often occurs as a result of improper wiring or broken insulation

REASONS FOR SHORT CIRCUIT OCCURS

A short circuit is simply a low resistance connection between the two conductors supplying
electrical power to any circuit. This results in excessive current flow in the power source through the
'short,' and may even cause the power source to be destroyed. If a fuse is in the supply circuit, it will
do its job andblowout,openingthecircuitandstoppingthecurrentflow. A short circuit may be in a direct-
or alternating-current (DC or AC) circuit. If it is a battery that is shorted, the battery will bedischarged
very quickly and will heat up due to the high current flow. Short circuits can produce very high
temperatures due to the high power dissipation in the circuit. If a charged, high-voltage capacitor is
short circuited by a thin wire, the resulting huge current and power dissipation will cause the wire to
actually explode. Arc welding is a common example of the practical application of the heating due to
a short circuit. The power supply for an arc welder can supply very high currents that flow through the
welding rod and the metal pieces being welded. The point of contact between the rod and the metal
surfaces gets heated to the melting point, fusing a part of the rod and both surfaces into a single piece.

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LOCATE SHORT CIRCUIT

Along a wire, there should be a place where some insulation is burnt where short occur. Some
times you might also want to locate a place where there is a lapse of electrical connection, or where
there is a break along the wire. To locate wires that are broken you can measure the resistance with a
multimeter. First shut off all power

to item and wires that you are going to test. Set to measure resistance at the highest setting. Place one
lead at the beginning or end of the wire and then place the other lead the other end of the wire. With
the measurement of infinite resistance or very high resistance, that means that there is a break in that
wire. With zero or very little resistance, that means the wire is good. Safety is a large concern. The
following images show some steps of the setup. There are areas available for double-checking setup
before taking actual measurements. The motor contactor below is used to cause the transformer to
short circuit to show a fault.

12
Below (Fig 2) is the short circuit part of the test circuit. On the left side is a current transformer that
was used to measure the current through the shorting circuit. The fuse box on the right has fuses
which we blew to stop the short circuit. The small black wires coming off of the side of the contactor
are connected to a switch. When the switch is flipped, the short circuit is then working. After a few
cycles (or 1/10 of a second), the fuses blow and the short circuit is no longer conducting current. This
prevents damage to the transformer. The other small black wires connect to the relay and as soon as
the short circuit turns on, the relay starts collecting data.

Figure 2

A diagram of the shorting circuit is below.

13
Figure shows Normal and short circuit conditions.

A short is caused by improper wiring. Note the effect on current flow. Since the resistor has
in effect been replaced with a piece of wire, practically all the current flows through the short
and very little current flows through the resistor. Electrons flow through the short (a path of
almost zero resistance) and the remainder of the circuit by passing through the 10-ohm
resistor and the battery. The amount of current flow increases greatly because its resistive
path has decreased from 10,010 ohms to 10 ohms. Due to the excessive current flow. the 10-
ohm resistor becomes heated. As it attempts to dissipate this heat, the resistor will probably
be destroyed.

EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUIT

Short circuit currents play a vital role in Influencing the design and operation of equipment
and powersystem and could not be avoided despite careful planning andDesign, good
maintenance and thorough operation of the system.This paper discusses the short circuit
analysis conducted in KSOBriefly comprising of its significances, methods and results. A
result sample of the analysis based on a single transformer isdetailed in this paper.

14
Furthermore, the results of the analysis andits significances were also discussed and
commented.

Home electrical circuits may have a number of problems:

Too many lamps or appliances on one circuit;

 Faulty wiring within the house;

 Defective wall switches or receptacles;
 Defective cords or plugs;
 Defective circuits within appliances.
 Short circuits happen when a hot wire touches a neutral or ground wire; the extra
current flowing through the circuit causes the breaker to trip or fuse to blow.

