Inside This Issue Editorial Board

Advisor:
From MD’s Desk………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………… 2
Dr. R. Nagaraja
Steady State Analysis of Power Systems…………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
………..….………………………………….…………………………..….…………………………..………….Dr. K. Balaraman
Editor:
Consultancy Services Rendered……………………………………..….…………………………………………………..…… 9
M. M. Babu Narayanan
Power System Stability Studies…………………………………………………………………………………..….…………… 12
………………………………………………………….………….……………………………..……..…..….…….Dr. R. Nagaraja
Members:
Small Signal Stability in Power Systems…………………………………………………….…….…………………..……… 19
Venkatesh H. R.
………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………..Prof. K. R. Padiyar
Sandhya R. J.
Voltage Stability - Fundamentals and State-of-the-art……………………………………………………………..… 22
Ch. Vijay Krishna Rao
…...……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Dr. G. Govinda Rao
Rakesha H. S.
Harmonic Studies............................................................................................................................ 24
Pranati Mohanty
...............................................................................................................................Dr. R. Nagaraja
Thimmappa. N
Ferroresonance Phenomenon in Power Transformers-Simulation Study using MiPower…….…..... 30
………………………………………………...….………..…..……..Dr. K. Parthasarathy &VeerabrahmamBathini
Shunt Reactor Switching in Extra High Voltage System - Criterion for Verification of Proposed
Circuit Breaker Parameters………………………………………………………………..……….…………………………..…. 34
………………..…………………………………………………..……Dr. K. Parthasarathy &Veerabrahmam Bathini
Power System Simulation Tools…………………..…………………………………………………………………………..…. 40
………………………….…………….…………………………………….……..……….….………..…M.M. Babu Narayanan
 Page 2
From MD’s Desk
Dear Friends,
Power system study is one of the
important tasks in the planning and
operation of a power system at all
three levels of the electricity supply
chain, i.e. generation, transmission
and distribution. This special issue of
PRDC newsletter on “Power System
Studies” is in your hands and I thank all
the authors and other colleagues, who
have worked directly or indirectly to
successfully bring out this special
issue. Even though the subject matter
of power system studies has been
covered in depth by the experts in
their respective articles in this issue, I
thought of dwelling upon the
importance of power system studies
and also on the subject of selection of
consultants for carrying out such
studies at the behest of utilities,
industries and similar entities.
Utilities and industries are often faced
with the dilemma as to when the
power system study should be
conducted and at what stage of the
project the system study consultants
are to be involved. Timing of the study
depends on the nature of the study
like a routine planning exercise,
system expansion study, failure
analysis or even to mitigate some
existing problems being faced in the
system operation.
Power Research and Development Consultants
Fortunately for T&D utilities and
GENCOs, most of the National and
State grid codes clearly indicate the
timing of the system studies and the
type of studies to be conducted in
depth including the data to be
furnished for such studies. These
guidelines are to be followed
meticulously. For power evacuation
study, system studies should be
conducted at the detailed project
report (DPR) preparation stage itself
and results of such a system study
should inter alia be a part of the DPR.
If the system studies pertain to
industrial system development or
capacity expansion, these should be
conducted as part of the initial
feasibility study. Power system study
report becomes a major reference for
the detailed engineering exercise.
Furthermore, system study report is
an important document for availing
grid connectivity by industrial power
systems. This is also true for seeking
approval of synchronizing and power
evacuation by GENCOs from
transmission utilities. For
investigations of grid disturbances and
failure analysis, power system studies
should be conducted immediately
following the eventuality, so that the
collection of relevant data for the
study becomes easy.
The second issue pertaining to the
power system studies is the selection
criterion for the consultants.
Worldwide, most of the utilities
generally follow the 70:30 criteria, i.e.
70% weight to the technical score and
30% weight to the price score in the
qualifying criteria.This practice will
enable the client to get best
consultants to perform the given
assignment. For specific jobs, it is also
advisable to go in for the selection of
the consultant on nomination basis,if
Newsletter
relevant expertiseand experience has
been showcased by the consultant for
similar assignments in the past. The
best practice is to introduce the
“Conflict of Interest” clause in the
tender specifications. This clause
avoids the conflict between consulting
activities and the supply of goods or
works by the same consultant
organization. The spirit behind this
clause is to ensure that while providing
the consulting services, the consultant
will not be biased in his
recommendations in an attempt to
supply equipment of his interest. It
may be mentioned here that all
consulting assignments from World
Bank and ADB have included this
specific clause on ‘Conflict of interest’
and the same can be practiced by other
organizations that intend to avail of the
services of consultants in the
specialized area of power system
studies.
The special issue on system studies is
equally more relevant due to the fact
that recently we had two major grid
collapses in succession in the Indian
Grid. Proper planning of the system,
timely implementation of the plans,
best operational practices and more
emphasis on the protection system
audit and relay co-ordination would
have avoided the black out. We need
to conduct the dynamic studies, find
out the system behavior for various
system disturbances and based on that
design the controlled system
separation, load shedding and
generator tripping schemes. Let us all
put our sincere efforts to strengthen
our power grid, the back bone of Indian
economy, there by building an
economically strong nation.
Dr. R. Nagaraja
Managing Director
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
Steady State Analysis of Power Systems
1. Introduction
The planning, design and operation a
commercial and industrial power system
requires continual and comprehensive
analysis to evaluate current system
performance and to establish the
effectiveness of the alternative plans for
operating the system. The computational
work to determine power flows and
voltage levels resulting from single
operating condition for even a small
network is all but insurmountable if
performed by manual methods. The need
for computational aids led to the design of
a special purpose analog computer (ac
network analyzer) as early as 1929. It
provided the ability to determine flows
and voltages during normal and
emergency conditions and to study the
transient behavior of the system resulting
from fault conditions and switching
operations. The earliest application of
digital computers to power system
problems dates back to the late 1940s.
Most of the early applications were limited
in scope because of the small capacity of
the punched card calculators in use during
that period. Large-scale digital computers
became available in the mid-1950s, and
the initial success of load flow programs
led to the development of programs for
short-circuit and stability calculations.
Today, the digital computer is an
indispensable tool in power system
planning, in which it is necessary to predict
future growth and simulate day-to-day
operations over periods of twenty years or
more [1].
In general, the power system analysis is
grouped into two categories, viz., Steady
state analysis and Dynamic analysis. In
steady state analysis, it is assumed that
any transients from the disturbances are
settled down and the system state is
unchanged i.e., the system load including
transmission system losses are matched
with power generation. The primary tools
for analysis for steady state operation is so
called power flow analysis or Load flow
studies where the voltage and powerflow
Dr. K. Balaraman
through the system is determined.
Another very popular steady state analysis
tool is the short circuit analysis for
determining the fault current through
system. In this paper, the load flow
analysis and short circuit analysis is dealt
in detail.
2. Load Flow Studies
Load flow studies or the power flow
studies are used to validate that the
electrical power transfer from generators
to consumers through the grid system is
stable, reliable and economical. The
principal information obtained from the
power flow study is the magnitude and
phase angle of the voltage at each bus and
the real and reactive power flowing in
each line.
Load flow analysis has a great importance
in future expansion planning, in stability
studies and in determining the best
economical operation for existing systems.
Further, load flow results are also very
valuable for setting the proper protection
devices to ensure the security of the
system. In order to perform a load flow
study, detailed power system data should
be available about the studied system,
such as connection diagram, parameters
of transformers and transmission lines,
any reactive power compensation devices,
rated values of each equipment, details of
generators, and the values of real and
reactive power for each load etc.
The analysis of load flow results would
ensure that cables, transformers,
transmission lines are sized appropriately
to carry required load and alsothrough the
studies, thetransformer taps are set
appropriately to obtain satisfactory
voltage profile within the area of study.
A load flow study determines how the
electrical system will perform during
normal and emergency operating
conditions, providing the information
needed to:
Page 3
• Optimize component or circuit
loading
• Develop practical bus voltage
profiles
• Identify real and reactive power
flow
• Minimize kW and kVAr losses
• Develop equipment specification
guidelines
• Identify proper transformer tap
settings
Load flow studies are performed using
computer software that simulates actual
steady-state power system operating
conditions. Power-flow studies are usually
started by analyzing the power system in
its normal operating conditions, called the
base case. Then, various load and
generation changes (increased/decreased)
may be projected to localize possible
problem spots. By adding system elements
like transmission lines to the system or by
modifying the system configuration, a new
configuration may be found for resolving
the problem. These estimated models can
be used for planning.
Further through power-flow studies,
possible failures of particular lines and
generators can be analyzed to see whether
the remaining components can handle the
demand. Conducting a load flow study
using multiple scenarios (contingencies)
helps to ensure that the power system is
adequately designed to satisfy the
performance criteria.The most important
information obtained from the load flow
analysis is the voltage profile of the system.
If voltage varies greatly over the system,
large reactive flows will result. This, in turn,
will lead to increased real power losses
and, in extreme cases, an increased
likelihood of voltage collapse. When a
particular bus has an unacceptably low
voltage/high voltage, the usual practice is
to install capacitor banks/ shunt reactors in
order to provide reactive compensation to
the load.Load flow studies are used to
determine how much reactive
 Page 4
compensation is needed at a bus, to bring 2.1 The Power Flow Problem
its voltage up to an appropriate level. If
new lines (or additional transformers) are The overall power flow problem can be
to be installed, to reinforce the system, a divided into following sub-problems [2,3],
power flow study will show how it will
relieve overloads on adjacent lines. An
inefficient or unbalanced load can also
cause unpredictable behavior in your
localized power grid, increasing the risk of
equipment damage and unplanned
outages.
The load flow study is a pre- requisite to
short circuit study, stability study and
electromagnetic transient study. The load
flow study is also used as a part of the
motor starting study.
Load flow studies are the basis for
ensuring that a power system design will
satisfy its performance criteria within the
boundaries of the most beneficial
investment and operating costs. Some
examples of how load flow studies are
used are listed below. In order to form the suitable mathematical
model, we can construct the following
• Equipment sizing and loading equations from the basic principles for a
(Transformers, Lines, Cables, two bus system,
Reactors, etc.)
• Generator exciter / regulator
voltage set points
• System loss analysis
• Maintain reliability
• Coordinate protective relays
• Capacitor placement and sizing
• Steady state bus voltages
• Transformer tap settings
• Load tap changer evaluation
• System reactor load flows
• Utility intertie studies
• To know about component or
circuit loading, real and reactive
power flow
• System performance under
emergency and unexpected
conditions
• To find significant plant
expansion.
• As a part of motor starting studies
• Pre-requisite to conduct short
circuit, stability and EMTP studies.
Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
Bus currents and voltages can be calculated
using the above equations and since in
practical systems power is known quantity,
equations 1and 2 can be written as,
∗ ∗ ∗
1. Formulation of a suitable --(5)
mathematical network model to
adequately describe the And
relationship between voltages
∗ ∗ ∗
powers in the interconnected --(6)
system.
2. Initialization of power and are the desired power flow equations in
voltages in various buses/nodes nonlinear form for two bus system and
of the network. these equations can be generalized and
3. Numerical computation of
Further each bus voltage V will be having
written as shown below in equation (7),
power flow equations with the
above initialization to compute both magnitude |V | and angle δ .
the voltages at all the
buses/nodes of the network ∗
# # # #
∗
∑%& | #% | | % | Where
with sufficient accuracy. for ' =1, 2, 3…------------------------------- (7)
4. Computing the power flows in
all the branches of The main solution methods for power flow
interconnected network. studies are as follows [4,5]
• Newton-Raphson method
• Gauss-Seidel method
• Fast Decoupled method
∗
Among the various solution methods, the
∗ ---------------- (1) N-R method is superior to the G-S method
because it exhibits a faster convergence
∗
characteristic. However, N-R method
And ∗ --------- (2)
suffers from the disadvantage that a “flat
start” is not always possible since the
Equation 1 and 2 can be written in the solution at the beginning can oscillate
simple forms using vectors and matrix as without converging toward the solution.
shown below using admittance matrix and Hence, the load-flow solution is often
are complex, linear, simultaneous carried out with G-S algorithm for
equations. distribution system analysis.
---------------------------- (3)
The fast-decoupled method is a variation of
≅ ≅
the N-R method wherein the solution is
Where, and and
decoupled with P and delta on one side
≅
and V and Q on the other to obtain faster
convergence. This is generally used in the
transmission system which contain many
buses and where there is a need for faster
Also using impedance matrix, load-flow solution.
---------------------------- (4)
During the operation of the power system,
Where, each bus has known variables and
unknowns variables.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 5
Newsletter