Although it's often easy to tell when you have a short or overloaded circuit—the lights go
dead when you plug in the toaster oven—it isn't always as simple to tell where in the system
this has occurred.Start by turning off all wall switches and unplugging all lights and
appliances. Then reset the circuit breaker. Pull the lever to off and then to on again to reset a
circuit breaker with a lever switch. If a fuse is blown, it must be replaced. Unscrew the fuse
to replace it with one with exactly the same amperage rating (both circuit breakers and fuses
should be sized according to the wire used in the circuit they protect).- If the breaker trips
immediately: the problem may be a short circuit in a receptacle or switch.
If the breaker does not trip again, turn on each switch one at a time and check if and
whenthebreakertripsagain.- If turning on a switch causes the breaker to trip, there's a short
circuit in a fixture or receptacle controlled by the switch.

15
If turning on the switch makes no difference, the problem is in one of the appliances
connected to the switch.If the circuit went dead when you plugged in the appliance, the
problem is probably in the cord or plug. If the circuit went dead when you turned on the
appliance, the appliance itself is defective.

Table 2

Causes and effects of short circuit :

Causes Effects

1. Over temperatures due to excessively 1. Power supply interruptions.

high over current.
2. System components damage or
2. Disruptive changes causes by over
destruction.
voltage.

3. Arcing caused by moisture together with 3. Development of unacceptable

impure air especially on insulators. mechanical & thermal stresses in
electrical operational equipments.

PREVENT SHORT CIRCUITS

whenever you are working with electricity, the proper use of safety
precautions is of the utmost importance to remember. in the front of all electronic
technical manuals, you will always find a section on safety precautions. also posted
on each piece of equipment should be a sign listing the specific precautions for that
equipment. one area that is sometimes overlooked, and is a hazard especially on board
ship, is the method in which equipment is grounded. by grounding the return side of
the power transformer to the metal chassis, the load being supplied by the power
supply can be wired directly to the metal chassis. thereby the necessity of wiring
directly to the return side of the transformer is eliminated.

16
 This method saves wire and reduces the cost of building the equipment, and
while it solves one of the problems of the manufacturer, it creates a problem for you,
the technician. unless the chassis is physically grounded to the ship's ground (the
hull), the chassis can be charged (or can float) several hundred volts above ship's
ground. if you come in contact with the metal chassis at the same time you are in
contact with the ship's hull, the current from the chassis can use your body as a low
resistance path back to the ship's ac generators. at best this can be an unpleasant
experience; at worst it can be fatal. for this reason navy electronic equipment is
always grounded to the ship's hull, and approved rubber mats are required in all
spaces where electronic equipment is present. therefore, before starting to work on
any electronic or electrical equipment, always ensure that the equipment and any test
equipment you are using is properly grounded and that the rubber mat you are
standing on is in good condition. as long as you follow these simple rules, you should
be able to avoid the possibility of becoming an electrical conductor.

TESTING :

There are two widely used checks in testing electronic equipment, VISUAL and
SIGNAL TRACING. The importance of the visual check should not be underestimated
because many technicians find defects right away simply by looking for them. A visual check
does not take long. In fact, you should be able to see the problem readily if it is the type of
problem that can be seen. You should learn the following procedure. You could find yourself
using it quite often. This procedure is not only for power supplies but also for any type of
electronic equipment you may be troubleshooting. (Because diode and transistor testing was
covered in chapter 1 and 2 of this module, it will not be discussed at this time. If you have
problems in this area, refer to chapter 1 for diodes or chapter 2 for transistors.)

BEFORE YOU ENERGIZE THE EQUIPMENT, LOOK FOR: SHORTS - Any

terminal or connection that is close to the chassis or to any other terminal should be examined
for the possibility of a short. A short in any part of the power supply can cause considerable
damage. Look for and remove any stray drops of solder, bits of wire, nuts, or screws. It
sometimes helps to shake the chassis and listen for any tell-tale rattles. Remember to correct
any problem that may cause a short circuit; if it is not causing trouble now, it may cause
problems in the future.

17
 DISCOLORED OR LEAKING TRANSFORMER - This is a sure sign that there is a
short somewhere. Locate it. If the equipment has a fuse, find out why the fuse did not blow;
too large a size may have been installed, or there may be a short across the fuse holder.

LOOSE, BROKEN, OR CORRODED CONNECTION - Any connection that is not

in good condition is a trouble spot. If it is not causing trouble now, it will probably cause
problems in the future. Fix it.

DAMAGED RESISTORS OR CAPACITORS - A resistor that is discolored or

charred has been subjected to an overload. An electrolytic capacitor will show a whitish
deposit at the seal around the terminals. Check for a short whenever you notice a damaged
resistor or a damaged capacitor. If there is no short, the trouble may be that the power supply
has been overloaded in some way. Make a note to replace the part after signal tracing. There
is no sense in risking a new part until the trouble has been located.

ENERGIZE THE EQUIPMENT AND LOOK FOR:

SMOKING PARTS - If any part smokes or if you hear any boiling or sputtering
sounds, remove the power immediately. There is a short circuit somewhere that you have
missed in your first inspection. Use any ohmmeter to check the part once again. Start in the
neighborhood of the smoking part. SPARKING - Tap or shake the chassis. If you see or hear
sparking, you have located a loose connection or a short. Check and repair.

If you locate and repair any of the defects listed under the visual check, make a note
of what you find and what you do to correct it. It is quite probable you have found the
trouble. However, a good technician takes nothing for granted. You must prove to yourself
that the equipment is operating properly and that no other troubles exist.If you find none of
the defects listed under the visual check, go ahead with the signal tracing procedure. The
trouble is probably of such a nature that it cannot be seen directly-it may only be seen using
an oscilloscope.Tracing the ac signal through the equipment is the most rapid and accurate
method of locating a trouble that cannot be found by a visual check, and it also serves as
check on any repairs you may have made. The idea is to trace the ac voltage from the
transformer, to see it change to pulsating dc at the rectifier output, and then see the pulsations

18
smoothed out by the filter. The point where the signal stops or becomes distorted is the place
look for the trouble. If you have no dc output voltage, you should look for an open or a short
in your signal tracing. If you have a low dc voltage, you should look for a defective part and
keep your eyes open for the place where the signal becomes distorted.

Signal tracing is one method used to localize trouble in a circuit. This is done by observing
the waveform at the input and output of each part of a circuit.Let's review what each part of a
good power supply does to a signal, as shown in figure 4-51. The ac voltage is brought in
from the power line by means of the line cord. This voltage is connected to the primary of the
transformer through the ON-OFF switch (S1). At the secondary winding of the transformer
(points 1 and 2), the scope shows you a picture of the stepped-up voltage developed across
each half of the secondary winding-the picture is that of a complete sine wave. Each of the
two stepped-up voltages is connected between ground and one of the two anodes of the
rectifier diodes. At the two rectifier anodes (points 4 and 5), there is still no change in the
shape of the stepped-up voltage-the scope picture still shows a complete sine wave.

Complete power supply (without regulator)

However, when you look at the scope pattern for point 6 (the voltage at the rectifier
cathodes), you see the waveshape for pulsating direct current. This pulsating dc is fed through
the first choke (L1) and filter capacitor (C1) which remove a large part of the ripple, or

19
"hum," as shown by the waveform for point 7. Finally the dc voltage is fed through the
second choke (L2) and filter capacitor (C2), which remove nearly all of the remaining ripple.
(See the waveform for point 8, which shows almost no visible ripple.) You now have almost
pure dc.No matter what power supplies you use in the future, they all do the same thing - they
change ac voltage into dc voltage.Component ProblemsThe following paragraphs will give
you an indication of troubles that occur with many different electronic circuit components.

TRANSFORMER AND CHOKE TROUBLES. - As you should know by now, the

transformer and the choke are quite similar in construction. Likewise, the basic troubles that
they may develop are comparable.

 A winding can open.

 Two or more turns of one winding can short together.
 A winding can short to the casing, which is usually grounded.
 Two windings(primary and secondary) can short together.
 This trouble is possible, of course, only in transformers.