Generally, the bus must be classified as

one of the following bus types: Table 1: Known and unknown variables to be calculated from power flowequations
Known and unknown variables to be calculated from solving equations

| | *
2.1.1 Slack or Swing Bus Bus type
( ( ) )
This bus is considered as the reference Slack or
bus. During the execution, the voltage of √ √ × × √ √
swing bus
this bus is always specified and remains Voltage
constant in magnitude and specified angle √ √ √ √ × ×
control bus
which normally set to zero. In addition to Load bus √ √ √ × √ ×
the generation assigned to it according to
economic operation, this bus is
responsible for supplying the losses of the
system and also any mismatch between Figure 1 shows the load flow results without necessitating the load shedding or
the load and generation. The main criteria obtained through MiPower software for generation rescheduling during steady
for selecting the slack or swing bus is that the sample system taken from text book steate operation.Normally
it should be the largest generation bus. In ‘Computer Methods in Power System regulatorycommissions will set the criteria
addition such slack bus would preferably Analysis - Chapter 8, Figure 8.8 -Sample for analyzing the contingency analysis by
located remote from the location under system for load flow solution’. defining the set of credible continncyes for
study. which system needs to be tested during
2.2 Contingency Analysis planning and operation stages. With the
2.1.2 Generator or Voltage Controlled Bus available software and digital computation
– PV Bus Contingency studies are the essential part tools, contingency analysis has become
of steady state analysis of very simple exercise.
During the execution the voltage largeinterconnected power systems. These
magnitude at this the bus is kept constant studies are used to analyze the Steady state analysis and software tools
subject to reactive power limit. Also, the reliability,loading of elements, voltage are matured with technology development
active power supplied is kept constant at profile and overall behaviorof and recent developmentsare
the value that satisfies the economic interconnected system with the outage of focusingtowards analysis of system with
operation of the system. Most probably, elements viz transmission unbalanced load and distributedgenerators
this bus is connected to a generator where lines,transformer etc.. like wind and solar.
the voltage is controlled using the
excitation and the power is controlled
using the prime mover control.
Sometimes, this bus is connected to a VAr
device where the voltage can be
controlled by varying the value of the
injected VAr to the bus.

2.1.3 Load Bus – PQ Bus

In this bus P & Q are specified. Generally

the loads are connected to this bus. The
generator bus (or PV bus) would also
become PQ bus when reactive power limit
is reached.

Details of known and unknown variables

to be calculated from solving power flow
equations are given in Table 1.
Figure 1: Load flow results for sample system
 Page 6 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

More tools are being developed to Relation between phase values and and hence fault current is,

3
understand the effect of distributed sequence components are shown below in

3
generations in large power systems with equation (8) and (9), +
utmost accuracy. + .
< .= 3 /
. 1 1 1 +
7 7 71 9 9 7 7 7------------------ (8)
4
3. Short Circuit Studies
1 9 9
Typically, only 5% of the initial faults in a
- power system, are three phase faults with
Faults usually occur in a power system due
1 1 1 +
or without earth. Of the unbalanced faults,
to insulation failure, flashover, physical .
damage or human error. These faults may 7 7 71 9 9 7 7 7------------------- (9)
80% are line-earth and 15% are double line
4
1 9 9 -
faults with or without earth and which can
either be three phase in nature involving
often deteriorate to 3 phase fault. Broken
all three phases in a symmetrical manner,
conductor faults account for the rest.
or may be asymmetrical where usually With the above relation between phase
only one or two phases may be involved. values and sequence components, sample The purpose of a short circuit study is to
Faults may also be caused by either short- calculations for three phase fault, double identify the maximum available fault
circuits to earth or between live line to ground fault and line to ground current at all locations, called busses, in the
conductors, or may be caused by broken fault are shown below, power system. It is then compared with the
conductors in one or more phases. ratings of the individual power system
Sometimes simultaneous faults may occur In case of three phase fault, it is assumed components, such as circuit breakers relays
involving both short-circuit and broken that all the three phases are short circuit and fuses, to determine if the equipment is
conductor faults (also known as open- through equal fault impedances / , adequately rated to safely withstand or
circuit faults). vectorial sum of fault current is zero since interrupt the calculated fault current. It is
symmetrical fault is considered without also used to evaluate the withstanding
Balanced three phase faults may be ground. design capability of all the electrical
analyzed using an equivalent single phase equipment (panels, switchboards,
circuit. With asymmetrical three phase Hence,
. 0, + - 0 and fault switchgears, Motor starters, and other
;
9
faults, the uses of symmetrical electrical equipment not mentioned) used
currents, + 0 305
, and
of the calculations as transmission lines - 9
components help to reduce the complexity in the system, against the available fault
currents.
and components are by and large
symmetrical, although the fault may be In case of double line to ground fault, fault For new facilities, a short circuit study
asymmetrical. Sample fault analysis with is considered in phase’s b and c with should be performed before the electrical
symmetrical components are given below, ground through fault impedance / , the equipment is selected. For existing
current in the ungrounded phase is zero, facilities, a short circuit study should be
In the analysis following notations are performed if significant changes have
0, and hence 0
occurred either within the facility or in the
+ .
considered [6,7],
< - = / and the fault
I.e.
utility system.
-
+,
and
• And - are phase to ground current is, The short circuit study provides the

fault does not exists and ,

voltages at the fault point if the following information.
+
and . are sequence components 0 102 34056 • Calculates the fault current at
of voltages, 0 302 3405

+,
various locations in the plant.
• And - are lines currents and
,
• Identifies whether the system and
and . are sequence In case of line to ground fault, fault is the equipment can withstand the
components of currents, considered in phase a with ground
,
available fault current.
• And . are positive, through faultimpedance / , currents in • Evaluates the application of breakers
negative and zero sequence phase b and c are zero andthe voltage at and fuses.
impedances and / is fault the fault point is + + / and • Identifies problem areas in the
impedance and ‘a’ is vector .
4 +
system.
operator.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 7
Newsletter