When you have decided which of these four possible troubles could be causing the
symptoms, you have definite steps to take. If you surmise that there is an open winding, or
windings shorted together or to ground, an ohmmeter continuity check will locate the trouble.
If the turns of a winding are shorted together, you may not be able to detect a difference in
winding resistance. Therefore, you need to connect a good transformer in the place of the old
one and see if the symptoms are eliminated. Keep in mind that transformers are difficult to
replace. Make absolutely sure that the trouble is not elsewhere in the circuit before you

20
change the transformer. Occasionally, the shorts will only appear when the operating voltages
are applied to the transformer. In this case you might find the trouble with a megger-an
instrument which applies a high voltage as it reads resistance.

CAPACITOR AND RESISTOR TROUBLES. –

Just two things can happen to a capacitor:

 It may open up, removing the capacitor completely from the circuit.
 It may develop an internal short circuit. This means that it begins to pass current as
though it were a resistor or a direct short.

You may check a capacitor suspected of being open by disconnecting it from the
circuit and checking it with a capacitor analyzer. You can check a capacitor suspected of
being leaky with an ohmmeter; if it reads less than 500 kilohms, it is more than likely bad.
However, capacitor troubles are difficult to find since they may appear intermittently or only
under operating voltages. Therefore, the best check for a faulty capacitor is to replace it with
one known to be good. If this restores proper operation, the fault was in the capacitor.

Resistor troubles are the simplest. However, like the others, they must be considered.

 A resistor can open.

 A resistor can increase in value.
 A resistor can decrease in value.

21
 You already know how to check possible resistor troubles. Just use an ohmmeter after
making sure no parallel circuit is connected across the resistor you wish to measure. When
you know a parallel circuit is connected across the resistor or when you are in doubt
disconnect one end of the resistor before measuring it. The ohmmeter check will usually be
adequate. However, never forget that occasionally intermittent troubles may develop in
resistors as well as in any other electronic parts. Although you may observe problems that
have not been covered specifically in this chapter, you should have gained enough knowledge
to localize and repair any problem that may occur.

The continuous rating of the main components such as generators, transformers,

rectifiers, etc., therefore determine the nominal current carried by the busbars but in most
power systems a one to four second short-circuit current has to be accommodated. The value
of these currents is calculated from the inductive reactance of the power system components
and gives rise to different maximum short-circuit currents in the various system sections.

22
FILTER

Electronic filters are circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to
remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.
Electronic filters can be:

 passive or active
 analog or digital
 high-pass, low-pass, band-pass, band-stop (band-rejection; notch), or all-pass.
 discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
 linear or non-linear
 infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)

The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects of
their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis.

PASSIVE FILTERS
Passive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations
of resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). These types are collectively known
as passive filters, because they do not depend upon an external power supply and/or they do
not contain active components such as transistors.

Inductors block high-frequency signals and conduct low-frequency signals,

while capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor, or in
which a capacitor provides a path to ground, presents less attenuation to low-frequency
signals than high-frequency signals and is therefore a low-pass filter. If the signal passes
through a capacitor, or has a path to ground through an inductor, then the filter presents less
attenuation to high-frequency signals than low-frequency signals and therefore is a high-pass

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filter. Resistors on their own have no frequency-selective properties, but are added to
inductors and capacitors to determine the time-constants of the circuit, and therefore the
frequencies to which it responds.

The inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. The number of
elements determines the order of the filter. In this context, an LC tuned circuit being used in a
band-pass or band-stop filter is considered a single element even though it consists of two
components.At high frequencies (above about 100 megahertz), sometimes the inductors
consist of single loops or strips of sheet metal, and the capacitors consist of adjacent strips of
metal. These inductive or capacitive pieces of metal are called stubs.

Three-element filters can have a 'T' or 'π' topology and in either geometries, a low-
pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop characteristic is possible. The components can be
chosen symmetric or not, depending on the required frequency characteristics. The high-pass
T filter in the illustration, has a very low impedance at high frequencies, and a very high
impedance at low frequencies. That means that it can be inserted in a transmission line,
resulting in the high frequencies being passed and low frequencies being reflected. Likewise,
for the illustrated low-pass π filter, the circuit can be connected to a transmission line,
transmitting low frequencies and reflecting high frequencies. Using m-derived filtersections
with correct termination impedances, the input impedance can be reasonably constant in the

pass band.

ACTIVE FILTERS

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 Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and active (amplifying) components, and
require an outside power source. Operational amplifiers are frequently used in active filter designs. These can
have high Q factor, and can achieve resonance without the use of inductors. However, their upper frequency limit
is limited by the bandwidth of the amplifiers.

RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The
process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current. Physically,
rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks
of copper and selenium oxide plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and
other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous
electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal
radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to
serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power
supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve
in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As
noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame
rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.

Depending on the type of alternating current supply and the arrangement of the
rectifier circuit, the output voltage may require additional smoothing to produce a uniform
steady voltage. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television
and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by
a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter,
which may be a capacitor, choke, or set of capacitors, chokes and resistors, possibly followed
by a voltage regulator to produce a steady current.

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HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

In half-wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the AC
wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Mathematically, it is a step function (for positive pass,
negative block): passing positive corresponds to the ramp function being the identity on positive inputs,
blocking negative corresponds to being zero on negative inputs. Because only one half of the input
waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in
a single-phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct
current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is
needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Mathematically, this corresponds to the absolute
value function. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to
pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage. Two diodes and a
center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source
(including a transformer without center tap), are needed.[3] Single semiconductor diodes,

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double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are
manufactured as single components.

TRANSFORMER RATING

In our example above we were taking 0.5A out of the Vsec of 10V. The VA required is
10 X 0.5A = 5VA. This is a small PCB mount transformer available in Australia and
probably else where This would be an absolute minimum and if you anticipated drawing the
maximum current all the time then go to a higher VA rating.

The two capacitors in the primary side are small value types and if you don't know
precisely and I mean precisely what you are doing then OMIT them. Their loss won't cause
you heartache or terrible problems.

CONSTRCTION

The whole project MUST be enclosed in a suitable box. The main switch (preferably
double pole) must be rated at 240V or 120V at the current rating. All exposed parts within the
box MUST be fully insulated, preferably with heat shrink tubing.

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REGULATOR

A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design or may
include negative feedback. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or
more AC or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power

supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control
the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be
installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage
independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

ELECTRONIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A simple voltage/current regulator can be made from a resistor in series with

a diode (or series of diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage
across the diode changes only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the
input. When precise voltage control and efficiency are not important, this design may be fine.
Since the forward voltage of a diode is small, this kind of voltage regulator is only suitable
for low voltage regulated output. When higher voltage output is needed, a zener diode or
series of zener diodes may be employed. Zener diode regulators make use of the zener diode's
fixed reverse voltage, which can be quite large.

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 Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some
fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation
element in such a way as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control
loop; increasing the open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability.
(Stability is avoidance of oscillation, or ringing, during step changes.) There will also be a
trade-off between stability and the speed of the response to changes. If the output voltage is
too low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current increasing), the regulation
element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output voltage–by dropping less of
the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck switching regulators), or to draw input
current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the output voltage is too high,
the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However,
many regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely stop sourcing current
(or limit the current in some way) if the output current is too high, and some regulators may
also shut down if the input voltage is outside a given range (see also: crowbar circuits).

ELECTROMECHANICAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR

In electromechanical regulators, voltage regulation is easily accomplished by coiling

the sensing wire to make an electromagnet. The magnetic field produced by the current
attracts a moving ferrous core held back under spring tension or gravitational pull. As voltage
increases, so does the current, strengthening the magnetic field produced by the coil and
pulling the core towards the field. The magnet is physically connected to a mechanical power
switch, which opens as the magnet moves into the field. As voltage decreases, so does the
current, releasing spring tension or the weight of the core and causing it to retract. This closes
the switch and allows the power to flow once more.