• Specifies the types, ampere ratings While selecting circuit breakers it is 3.2 Determining the Short Circuit Duties of
and device settings of the important to make sure that none of the Breakers
equipment to ensure minimum capabilities areexceeded in their
service interruption. application.These capabilities are basically Considering an industrial scenario
• Helps improve the reliability of your obtained from theshort circuit wherethere is no in-plant power
system. current calculations available at the generation,
• Provides recommended solutions. equipment location. Therefore, the the total three phase fault current at the
• Coordinate protective relays. starting point is the careful fault analysis faulted point includes both currents from
of the power system. the power source (electric utility) and the
A power system is not static but changes fault contribution from electric motors
during operation (switching on or off of 3.1 Fault Analysis of Power System (both synchronous and induction) present
generators and transmission lines) and in the system. If in-plant generation is
during planning (addition of generators If the power system (typically an industrial involved, then the total fault current would
and transmission lines). Major changes system) is connected to the Utility, the be the sum of fault contributions from in-
would be considered a change in feed by supply authority shall supply the necessary plant generator(s), electric utility and from
the electric utility, in the primary or available fault levels at the point of in-plant electrical motors irrespective of
secondary system configuration within the network connection - both three-phase whether they are on the same faulted bus
facility, in transformer size or impedance, and single-phase, or the source impedance or on the downstream buses.
in conductor lengths or sizes, in type of and the corresponding X/R ratios. This will
circuit breaker, or a change in the motors help in analyzing the fault contributions 3.3 Factors Affecting Cable Selection and
that are energized by the system. Thus to/from the Utility. Any approved Ratings
fault studies need to be routinely software packages such as MiPower may
performed by utility engineers. be used or manual computations if the The above discussion briefly recognized the
system is simple. short circuit fault current influence on
The strength of a bus bar (or the ability to cable sizing and selection based on their
maintain its voltage) is directly As the power system constantly ampere ratings. Proper selection and
proportional to its short circuit capacity undergoes changes due to additions of ratings ensures their suitability in the
(SCC). An infinitely strong bus (or Infinite generators and/or distribution networks, power system. Therefore, it may be
bus bar) has an infinite SCC, with zero fault studies need to be performed concluded that the selection of power
equivalent impedance and will maintain its routinely. It would be prudent to consider cables generally depends on the following
voltage under all conditions. the short term expansion programs of the factors.
network while selecting switchgear
Magnitude of short circuit current is time capabilities so that the expected increase • Operating voltage
dependent due to synchronous in short circuit level could well be • Load current
generators. It is initially at its largest value accommodated. • Emergency loading requirements
and decreasing to steady value. These and duration
higher fault levels taxCircuit Breakers Single line to ground fault can be a • Fault current
adversely so that current limiting reactors concern when a delta-wye connected • Fault clearing time (Protection
are sometimes used. three-phase four-wire system or wye- relays & Fuses)
grounded generators are employed • Allowable voltage drop
The short circuit MVA is a better indicator especially when the substation • Ambient temperature for the
of the stress on CB’s than the short circuit transformers or generators are very close particular installation
current as CB has to withstand recovery or are close coupled to the distribution configuration
voltage across breaker following arc switchgear. When the distance is small the • (Environmental conditions)
interruption. The currents flowing during a zero sequence impedance is significantly • Cable route length
fault is determined by the internal emf’s of smaller than the positive and negative • Method of cable installation
machines in the network, by the sequence impedance. This difference can (derated factors)
impedances of the machines, and by the cause the single line to ground fault
impedances between the machines and magnitude to be up to theoretical
the fault. maximum of 150% of the magnitude of a
three phase fault.
 Page 8
3.4 X/R Ratio
The X/R ratio is a measure of the ratio of
the inductive reactance (X), consisting of
the inductive components of cable,
transformer, generator, etc., impedances,
to the resistive components (R) of those
impedances.Every practical electrical
power system has some inductive
reactance, making the X/R ratio always
larger than zero.An inductor stores energy
in a magnetic field, which requires current
flow. Because this energy cannot be
dissipated instantaneously an inductor
opposes changes to current flow. For fault
conditions, this means that after a fault is
initiated there will be a DC offset to the
fault current; the higher the X/R ratio, the
higher the DC offset. This DC offset must
be taken into account when calculating the
interrupting duty of fault interrupting
devices such as circuit breakers. The result,
for low-voltage interrupting devices, is
that the fault duty that is used in
comparison to the interrupting rating of
Figure 2: Short circuit results for sample system
Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
the device will be higher (theoretical
maximum is 31% higher for a molded-case 4. References
circuit breaker with interrupting rating
greater than 20 kA) than the actual [1] IEEE Std. 399 - IEEE Recommended
calculated fault current if the X/R ratio Practice for Industrial and Commercial
calculated at the point of the fault is Power Systems Analysis., IEEE, Year
greater than the X/R ratio for which the 1990.
device has been tested.
[2] ‘Computer Methods in Power System
This can become an issue if the device has Analysis’ (Book) Stagg and EL-Abaid.,
an interrupting rating only marginally MaGraw Hill Publication, Year 1968.
higher than the available fault current.
Such a scenario unfortunately, occurs
[3] ‘Electrical Energy Systems Theory an
often in data center applications,
Introduction’ (Book) Olle l. Elgerd., Tata
especially where relatively large low-
MaGraw Hill Edition, Year 1983.
voltage generators are operated in
parallel.
[4] Tinney, W. F. and Hart, C. E. “Power
Flow Solution by Newton’s Method,”
With today's high fault currents, it's more
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
important than ever to protect electrical
equipment from extremely high current and Systems, vol. PAS-86, pp. 1444 -
levels. Otherwise, the equipment may 1460, Nov. 1967.
explode as it attempts to interrupt the
fault.Figure 2 shows the short circuit study [5] B Stott, O Alsac. Fast Decoupled Load
results for three phase to ground fault in Flow. Trans IEEE PAS 93: 859–869, 1974.
MVA obtained through MiPower software
for the sample system. [6] ‘Analysis of Faulted Power Systems’
(Book) Paul M Anderson., IEEE Press
Power Engineering Series, Year 1995.
[7] ‘Power System Analysis – Short
Circuit Load Flow And Harmonics’ (Book)
J. C. Das., Marcel Dekker Publication,
Year 2002.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 9
Newsletter

Consultancy Services Rendered

grid connectivity. This would be Daily Work Schedules:Daily allocation

Fiji Grid Code applicable to all grid users, the ofwork as allotted by the supervisor to
system operator, transmission each individual or to the team as the case
The Government of Fiji plans to encourage licensee, IPPs and consumers. may be and designating thesafety auditors.
private sector participation in power • The Grid Code contains General
through Independent Power Producers Code, Planning Code, Connection Daily Safety Schedules:Details of the
(IPPs) and to form an independent entity Code, Operational Code and briefing by the supervisor before start of
to facilitate the regulation and Schedule & Dispatch Code.These the work and the precautionary measures
enforcement of the Electricity Act for the sections elaborate the role of all grid to be taken by the linemen during working.
electricity industry in Fiji. connected users, governing
rules,responsibilities, authorities, Inspection Schedules:Standard schedules
In view of the proposed modifications in obligations, planning criteria, of inspection prepared & tabulated
the structure and operation of the Fiji connection procedure , operation detailing points to be observed during
power system with private participants, procedureand scheduling and routine inspection of overhead lines, DTCs
revision of the existing Grid Code and its drawing procedure in the Grid for and RMUs in one’s Jurisdiction.
standardization was required to safeguard Grid Connectivity.
the electrical power system by specifying A set of informative booklet is also
the technical and operational Safety Work Book for included in the form of Annexure
characteristics of plants owned by comprising Tools and Plants to be
different entities involved in the BESCOM
maintained in an O & M Section , general
generation, transmission, distribution and BESCOM is one of the best managed safety precautions, work permit system,
consumption of electric power. In this DISCOMS in the country and has fixed its creating safety zone & procedure for
regard, Fiji Electricity Authority (FEA) own bench mark for efficient functioning earthing, Do’s and Don’ts , duties &
assigned responsibility of preparing the and is implementing ‘Best Practices’ responsibilitiesetc.,
new Grid Code to PRDC against a stiff formulated by it. The Utility has published
international competition. a number of manuals namely, ‘Standards Usage of Safety Work Book: The Safety
for Erection’, ‘Maintenance Schedules’, Work Book prepared separately for
The new Grid Codeof Fiji being the ‘Safety Manual’,’ ‘O & M Manual’, etc., for linemen and supervisory staff consists of
technical document containing rules implementation by its staff in daily two parts namely,
governing the planning, operation, routines.
maintenance and development of the 1. Every Day Entry Part: This has
power system has many salient features. BESCOM has now taken the initiative to different sections with checklists for
This document was prepared by PRDC prepare ‘Safety Work Books’ for daily execution of work, precautionary
considering the following: prevention of electrical accidents to the measures and general inspection
• Existing Grid Code structure, departmental staff and distribute the schedules. Every day entries have to
governing rules, responsibilities of same to all staff including linemen and be compulsorily made by the
grid connected entities and supervisory staff. PRDC was entrusted concerned section officer and the
operational philosophy were with the responsibility of preparing these lineman in his Safety Work Book in the
analyzed. In view of proposed safety workbooks.Based on the standard corresponding sections before, during
modifications in the Fiji electricity safety practices in various utilities and also and after execution of work as the
system, references from standard based on the expertise available with the case may be, depending on the type of
international grid codes of other consultants, the Safety Work Book was work and nature of inspections.
countries were taken. prepared for the linemen and supervisory 2. Reference Part: A set of informative
• The proposed Grid Code prepared by staff of BESCOM separately. This booklet.
PRDC clearly specifies roles of various document comprises different sections viz.
organizations/entities in Fiji andtheir The book has been submitted to BESCOM
responsibilities, General Particulars: Details of distribution and is being published by them for
participation,limitations and network in one’s Jurisdiction. distribution among its staff.
obligations for the
 Page 10 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

levels of nearby substations, operation (including generation reserve

Power Evacuation Studies for checkthestability of the machines as per planning) of such renewable power plants.
the Proposed Concentrated security standards, assess the vulnerability Hence statistical analysis was carried out to
Solar Power Plants in / adaptability of 220kV, 400kV substations quantify variability of wind and solar
Rajasthan near the solar power plants and also to generation over multiple time frames
analyze the systemfor switching over (seasonal, daily, hourly and 10-minute).The
The solar energy potential in India is voltages. average daily profiles of wind, solar and
immense due to its location near the system demand were plotted for
Equator. India can generate over 1,900 Methodology and Technical Approach: seasonally representative months and for a
billion units of solar power annually, which The transmission network of Rajasthan period of one year (as shown in fig 1, 2, 3
is estimated to be enough to service the was modeled from 400kV voltage level and 4). Solar irradiation data were derived
entire annual power demand even in 2030. upto 132kV voltage level. As the system from the available direct normal Irradiance
From the solar irradiation map of India, it under consideration consists of wind data.
is evident that Rajasthan and Gujarat are generations, conventional generations and
the regions with maximum solar energy other solar generations, the power From detailed statistical analysis, it was
potential. Considering India’s solar evacuation schemes were analyzed observed that, when the solar generation is
potential, the government has rolled out comprehensively by considering the more than 70%, the wind generation is also
various policies and subsidy schemes to variability of wind, solar and system more than 70% during 3.8 - 10.6% of the
encourage growth of the solar industry. demand. Solar and wind generator period. During remaining time period, the
One such initiative is the Jawaharlal Nehru outputs vary as the intensity of their wind generation is only around 10%,which
National Solar Mission, formulated with a energy sources vary. Solar and wind is the most probable case. However, the
target of 20,000MW solar power by 2022. generation are similar to “load” which also adequacy of the system has been analyzed
With considerable amount of solar power varies over the day. The variability (over for wind and solar generation coinciding
generation getting interconnected to the 24 hours) and uncertainty (due to sudden peak (that is occurring for 3.8 - 10.6% of
grid, it becomes important to analyze the cloud cover for solar and wind speed the period as stated above). Based on
various consequences arising due to change in windpower plants) of these observations, different scenarios
interconnection with respect to voltage generation in solar and wind power plants considered for analysis are summarized in
profile at the grid network, short circuit needs to be considered in any network Table 1 and various power evacuation
level at the grid network etc. Hence, integration planning and options were analyzed.
detailed power system studies for the Table 1: Load Flow Scenarios
proposed solar power generations are Scenario Solar Generation % % Probability of
essential. A brief description of one such Month
No. Scenario Solar Wind Occurrence
study for a solar power evacuation project 1 Peak solar Jan-April 80 10 >60 %
executed by PRDC is presented. 2 generation period Sept - Dec 100 80 3.8%
Minimum solar
3 July - Aug 70 80 10.6 %
Study system has the total capacity of generation period
600MW comprising 500MW of
concentrated solar power (CSP) and
100MW of solar photo voltaic (SPV) which
is planned in Jaisalmer district of
Rajasthan in four phases viz. Phase I –
40MW (SPV), Phase II – 125MW(CSP) +
100MW (SPV), Phase III – 2x125MW(CSP) +
100MW (SPV), Phase IV – 4x125MW(CSP)
+ 100MW (SPV).The power evacuation
studies were carried outfor the proposed
solar generations. The objective of the
study was to identify: various evacuation
options, recommendation of the techno-
economically feasible evacuation
optionconsidering the most optimum
evacuation voltage, determination of short
circuit Fig 1: April
Power Research and Development Consultants
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Newsletter

For the recommended evacuation option

with 80% solar generation and 10% wind
generation (mentioned earlier as the most
occurring scenario), short circuit studies
were carried out. The transient stability
studies were also carried out for various
disturbances in the system. Further, over
voltage studies were carried out for the
various conditions.

Outcome of the Project:

• A techno-economically feasible
evacuation option suitable for all
Fig 2: June
the phases of generation was
recommended.

• Suitable breaker ratings were

recommended based on the
results of short circuit analysis.

• The critical clearing times and the

stability of the machine under
consideration for various
disturbances were determined
from transient stability analysis.

• Suitable surge arrestor was

recommended based on the
results of over voltage studies.

Fig 3: July

Fig 4: Annual Data

 Page 12 Power Research and Development Consultants
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Power System Stability Studies

Dr. R. Nagaraja

1. Introduction

Electrical power system is one of the most the utilities are well conversant with the Critical clearing time is that time, within
dynamic and complex human made steadystate analysis consisting ofload flow which the fault should be isolated so that
system on earth. Complexity is due to and faultstudies. However, as stability the machines in the system will not go out-
different voltage levels, amount of power studies involve the solution of both of-step. When the machine goes outof step,
being handled and the varieties of algebraic and differential equations, its power output oscillates from the
equipment being used. Dynamic, because representation of various controls in the generating mode to motoring mode and
of the time frame and response to system system, detailed modeling of the viceversa.
disturbances, this is of the order of several machines, that much importance is not
days for energy resource dynamics and empathized on the stability studies by the Most of the grid codes emphasize that
micro seconds to nano seconds during fast utilities. As the power systems increase in credible outages/contingencies in the
and very fast transients in the power size and complexity, more and more system shall not cause loss of supply,
system. Further, power system can be devices are added to control the power prolonged operation of the system
visualized as a spring mass problem, the system quantities, stability studies are frequency below andabove specified limits,
machines acting as masses and the gaining importance nowadays. This paper un-acceptable high or low voltage, system
interconnecting transmission lines as is written to help the practicing system instability, un-acceptable overloading of
springs. Whenever a spring is plucked and study engineers to understand the lines. Even though the references to voltage
released, oscillations are seen everywhere. concept of stability studies, data levels and the timing varies from grid code
Similarly in an interconnected system requirement for achieving different to grid code, typically for a specific grid
when a fault occurs, machines closer to objectives of stability studies and code, it states that stability of the system
fault swing more and the machines away emerging trends and technologies. should be ensured for the following cases –
from the fault swing less. Machines with Emphasis is given to understand the
higher inertia constant swing less and physical concept and interpretation of • 400 kV line: A permanent single
those with lower inertia constant swing results rather than detailed mathematical line to ground fault with a duration
more. This type of oscillations in the analysis, which can always be obtained of 5 cycles(100 milliseconds) with
power system falls under the classification from the reference books listed. unsuccessful re-closure 1.0 sec
of electro-mechanical oscillations, as it dead time followed by 3 pole
involves the interaction between the 2. Grid code references to stability opening of the faulted line.
electrical system transients and studies Unsuccessful re-closure (Figure 1)
mechanical transients of rotating masses. should be simulated and tested
Power system stability studies fall under Need for the stability studies are very before suggesting the au-re-closure
electro-mechanical oscillation studies. much emphasized in the national and facility for the 400 kV lines.
These studies are further classified into international grid codes. In this section,
transient stability studies for large references to some of the grid codes on • 220 kV and 132 kV lines: A
disturbances and small signal stability stability studies are drawn to emphasize permanent three phase fault with a
study or dynamic stability studies for small the importance of stability studies by fault clearing time of 8 cycles (160
disturbances in the system. In the planning and operational engineers. milliseconds)assuming 3 pole
transient stability studies one is generally opening.
interested in the rotor angle swing and in 2.1 Critical clearing time:
the dynamic stability study, the Further, grid codes emphasize that planning
performance of the various control Stability characteristics of the generators of the additional lines or elements in the
and the automatic voltage regulator are
functions to bring down the oscillations of system may become mandatory not
two important features that operate
different state variables in the system is because of the static contingency analysis
studied. throughout the period from the inception (load flow) but because of system stability
of the fault, until after its removal to considerations.
Most of the system studyengineers in the maintain voltage and stability ofthe
planning and operational departmentsof protective relaying.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
Figure 1: Simulation of Unsuccessful re-closure
2.2 Model validation
Accuracy of the stability studies depends
on how best the computer models of the
machine, control function tally with the
real system. In most of the European and
Australian Grid codes, it is mandatory to
validate the machine model and the
control function performance before the
commercial operation of the new power
plants. Computer simulation models are
validated with reference to commissioning
test reports and models are fine tuned.
3. Modeling and data requirement
System model for the stability studies
depends on the type of study and the
duration for which the simulation is
carried out. In the load flow study,
internals of the machine is not
represented. Also, in the load flow study it
is assumed that terminal voltage of the
machine is maintained within its reactive
power limits by the AVR and the scheduled
power output of the machine is also
maintained constant. However, in the
stability study, detailed modeling of the
machine, associated control system
representation is very much essential. In
this section, equipment modeling for the
stability studies is explained in brief.
3.1 General power system elements
model
Modeling of the transmissionlines,
transformers, series and shunt reactors
and capacitors in the stability studies is
same as that in the load flow model. Pi
circuit model is used to represent the
transmission lines. The transformers are
modeled using the leakage reactance
between the primary and the secondary
along with off nominal turn’s ratio. Series
reactors and capacitors are modeled using
the reactance value at system frequency.
Shunt reactors and capacitors are
modeled by computing the shunt
admittance value at the rated voltage and
rated MVAr rating and applying the
correction at bus base voltage. Stability
studies require the converged load flow
study results as input to establish the
initial conditions in the solution of
differential equations. At each time step of
the stability study, the power flow solution
is obtained.
3.2 Machine model
When one sitting at the terminal of the
machine, looks into the machine, at
different intervals oftime following a
disturbance, different impedance values
are seen. Initially the damper winding
Page 13
(amortissure winding) effect is seen along
with the field winding effect and armature
reaction. This impedance is termed as sub
transient reactance xd” along the direct
axis. When the damper winding effect has
decayed with sub transient open circuit
time constant Tdo”, we have the field
winding effect along with armature
reaction. This impedance is termed as
transient reactance xd’, which decays with
a time constant Tdo’, the transient open
circuit time constant. Finally one sees the
steady state reactance xd consisting of
leakage reactance and the reactance
arising out of armature reaction. Figure 2
gives the machine current when a dead
short circuit occurs at the terminal of a 210
MW machine delivering initially the rated
power. Modeling of the machine in the
stability studies depends on what
impedance value is considered and what
voltage is represented behind that
reactance [1,2,3]. The simplest model is the
classical representation of the machine,
wherein constant voltage is represented
behind the transient reactance xd’. Once
the data is formulated for the large system
stability studies, it is advisable to go in for
classical representation of the machine to
get the first cut information on the
successful running of the model and
validation for first swing stability studies. In
the transient model of the machine,
differential equations governing the
variation of the transient direct and
quadratrue axis voltages (Ed’ and Eq’) with
respect to time are represented. In the sub
transient model of the machine, in addition
to above two differential equations, the
differential equations governing the
variation of the sub transient direct and
quadrature axis voltages (Ed” and Eq”) with
respect to time are represented. In all the
cases, the machine swing equation is also
represented. The inertia constant of the
machine is the combined inertia constant
of all the rotating masses, i.e. turbine,
generator rotor and the excitation system.
When the generator and the turbine
vendors are different, inertia
constantfurnished by the respective
vendors should be converted onto
common base and
 Page 14
added to arrive at asingle inertia constant
value to be used in the swing equation
solution.During the planning exercise, the
typical values of the machine for the
proposed machines can be considered.
However, for the existing machines and for
operation studies, the data supplied by the
manufacturer should be considered and
further validated by the commissioning
test reports.
Figure 2: Current during dead short circuit at machine terminal
3.3 Load model
Both voltage and frequency dependency
modeling of the loads in stability studies
give realistic results. Generally in stability
studies involving fault, loads are
represented as impedance model,
computed at the end of initial load flow
solution taking the power and the bus
voltage. However, this model will not hold
good for the realistic
systemrepresentation, that too for studies
pertaining to controlled system separation
and load shedding. For such studies, loads
are represented as a function of both
voltage and frequency [1]. Voltage
dependency of the load is represented
using the polynomial model. Constant
power, constant current and constant
impedance coefficients are obtained from
measurementstudies or computed from
composite model of the load. Frequency
dependency coefficient is obtained from
the power number of the system.
Power Research and Development Consultants
For one Hz change in the frequency, the
change in real power is defined as the
power number of the system.Power
number of the system depends on the
base load and the load mix i.e.industrial,
commercial, domestic, agricultural etc. As
the load mix changes with season, power
number of the system also exhibits
seasonal variations.
3.4 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
and turbine & governor model
For the first swing stability study,
modeling of the AVR, turbine & governor
control system is not required. However, if
the stability study simulation is beyond the
first swing response, representation of the
AVR is a must. Further, if the simulation
study is beyond three seconds, turbine &
governor control systemrepresentation is
necessitated. In the stability studies, AVR,
turbine & governor control systems are
modeled using transfer function blocks.
Transfer function block gives the
relationship between the input and output
variables in frequency domain. Most of
the software tools for the stability studies
support the standard control blocks as
defined by IEEE [1]. However, for specific
control system model, it is advisable to
use the free programmable capability of
the software, withoutapproximating or
reducing it to standard blocks. Once the
model is represented, model validation is
Newsletter
done by single machine
performanceconnected to infinite bus or
radial load. Voltage and frequency plots
forload throw off and pickup are cross
checked with the design calculations and
commissioning reports to fine tune the
model.
3.5 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
system model
The modeling of the HVDC system becomes
important as HVDC Transmission link is
fully controllable, during transient
disturbance, the dc power can be ramped
down rapidly to reduce the
generation/load un-balance in ac system
on both sides, the dc power can be ramped
to assist in system stability by taking
advantage of the short term over load
capability of the HVDC system and from the
viewpoint of the ac system performance,
the rapid control of dc power hasthe same
beneficial effect as generator/load tripping.
HVDC system with proper control can also
damp out the low frequency oscillations in
the ac system (Figures 3 and 4).
When the load flow analysis is performed
on the AC-DC interconnected system,
constant voltage, current or power control
of the convertor station is modeled
representing the DC system as a pure
resistive network [1, 4]. The firing angle at
the rectifier station and extinction angle at
the inverter station or the converter
transformer tap setting at converter
stations arethe un-known quantities. In the
stability studies, the converter transformer
tap setting is generally fixed at the value
obtained from the initial load flow study
and the objective is to find the AC-DC
system interaction for ac system fault, dc
system fault, change in converter power
reference etc. Detailed firing angle control
system is modeled using the transfer
function block [1] along with the
VoltageDependent Current Order Limiter
(VDCOL) and other control functions. DC
link is represented as a T-model comprising
dc line series resistance, inductance and
shunt capacitance. At each time step of the
stability study, algebraic and differential
equations of the AC-DC systems are solved.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
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Newsletter

Right of way being the major hurdle for

building new lines in the system, judicious
deployment of FACTS devices has become
compulsion rather than luxury in the
present day AC system. Steady state
performance of the FACTS devices can be
modeled and studied in the load flow
analysis.However, their interac
interaction with
the other AC systems,control to enhance
the system stability anddamp
anddampingof the low
frequency oscillationsare better
understood byproper modeling of these
devices in the stability studies.
SVC, a shunt FAC FACTS device model [1]
consists of:
• The voltageage and current measuring
Figure 3: AC system voltage oscillations without HVDC system control (and filtering) circuits.
• A regulator including possible
additional signals fed to the
reference point.
• Additional control signals which are
used for damping improvement
• A distribution unit
• A model of the thyristor susceptance
control
trol module
• A model of the interface with the
power system (a controlled
susceptance)
It is recommended to obtain the exact
control circuit and the associated gains,
time constants and the limiter values from
the supplier to model the FACTS devices in
the stability studies in a realistic manner,
rather than using standard blocks and
Figure 4: AC system voltages with HVDC system damping control typical values.