If the mechanical regulator design is sensitive to small voltage fluctuations, the

motion of the solenoid core can be used to move a selector switch across a range of
resistances or transformer windings to gradually step the output voltage up or down, or to
rotate the position of a moving-coil AC
regulator.Early automobile generators and alternators had a mechanical voltage regulator
using one, two, or three relays and various resistors to stabilize the generator's output at
slightly more than 6 or 12 V, independent of the engine's rpm or the varying load on the
vehicle's electrical system. Essentially, the relay(s) employed pulse width modulation to

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regulate the output of the generator, controlling the field current reaching the generator (or
alternator) and in this way controlling the output voltage producing back into the generator
and attempting to run it as a motor. The rectifier diodes in an alternator automatically perform
this function so that a specific relay is not required; this appreciably simplified the regulator
design.More modern designs now use solid state technology (transistors) to perform the same
function that the relays perform in electromechanical regulators.Electromechanical regulators
are used for mains voltage stabilisation — see AC voltage stabilizers below.

AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Generators, as used in power stations or in standby power systems, will have
automatic voltage regulators (AVR) to stabilize their voltages as the load on the generators
changes. The first automatic voltage regulators for generators were electromechanical
systems, but a modern AVR uses solid-state devices. An AVR is a feedback control system
that measures the output voltage of the generator, compares that output to a set point, and
generates an error signal that is used to adjust the excitation of the generator.

As the excitation current in the field winding of the generator increases, its terminal
voltage will increase. The AVR will control current by using power electronic devices;
generally a small part of the generator's output is used to provide current for the field
winding.

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 Where a generator is connected in parallel with other sources such as an electrical
transmission grid, changing the excitation has more of an effect on the reactive
power produced by the generator than on its terminal voltage, which is mostly set by the
connected power system. Where multiple generators are connected in parallel, the AVR
system will have circuits to ensure all generators operate at the same power factor.[1] AVRs
on grid-connected power station generators may have additional control features to help
stabilize the electrical grid against upsets due to sudden load loss or faults.

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ADVANTAGES OF SHORT CIRCUIT

Short Circuit Analysis uses the point-to-point method to calculate fault currents at
various points in an electrical system up to 600V. Calculations can be made from the utility
transformer secondary to the utilization equipment in an electrical system. Printouts are
available for each calculation, and the help system guides you through the calculations.

Benefits :

 Save time by easily obtaining the short circuit magnitude at each point in the power
system.
 Design safer systems by comparing the calculated fault current to the ratings of
installed equipment.
 Increase design reliability by supporting proper selection of circuit protection
equipment for protection and coordination.
 Reports ac and dc current for 4 user defined times.
 Reports zero crossing time of total current

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FUTURE SCOPE
Line Short Circuit And Earth Fault Indicator, the fault current in the line will increase,
when the current increases more than a certain set value, the use of over-current fault
indicator will alarm display. Such indicators need to set a Short Circuit And Earth Fault
Indicator alarm threshold in advance, short circuit in general 400A-1200A, ground generally
in the 5-60A, adjustable range.When the line Short Circuit And Earth Fault Indicator, the line
will occur more significant instantaneous current changes, when the protection device action
trip, the line steady current current will be zero. Detection of the current value of this
mutation, but also to determine the Short Circuit And Earth Fault Indicator. Because this type
of indicator does not need to set the alarm threshold in advance, its scope of application is
more extensive. But because of the need for real-time monitoring of line current, product
power consumption, shorter service life.

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CONCLUSION

Finally from this short circuit study, We have to learn about short circuit And we can
clarify from some doubtable question like, what is short circuit?, how it happens?, when it
happen?, why it happens?. And also learn prevention methods of short circuit. We can know
the advantages about short circuit study.Short Circuit (Fault Current) studies are required to
insure that existing and new equipment ratings are adequate to withstand the available short
circuit energy available at each point in the electrical system. Fault currents that exceed
equipment ratings are capable of extensive equipment damage and are a serious threat to
human life.Recently, 23000 fire complaints a year from all over state. There are lot of fire
accidents are occurred due to these short circuit. To protect the buildings from these short
circuit, we have to learn about this short circuit phenomenon.

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REFERENCE

1. www.google.com \ short circuit phenomenon

2. www.howstuffworks.com \ electrical stuff
3. IEEE journals on short circuit phenomenon

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