3.6 Flexible AC Transmission System

(FACTS) model
AC system performance and loading can
be greatly enhanced by suitable
deployment of series and shunt FACTS
devices in the system[5]. Shunt FACTS
devices help in the reactive power
management in the AC system and there
by control the system voltage. Figure 5
showsthe improvement in the voltage
performance with individual phase
compensation static var compensator
(SVC) following a disturbance.

Series FACTS devices enhance the Figure 5: Voltage Balancing with Individual Phase Compensation SVC
powertransfer capability of the AC lines.
 Page 16 Power Research and Development Consultants
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3.7 Protection system model

For the operational studies to simulate the

grid disturbances and to fine tune the
distance and frequency relay settings, it
becomes essential to model the protection
relays. Re-shaping of thedistance relay
characteristics to avoid the load
encroachment is better performed by
modeling the distance relays (Figure 6). If
the fault iscleared beyond the critical
clearing time, themachines go out of step
and the same can be better visualized by
plotting impedance loci in R-X plane Figure 6: Distance relay simulation to ascertain the load encroachment
(Figure 7). The relay settings to achieve the
controlled system separation to avoid the
total black out is simulated by modeling
the out of step protection (Figure 8) and
under frequency and over frequency
relays.

Thequantum of load shedding to be done

to avoid the black out after the system
separation, the frequency at which the
load shedding to be done and the time
delay involved should be selected such
that the generators in the system do not
trip on under frequency (Figure 9).
Referring to figure 9, without the under
frequency load shedding, as the frequency
falls to as low as 42.7 Hz, many of the
generators would have tripped, since the Figure 7: Impedance loci when fault is cleared beyond the critical clearing time
under frequency setting for the generator
protection is generally at 47.5 Hz with 2-3
seconds time delay.

Frequency based system separation should

happen first, followed by the load
shedding and as a final resort the
generator tripping. This implies that all the
three frequency relay settings should be
properly coordinated in terms of
frequency set point and the time delay. If
the system sees higher frequency after the
islanding, it is worthwhile to trip few
generators in the system to avoid the
generator tripping on over frequency or
the turbine tripping on over speed.

Figure 8: Out of step protection operation after three slip counts

 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 17
Newsletter

Figure 10 shows the reactive power

typically drawn by two healthy feeders in a
distribution system following a fault and
removal of the faulty feeder. High reactive
current drawn by the dynamic loads in the
healthy feeders at times may trip the
feeders, if the protection settings are not
fine-tuned to overcome this issue,
specifically with delayed clearing of the
healthy feeder fault.

5.Stability studies for industrial system

Figure 9: Frequency response with and without under frequency load shedding Many of the stability case studies typically
carried out for the utility system are
4. Stability studies for utility system dynamic voltage instability assessment, alsoapplicable to the industrial system,
selection, sizing and optimal location of especially when the industrial system
Stability case studies typically performed FACTS devices, interaction between isembedded with own generation
for the utility systems are explained with different devices and their controls, (captivepower plant - CPP).
its importance in the modeling section. system performance with renewable
The case studies to be performed depend energy integration like solar and wind, Stability studies are to be conducted to
on the conclusions to be drawn from the which are infirm in nature. In those arrive at the proper grid islanding schemes
studies and the necessary corrective systems having predominantly air and required relay settings, under
actions to be taken to control and protect conditioning loads, it is necessary to frequency based load shedding within the
the interconnected system. Studies ascertain the system performance during plant after the load shedding so that the
typically conducted are for determining the phenomenon called sympathetic CPP generator under frequency protection
the critical clearing time for different types tripping. will not operate during that condition.
of faults, system performance during un- Starting of large motor and analysis of the
successful re-closure, equipment tripping Operation of the protection system in the voltage dip during starting is another
(n-1 and n-2 outage) following a fault, healthy feeders due to the huge current typical study generally carried out in the
generator parameter evaluation, fine being drawn by its dynamic loads when industrial systems.
tuning the AVR, turbine-governor, PSS, the faulty feeder protection system
HVDC, FACTS device control block settings, operates is termed as sympathetic
study of power swing phenomenon and tripping.
performance of distance relay blocking
settings, study of load encroachment
problems and re-shaping the distance
relay settings, arriving at under frequency
and df/dt relay based load shedding
schemes, over frequency based system
separation and generator tripping. Special
case studies to be performed are identified
based on the problems envisaged in the
operation and control of interconnected
systems. Some of the stability studies
performed are design and implementation
of special protection schemes when major
chunk of load or generation is lost (e.g.
loss of HVDC system, loss of major AC tie
lines between two interconnected
Figure 10: Reactive power drawn by healthy feeders
systems), transformer tap control and
 Page 18 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

Worst system conditions for the motor Good amount of research work is going on
starting like minimum grid fault level, to validate and improve the transient
minimum CPP generation etc. are to be stability model with the PMU data
identified and studies are conducted. In recording included.
case of arc furnace loads, the transient
voltage dip at the grid bus (PCC) and the 7. Conclusions
requirement, sizing and performance
tuning of the SVC are done using stability In this paper, an attempt is made to
studies. For the industrial plants having explain the importance of the stability
the rolling mill loads, loads are studies to practicing engineers. References
represented as cyclic loads and system to grid codes are drawn to insist that the
voltage and frequency variations are stability studies should be conducted to
ascertained. This study will help to take ascertain the transient and dynamic
appropriate decision to run the plant behavior of the power system, following
rolling mills or varying loads with the CPP the disturbance. Modeling of equipment
without any grid support. for stability studies is discussed. Analysis
and interpretation of results are illustrated
6.Wide area measurement and its through case studies under each section.
application
8. References
To facilitate the wide area monitoring,
control and disturbance analysis, to [1] Prabha Kundur , “Power System Stability
minimize the future black outs caused due and Control”, (Book), McGraw-Hill Professional
to the cascade tripping, there is a growing Publishing, 1994.
interest in Phasor Measurement Unit
[2] J.Arrillaga, “Computer Modeling of Electrical
(PMU). The introduction of PMU
Power Systems”, (Book), Wiley-Blackwell, 2nd
technology can significantly improve Edition, 2001.
theobservability of the power system
dynamics. It can warn system operators of [3] Edward Wilson Kimbark , “Power System
potential problems more quickly during Stability”, (Book), Volumes I, II, III , Wiley-IEEE
critical situations. PMUs would be very Press, 1995
useful in determining where and how to
perform system separation to limit the [4] K.R.Padiyar, “HVDC Power Transmission
Systems”, (Book), New Age International, 1990
effect of the system disturbance.
[5] K.R.Padiyar, “FACTS Controllers in Power
The major areas of applications of PMU Transmission and Distribution”, (Book), New
are Age International P Ltd, 2007

• Wide area systems dynamic

recording
• Real time system state
determination
• Phase angle monitoring
applications
• System oscillations monitoring
• Wide area protection and control
• Model validation
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
Small Signal Stability in Power Systems
I. Introduction
Historically, transient (angle or
synchronous) stability has been a major
concern in the system operation. It was
anticipated that the introduction of high
gain AVR and fast acting exciter will help in
the improvement of transient stability in
addition to the increase in steady state
stability limit. It is to be noted that the
AVR acts to overcome the armature
reaction and thus reduce the effective
reactance of the generators (from Xd to
around X'd ). As a matter of fact, modern
turbo-generators cannot operate at full
rated power, as the synchronous
reactance, Xd, is around 2.0 pu.
Although transient stability can be
improved by fast acting excitation system
with high gain AVR, this introduces a new
problem of oscillatory instability of the
equilibrium (operating) point. Even small
perturbations in the system caused by
random load changes can lead to loss of
synchronous stability (loss of synchronism)
due to undamped (growing) oscillations
which appear as spontaneous and cannot
be predicted as the result of an observable
major disturbance.
The system operators observed that
tripping (or disabling) of the AVR resulted
in damping of the oscillations. However,
this is not a viable strategy. DeMello and
Concordia (1969) presented a simplified
analysis of the problem, using Heffron-
Phillips constants defined for a SMIB
system (Padiyar, 2002). It was explained
that the problem of oscillatory instability is
aggravated at peak loading conditions and
high system impedances(viewed from the
generator terminals). In general, the major
factors that contribute to the instability
are:
a) Loading of the generator or tie line
b) Power transfer capability of the
transmission lines and
c) Power factor of the generator. The
leading power factor operation is more
problematic than the lagging power factor
operation.
Page 19
Prof. K. R. Padiyar
A cost efficient and satisfactory solution to Real solutions for ?D and D define
the problem of oscillatory instability is to equilibrium values. In general, equilibrium
provide damping for the generator rotor values are functions of the parameters ‘B’.
oscillations. This is conveniently done by
providing Power System Stabilizers (PSS) Considering small perturbations around
? ?D F,
which are supplementary controllers in the equilibrium point, we can define
the excitation systems. The control signal D
VS in Fig.1 (which shows the block diagram
for a static exciter)is the output of a PSS and obtain the linearized state equation
Fig 1: Block diagram of static exciter
F@ GH F
which has input signal derived from speed (3)
(rotor velocity) or frequency or electrical
power (or a combination of these
IA IA IC IC
where,
GH GJ ,G
variables). The objective of PSS design is to
I? I I? J I
increase the damping torque on the
generator rotor without affecting the
Note that G H is termed as the system
synchronizing torque at the critical
Jacobian and GJ is the load flow Jacobian.
frequencies.
It is assumed that the load flow Jacobian is
II. Basic Concepts of Stability of non-singular.
Equilibrium Point
The stability of the equilibrium point is
We can describe the mathematical model judged by the location of the eigenvalues
of a power system by the following set of of the system Jacobian matrix. If the real
differential and algebraic equations (DAE). parts of all eigenvalues of the system
?@ A <?, , B=
Jacobian are negative, the system is
(1) asymptotically stable. If one or more
0 C <?, , B=
eigenvalues have positive real part, then
(2) the system is unstable.
Where ? is the state (variable) vector
Although the criterion is valid for very
defining the dynamic (differential) small perturbations(caused by small,
equations. is the vector of voltage random load changes), several analytical
magnitudes and angles at buses other studies (Busby,1979, Van Ness,1980) show
than the generator internal buses. ‘B’ is a excellent correlation between theory and
vector of transmission and load field tests.
parameters (which are assumed to be
then obtain equilibrium values (?@D and D@ )
constant at an operating point). We can For classical models of generators
of ? and by equating ?@D 0 and thus
(represented by constant voltage sources
behind transient reactance), neglecting
solving for A 0, C 0.
damping, we can derive a second order
 Page 20 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

vector differential equation given by systems which can be divided into distinct synthesized from the electric power and
KB Δ* MΔ*(4)
areas and which are separated by long speed signals.
distances. For systems in which the The gain of PSS is to be chosen to provide
generating stations are distributed adequate damping of all the critical modes
where M is a diagonal matrix with
OP
KNN
uniformly over a geographical area, it under various operating conditions. The
QR
(SN is the inertia constant of would be difficult to distinguish between critical modes include not only local and
machine ‘ ’). Neglecting losses, M#N
TUVW local and interarea modes from physical interarea modes, but other modes (termed
TXP considerations. However, a common as control or exciter modes) introduced by
where D# is the power output of machine
‘'’. The matrix M is singular and has the
observation is that the interarea modes the excitation system and/or torsional

rank Y <Z 1= where ‘Z’ is the number

have lowest frequency and highest filter.
participation from generators in the It is to be noted that PSS is to be tuned at a

<Z 1= relative angles that can be

of machines. This indicates that there are system spread over a wide geographical particular operating condition which is
area. most critical. This leads to optimum
defined . There is no loss of generality in damping at the critical operating condition

Thus, the <Z 1= vector of relative angles rotor are adequate to damp intra-plant
assuming the machine 1 as the reference. The amortisseur circuits on a generator and satisfactory damping at other
operating conditions. The output of PSS
can be expressed as: modes. PSS is designed mainly to stabilize must be limited to prevent PSS acting

Δ* [ ∑e N 1\N cos `N a bN sin `N a6 (5) must be taken to avoid unfavourable

local and interarea modes. However, care counter to the AVR action. For example,
N& when load rejection takes place, the AVR

Where Δ* [ fΔ* Δ*4 … . Δ*e hi is the

interaction with intra-plant modes.
(Δ*#
Δ*# Δ* , j , … . je , b , b , … . be
vector of relative angles III. Design of PSS
are The block diagram of a PSS used in
scalars depending on the initial industry is shown in Fig.2. The washout
conditions). circuit ensures that the output of PSS is
zero in steady state. The PSS is expected
The structure of the vector N depicts the to respond only to transient variations in
acts to reduce the terminal voltage
whereas the PSS action calls for a higher
value of the terminal voltage due to
increase in the speed or frequency. It may
even be necessary to trip the PSS in case of
load rejection. The negative limit of PSS
output is of importance during the
backswing of the rotor. While AVR action is

oscillatory mode whose frequency is `N . be required with speed input signal as it is

participation of various machines in the the input signal. The torsional filter may required to maintain the voltage and
prevent loss of synchronism (after the
Typically, the frequency varies from 0.2 to inherently sensitive to the presence of angularseparation has increased). PSS
3.5 Hz. The radian frequencies are torsional oscillations at frequencies in the action in the negative direction must be
obtained as the square roots of the non- range of 8-20 Hz. This can lead to negative curtailed more than in the positive

fK Mh.
zero and real eigenvalues of the matrix damping of the torsional mode. direction.

In a practical system, the various modes of

oscillation can be grouped into 3 broad
categories. (Larsen and Swann,1981)
1) Intra-plant modes in which only the
generators in a plant participate.
The frequencies of these modes are Fig 2: Block diagram of PSS
higher up to 3.5 Hz.
2) Local modes in which several The transfer function of the dynamic
generators in an area participate. compensator, T(s) is typically given by IV. Stabilization through HVDC Converter
the frequencies are in the range of and FACTS Controllers
mn < 3 o =< 3 op =
0.8-1.8 Hz. k <l= < 3 o =< 3 oq=
(6) It is now a well-established practice to
k r k , k r k
3) Interarea modes in which
generators over an extensive area where, 4 s In general, the apply fast acting high power electronic
participate. The oscillation compensator provides a phase lead in the controllersused in the transmission
frequencies are low and in the range of frequencies of swing modes.The network for the modulationof power flow
range of 0.2-0.5 Hz. required phase lead depends on the in a line fordamping oscillations.The first
It is to be noted that the distinction exciterresponse and the control signal such application was in HVDC links using
between the local modes and interarea used. The acceleration signaltends tobethe converter controls.The control signals used
modes applies mainly to those best input signal to use and can be are bus frequency deviations or power flow
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 21
Newsletter

in a parallel AC tie. The power modulation of troublesome swing modes is normally [6] Byerly et al.(1982).Eigenvalue analysis
(normally applied at the rectifier station) is done by experiments and transient of synchronizing power flow
the primary damping control. However, records of relevant system variables. Also, oscillations in large electric power
with weak AC systems (low SCRs), both design of damping controllers requires systems. IEEE Trans.PAS-100(1),
active and reactive power modulation are more detailed system models that capture pp.235-243
implemented using rectifier and inverter the dynamics of interest. In this context,
stations. Also, the modulation of extinction Selective Modal Analysis (SMA) techniques [7] Wong D.Y. et al.(1988).Eigenvalue
angle at the inverter, in response to the AC developed at MIT (Perez-Arriaga,1982) are analysis of very large power systems.
voltage magnitude signal can avoid voltage of interest. IEEE Trans. Power Systems,103(2),
instability. pp.472-480
Generally, we consider reduced system
Small signal power modulation models with adequate detail for analysis [8] Perez-Arriaga et al.(1982).Selective
implemented at Pacific DC intertie has and control design. Padiyar(2002) modal analysis with applications to
helped to prevent interarea mode of 1/3 describes modeling techniques based on electric power systems ,Part I: Heuristic
Hz from reducing power transfer capability identifying individual dynamic devices and introduction; Part II: The dynamic
of a parallel AC tie. The power or current their connections to the network. The AC stability problem. IEEE Trans.PAS-
modulation has now become a standard network is modeled by linearized algebraic 101(9), pp.3117-3134
practice.HVDC technology of using equations using rectangular or polar
thyristor valves for control was extended coordinates. For tuning multiple damping
to develop Static Var Compensators (SVC) controllers, one can use nonlinear
for voltage regulation and Thyristor programming techniques that consider
Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) for constraints on the locations of eigenvalues
power flow control. These controllers in a sector in the LHP of s-domain.
belong to the first generation of FACTS
controllers. Supplementary Modulation VI. References
Controllers (SMC) has been applied for
reactive power modulation in SVC and [1] Padiyar K.R. (2002). Power System
help to damp swing modes. Similarly, Dynamics-Stability and Control
power swing damping control is an (Second Edition), Hyderabad: BS
auxiliary control in TCSC that supplement Publications
PSS action. New and emerging FACTS
controllers such as STATCOM, SSSC, UPFC [2] DeMello F.P and C.Concordia
and IPFC are based on Voltage Source (1969).Concepts of synchronous
Converters that use self-commutated machine stability as affected by
devices such as GTO or IGBT. STATCOM is excitation control IEEE Trans. PAS-
a shunt controller that may replace SVC 88(4),pp.316-329
and the reactive power modulation is
[3] Busby et al. (1979).Dynamic stability
expected to improve small signal stability.
improvement at Monticello station-
V. System Models and Modal Analysis in analytical study and field tests IEEE
Large Power Systems Trans.PAS-98(3), pp.889-901

In the eighties, computer programs for the [4] Van Ness J.E. et al.(1980).Analytical
eigenvalue analysis of large power systems investigations of dynamic instability
have been developed. Examples are, occurring at Powerton station. IEEE
AESOPS (Analysis of Essentially Trans.PAS-99(4), pp.1386-1395
Spontaneous Oscillations in Power
Systems)(Byerly,1982) and PEALS [5] Larsen E.V. and D.A. Swann
(Program for Eigenvalues of Large (1981).Applying Power System
Systems)(Wong,1988). These programs Stabilizers-Parts I,II and III .IEEE Trans.
generally consider classical models of PAS-100(6), pp.3017-3046
generators and can handle up to 1000
generators. However, identification
 Page 22
Voltage Stability - Fundamentals and State-of-the-art
I. Introduction
Power System Stability dates back to early
20th century while the voltage stability is
of more recent times and approximately
dates back to last decades of 20th century.
Why should there be such a time gap?
Are both the phenomena different? This
question is addressed in reviewing the
fundamentals of the voltage stability. Over
the span of one century, power networks
have grown in size, sophistication and
technological advancement. The problem
of voltage instability therefore is more a
problem of large networks and hence it is
categorically said that it’s a problem of
developed countries. The problem is due
to either insufficient or inefficient
management of creating a balance
between active and reactive power
sources and loads together with their
controllers.
II. Fundamental Aspects
In 2004, CIGRE-IEEE Joint committees
revised the existing definitions in the
literature from a fundamental view point.
Broadly the committees categorized the
power system stability into a) angle
stability, (b) frequency stability and (c)
voltage stability. These three terms are
sometimes mutually inclusive and
sometimes mutually exclusive. The
phenomenon of stability is essentially of a
dynamic system and is governed by the
well established mathematical and system
theories. Thus the definitions evolved are
well within the framework of these
mathematical theories. The rotor angle
stability and frequency stability are
governed by differential equations
concerning rotor dynamics. But
thevoltagestability is being viewed both as
a dynamic problem and also as a static
problem. The following are some
definitions of voltage stability as given by
the said committee and text book
literature.
Definitions [1, 2, 3]:
(1) A power system at any given operating
state and subjected to a given
disturbanceis voltage stable, if voltages
near loadsapproach post disturbance
equilibriumvalues.
Power Research and Development Consultants
Dr. G.Govinda Rao
(2) A power system ata givenoperating
state and subjected to a given disturbance
undergoes voltage collapse if post
disturbance equilibrium values are below
acceptable limits. Voltage collapse may be
total or partial black out.
(3) Voltage instability stems from an
attempt of load dynamics to restore
power consumption beyond the capability
of the combined transmission and
generation systems.
III. Transmission Capabilities of Real and
Reactive Powers
The steady state load flow equations put a
power limit transferable to loads. The
active power can be transmitted over
longer distances compared to reactive
power, because the transmission lines are
less resistive and more reactive causing
more losses in the case of reactive power.
Fig. 1 shows the block schematic of the
classification of voltage stability.
Fig 1: Voltage Stability Categories
The long-term voltage stability problem
can further be classified into two
categories. In the first one, the problem is
that of long term dynamic system and in
the second one the ‘long–term’
accommodates the generators to settle to
their quasi- steady state. However, the
voltage of buses fall out drastically to very
low values, often referred as voltage
collapse creating black-out or brown-out
conditions, commonly seen in several
western countries.
IV. Voltage Instability Considered as a
Dynamic Problem
Power system stability problem
isessentially keeping two or more
generators in synchronism.The set
ofdifferential equations governing
rotordynamicstogether withthe
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flow equations
aresimultaneously/sequentially solved to
test for instability and to arrive at control
strategies. Along with rotor angles and
speeds, the bus voltage magnitudes are
also computed following a large or small
disturbance. Following a disturbance if the
bus voltage falls below the acceptable
limits, the phenomenon can be referred to
as voltage instability, in the dynamic sense.
But this phenomenon is known long back
as associated with angle-stability.
The important concept of voltage
instability viewed wholly as a static viability
problem will be discussed now. In this
problem the power grid with respect to
load buses is viewed as multiport static
transmission (distribution) network. The
loads are usually largely inductive. If the
generation-transmission network is
incapable of supplying the load reactive
power for set active powers, the bus
voltages drastically fall to very low and
unacceptable values creating voltage
collapse conditions. Similar conditions also
prevail if the network is unable to supply
active loads. For analysis purpose, a P-Q
load at a bus is considered, treating rest of
the grid as Thevenin’s voltage source. The
equation relating the source voltage, load
voltage, impedance parameters and P&Q
of the load play a central role in
determining voltage stability of the load,
stability margins and the remedial
strategies to be adopted using Q-V and P-V
curves [1, 2, 5].
V. The Role of Q-V Characteristic
Because the transmission network is largely
an inductive network, reactive power
cannot be transmitted over long distances,
as much as the real power can be
transmitted.
The reference [5] presents a complete Q-V
characteristic analysis giving exact
expressions for voltage collapse point i.e.
the nose of the Q-V characteristic. The
distance of any operating point from the
nose point gives the reactive power
margin. A family of Q-Vcharacteristics
fordifferent real powers help in scheduling
generator powers.The Q-V and P-
Vcharacteristics are usually based on a
 Power Research and Development Consultants
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model containing a generator(as aslack
bus) feeding P-Q load via a lossless line.
With respect to a power grid delivering a
P-Q load, the grid is considered as a
Thevenin’s equivalent. The best way of
getting this Thevenin’s equivalent together
with its limitations is discussed elaborately
in [6]. This model can be used only for a
rough assessment of voltage stability
margin. The regular load flow methods are
to be used for accurate assessment.
The Voltage-instability can also be viewed
as a dynamic problem wholly caused by
loads. When the loads (induction motors)
change governed by differential equations,
an Eigen value analysis for small
perturbations or a nonlinear dynamics
analysis for large disturbances, will usually
be conducted. This kind of voltage-
instability could be totally different from
the angle-instability.
VI. Voltage Stability Indices
Voltage Collapse Proximity Indicator (VCPI)
is the total change in generator reactive
power for a change in demand. Two such
VCPIPi =∑ ∆ g/∆ i
indicators are proposed in literature [1]:
VCPIqi=∑ ∆ g/∆C i
(The buses with large values of VCPI are
the most effective locations for load
shedding. The indices change from unity at
light load to almost infinity at voltage
∑ ∆ g is computed considering SVCs also
collapse)
as reactive generators.
The voltage stability for the static case is
analyzed by performing load flow studies
to determine ‘L-indices’. If there are g-
generators, and g+1 to n load buses, the L-
index for the voltage stability for the jth
load bus is given by
{
xy
Lj =1-u Fw x
; j = g+1…n
#&
z grid supplying a steel plant actuated by
All quantities in this equation are complex cyclic P-Q loads of about 80 seconds
in nature and Fji are elements of FLGmatrix. periodicity. A synchronous motor was
If the L-index is close to zero, the load bus found to be experiencing long-term
is voltage stable. If it is close tounity, the voltage instability, on simulation of the
load is nearing instability [7].
VII. State-of-the-art in Simulation an automatic voltage regulator actuated
Methodologies
For large and short-term disturbances,
generator load dynamics are analyzed
using nonlinear simulation. For small and
short-term disturbances, linearized
models (around operating region) are used
for making an Eigen value/Eigen vector
analysis. (In this it is very involving if tap
changers are used in the model.)For long-
term small or large disturbances, P-V & Q-
V analysis is performed for obtaining
stability margin. Sensitivity analysis using
L-indices is also largely being performed.
For large networks, ANN based algorithm,
Fuzzy Controlling Techniques, neuro-
computing using genetic algorithms for
optimization of active and reactive powers
are being attempted.
The EPRI and Energy Corporation have
validated a method developed by EPRI for
continuously calculating the voltage
stability margin on transmission networks
using measurements from the CT and PTs
at the substation level. The method
promises to overcome thelimitationsof
traditionalmethods that rely primarily on
simulation-based methods developed
from the data used at planning level.
VIII. Prevention of Voltage Collapse
To prevent voltage collapse, the
assessment of voltage stability along with
the available margin is very essential.
Once that is possible, the conventional
remedial measures of activating reactive
compensating devices like thyristor
controlled VAR compensators, generator
excitation controllers, on-load tap
changers etc. can be carried out. Under
voltage load shedding is also in practice to
move the operating point far from the
nose point. Adequate spinningreservealso
helps in increasing the stability margin.
IX. Author’s Experience
Case studies were conducted on a power
non-linear model of the grid. Interestingly,
Page 23
by deviations in voltage across motor
terminals resulted in the stability of
synchronous motor with a constancy of
voltage across motor terminals. Further,
the fluctuating reactive load also was
causing fluctuations in the voltage at the
load bus as well as fluctuations in tie-line
power oscillations. A Static VAR
compensator designed suitably resulted in
a minimal fluctuation and a flat voltage
profile.
X. Conclusion
The phenomenon of voltage-instability is
very subtle and here is a quote by one of
pioneering authors, Carsow W. Taylor:
“May be I can’t define voltage stability, but
I know it, when I see it”.
XI. References:
[1] ‘Power System Voltage Stability’, Carson W.
Taylor, McGraw-Hill International Edition,
1994.
[2] ‘Voltage Stability of Electric Power
Systems’, Thierry van custemcostas
vicunas, Springer, 1998, ISBN 0792381394
[3] ‘Definitions - Classification of Power System
Stability’, IEEE-CIGRE, IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, Vol. 19, No.2, May 2004.
[4] ‘EPRI and Entergy Validate Measurement-
Based Voltage Stability Monitoring to
Improve Grid Reliability and capacitive
effectiveness’, EPRI News Release Feb
2009.
[5] ‘Voltage Stability: Some Refection on Q-V
Characteristics of Loads’, G. Govinda Rao,
H. P. Khincha, D. Thukaram, proceedings
1998, Int. conf. on EMPD, Singapore, IEEE
Catalog No. 98EX137.
[6] “Model Validation Studies in Obtaining Q-V
characteristics of PQ Loads in Respect of
Reactive Power Management and Voltage
Stability”, G. Govinda Rao, K. V. S. R.
Murthy, IEEE International Conference on
Power Electronics, Drives and Energy
Systems for Industrial Growth PEDES, New
Delhi, Dec, 2006.
[7] “An Expert Fuzzy Control Approach to
Voltage Stability Enhancement”, A.
NarendranathUdupa, D.Thukaram,
K.Parthasarathy, ELSEVIER, Electric Power
and Energy Systems 21 (1999) pp. 279-287.
[8] “Voltage Dependent Reactive Power Limits
for Voltage Stability Studies”, P. A. Lof, G.
Anderson and D. J. Hill, IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems, Vol.10, No.1, Feb.1995.
 Page 24
1. Introduction
There are basically four attributes to
define the power quality of a given power
system viz., voltage, frequency, unbalance
in the system and harmonics. Voltage
should be within the acceptable limit as
per the specific grid codes both during
steady state and transient conditions. Due
to various measures taken by the CTU and
STUs in India, the voltage at the 220 kV
and 400 kV levels have considerably
improved in the recent past. At places, it is
the over voltage problem compared to
under voltage during steady state
condition. Again referring to Indian grid,
after the introduction of the ABT and UI
mechanism, the discipline has been
brought in the grid and the frequency is
more are less steady around 49.7 Hz to
50.1 Hz. Unbalance in the distribution
network causes the shift in the neutral
voltage and also the neutral current flow,
resulting in voltage drop and increased
losses. Unbalance in the high voltage
system, especially due to traction load
causes the negative sequence current to
flow in the generators, resulting in
additional heating. Harmonic content in
the voltage and the current in the system
should be within the acceptable limits and
this paper discusses power quality issue
related to harmonics.
Any load or device that does not draw a
sinusoidal current when excited by a
sinusoidal voltage of the same
frequency is termed a nonlinear load.
The most common are switching
devices, such as solid-state converters,
which force the conduction of currents
for only certain periods and, to a lesser
extent, saturable impedance devices
such as transformers with nonlinear
voltage vs. impedance characteristics. A
nonlinear load is considered a source
Power Research and Development Consultants
Harmonic Studies
Dr. R. Nagaraja
of harmonic currents, where harmonic
frequencies are generally considered to be
integer multiples of the system frequency.
However, certain nonlinear loads, such as
an arc furnace or a cyclo-convertor, may
also have non-integer harmonic
frequencies in addition to the expected
integer harmonics. References [1] to [6]
cover in depth the harmonic issues, power
system equipment modelling techniques
for harmonic analysis and harmonic
problem mitigation techniques. Reference
[7] discusses the computer modelling for
the harmonic power flow program, input
and output expected out of the program
and interpretation of results.
2. Purpose of harmonic study
With the growing installation of nonlinear
loads in commercial buildings and
industrial plants, which may be in the
range of 30% to 50% of the total load, the
effects of harmonics within the system
and their impact on the utility and
neighboring loads needs to be examined
before any complaints are made,
equipment is damaged, or production is
lost. Harmonic analysis plays an important
role in characterizing and understanding
the extent of harmonic problems.
Harmonic studies are often performed
when,
• Finding a solution to an existing
harmonic problem
• Installing large capacitor banks on
utility distribution systems or industrial
power systems
• Installing large nonlinear devices or
loads
• Designing a harmonic filter
• Converting a power factor capacitor
bank to a harmonic filter
3. Harmonic causes and its effects:
Harmonics are a distortion of the normal
electrical current waveform, generally
transmitted by nonlinear loads.
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Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS),
variable speed motors and drives,
photocopiers, personal computers, laser
printers, fax machines, battery chargers
and UPSs are examples of nonlinear loads.
Single-phase non-linear loads are prevalent
in modern office buildings, while three-
phase, non-linear loads are widespread in
factories and industrial plants.
These non-linear loads create significant
distortion in the electrical current and
voltage wave shape. The distortion travels
back into the power source and can affect
other equipment connected to the same
source. It should be noted that the
fundamental component of the current
flows from the generating station to the
load point, while the harmonic current
flows from the nonlinear load point which
are sources of harmonic to the generating
station, linear loads and filters. In view of
this, the harmonic voltages are maximum
at the load points and minimum at the
generating stations.
Most power systems can accommodate a
certain level of harmonic currents but will
experience problems when harmonics
become a significant component of the
overall load. As these higher frequency
harmonic currents flow through the power
system, they can cause communication
errors, overheating and hardware damage,
such as:
• Overheating of electrical distribution
equipment, cables, transformers,
standby generators, etc.
• High voltages and circulating currents
caused by harmonic resonance
• Equipment malfunctions due to
excessive voltage distortion
• Increased internal energy losses
inconnected equipment, causing
component failure and shortened life
span
 Power Research and Development Consultants
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• False tripping of branch circuit
breakers
• Metering errors
• Fires in wiring and distribution
systems
• Generator failures
•
Crest factors and related problems
• Lower system power factor, resulting
in penalties on monthly utility bills Where,
4. Harmonic Standards “V 1 ” is fundamental
voltage.
The harmonic studies are generally carried “h” is harmonic order from 2 to n
out based on the guidelines given by the
utility grid code or the IEEE or IEC Total
(I
standards. The guidelines outlined in the THD
standards are designed to limit harmonic
currents from individual customers and
equipment so that harmonic voltage levels
on the overall power system will be
acceptable. Where,
Harmonic limits are typically evaluated at
the point of common coupling (PCC)
between the power supply utility and the
plant load. The responsibility of the plant
substation consumer is to ensure that the
limits are not exceeded by the harmonic
distortion generated within their facility.
These limits can also be applied to
individual buses throughout an electrical
distribution system to reduce the harmful
effects of the harmonic currents.
4.1 IEEE Standards
IEEE STD 519-1992 guideline [8],
elaborates harmonic current and voltage
distortion limits. The IEEE 519 standard
provides two limits one for voltage and
one for current. Voltage limits are based
on the bus voltage level at the PCC
whereas the current limits vary by the
ratio of short circuit current at the PCC
divided by the load current. It should be
noted that as the short circuit ratio
increases, that is load current decreases,
higher limits are allowed. This is due to the
fact that although more distortion is
allowable the overall magnitude of the
distorted current is smaller. This will tend
to have a less significant effect on the
power system.
The definition of key harmonic
indicesanalyzed to assess system
performance is
Page 25
as summarized below:- consumed by all of the loads on the
system when the system is at peak
Total Voltage Harmonic Distortion
demand. The denominator used in this
(VTHD) defined as -
ratio does not change with load.
n
∑ V h
2
V THD (%) = h=2 Since IEEE standard 519 harmonic current
X 100
V1 limits are written in terms of percentage
of full load current, IL (TDD), and not as a
percentage of fundamental current, I1
(ITHD), studies at partial load are usually not
component of line worth the effort. In general, full load
operation is the worst case condition
toanalyze in harmonic studies. Further the
TDD will always be less than or equal to
Current Harmonic Distortion
) defined as - ITHD. At the full load TDD equals ITHD.
4.2 IEC Standards
n
Unlike the IEEE standards on harmonics
∑
h = 2
I 2h
where there is only a single publication
I THD (%) = X 100
I1 covering all issues related to harmonics, IEC
standards on harmonics [9] are separated
into several publications.
“I1” is fundamental current magnitude
“Ih“ is current magnitude of each There are standards dealing with
harmonic order h environments and limits which are further
broken down based on the voltage and
The ITHD represents the total harmonic
current levels. These key standards are as
current distortion of the wave form at the
follows:
particular moment when the
measurement is taken. It is the ratio of • IEC 61000-2-2 (1993): Electromagnetic
the rms value harmonic current to the Compatibility (EMC). Part 2:
fundamental (non-harmonic) current Environment. Section 2: Compatibility
measured for that load point and usually Levels for Low-Frequency Conducted
expressed as percentage. Note that the Disturbances and Signaling in Public
denominator used in this ratio changes Low-Voltage Power Supply Systems.
with load.
• IEC 61000-3-2 (2000): Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC). Part 3: Limits.
Total Demand Distortion (TDD) defined
Section 2: Limits for Harmonic Current
as -
Emissions (Equipment Input Current Up
to and Including 16 A per Phase).
n
∑ I 2h • IEC 61000-3-4 (1998): Electromagnetic
h = 2
TDD (%) = X 100 Compatibility (EMC). Part 3: Limits.
IL
Section 4: Limitation of Emission of
Harmonic Currents in Low-Voltage
Where, Power Supply Systems for Equipment
with Rated Current Greater Than 16 A.
“IL” is maximum demand load current
(fundamental frequency current) at PCC. • IEC 61000-3-6 (1996): Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC). Part 3: Limits.
Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is the ratio
of the rms value of the harmonic current Section 6: Assessment of Emission
Limits for Distorting Loads in MV and
to the maximum demand load current
HV Power Systems. Basic EMC
(full load fundamental frequency current).
The full load fundamental current is the publication.
total amount of non-harmonic current
 Page 26
Depending on the utility practice and the
standard being applied, which is generally
county or utility specific, relevant
standards are to be referred for the
harmonic distortion limits for both voltage
and current.
4.3 Utility Grid Code
Most of the utility grid codes specify the
maximum total levels of harmonic
distortion at different voltage levels in the
system. Table 1 gives the distortion limits
specified in a typical grid code. Unless
otherwise specified, generally these
distortion limits are for the voltage
harmonics. Further, specifications do not
refer to the fault level at the bus. It is very
important to understand that consumer
cannot be responsible to limit the grid
voltage harmonic distortion limits to these
values. For the consumer perspective, it is
the current harmonic distortion limits as
specified by IEEE or IEC standard, which
only can be controlled. It is the
responsibility of the utility to find out the
voltage distortion arising out of these
consumers and limit the additional/new
connections on to weak buses in the
system and ensure that the voltage
harmonic distortions are within the limit.
Table 1: Typical grid code for harmonic
distortion level
Voltage Total
Individual
distortion in %
Level in distortion
kV in % Odd Even
69 3.0 2.0 1.0
132 1.5 1.0 0.5
220 1.5 1.0 0.5
4.4 Selection of current harmonic limit as
per IEEE Std.
The basis of selecting the individual
current harmonic limit depends on the
ratio of Isc (maximum short circuit current
at PCC) and IL (maximum demand load
current (fundamental frequency
component at PCC). The fault level Isc is
computed at the PCC from the short circuit
study of the given network and maximum
load current IL is considered from the load
Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
flow study or the measurements Step 4: Develop solutions (filter, etc.) and
conducted. Table 2 gives the typical investigate possible adverse system
calculation for the Total Demand interactions. Also, check the sensitivity of
Distortion (TDD) for different voltage the results to important variables. If the
levels based on IEEE Std. solution is based on the filter design, the
filter is selected such that at fundamental
5. Harmonic Analysis Procedure frequency, the filter compensates the
reactive power requirement at the plant
Procedure for the harmonic analysis to improve the power factor.
depends on the basic question as whether
the analysis is for the existing system or Step 5: After the installation of proposed
for the proposed system. If the analysis is solutions, perform monitoring to verify
for the existing system, harmonic the correct operation of the system.
measurements are done at the plant using
the power/harmonic analyzers. However, if the analysis is for the
Measurement values are cross checked proposed system, studies are done based
with the appropriate applicable standard. entirely on the simulation. The proposed
If the values are not within the acceptable plant is modelled in the harmonic study
limit, filter or remedial measures are software tool [7]. The nonlinear loads are
suggested and harmonic simulation modelled as current injecting sources. The
studies are done to ascertain the effect of magnitude of the current at each
filters. Following are the steps involved in harmonic frequency is arrived from the
the harmonic analysis for an existing plant data furnished by the equipment supplier
- or empirical formula or the measurement
Step 1: Determine the objectives of the conducted at similar installations at other
study. The objective might be to identify sites or as per standards. Harmonic
what is causing an existing problem. analysis software tool gives the current
Another might be to determine if a new distortion at the series elements and
plant expansion containing equipment voltage distortion at different buses.
such as adjustable-speed drives and These values are compared with the
capacitors is likely to have problems. applicable standards and if not within the
Step 2: Make measurements of the limit, remedial measures are suggested and
existing harmonic conditions. simulated. Once the plant is commissioned,
it is worthwhile to conduct the
Step 3: Study the new circuit condition
measurements at site to ascertain the
or existing problem.
simulation values.
Table 2: Typical calculation for the selection of allowable current Harmonics limit
Load current
Bus Fault
in A Ratio =
Voltage current TDD Basis from reference [8]
(Series Isc/IL
level in A
branch)
Current Distortion Limits for
General Transmission Systems
220 kV 9800 450 21.78 2.5
(>161 kV)
Isc/IL <50
Current Distortion Limits for
General Sub transmission
132 kV 8200 245 33.47 4 Systems (69001 V through
161000 V)
20<Isc/IL<50
Current Distortion Limits for
General Distribution Systems
33 kV 12400 225 55.11 12
(120 V through 69000 V)
50<Isc/IL<100
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
6. Harmonic Analysis Data Collection
Entire system data required for load flow
and fault study are required for the
harmonic study also. In addition to above
data, specific attention should be given to
following data -
Transformer winding connections –
As winding connection provides the
path for certain harmonic currents
and blocks specific harmonic current,
exact representation of the winding
connection and the phase shift angle
arising out of the vector connection
should be collected.
Capacitor values and locations
(critical) – In the power flow study,
generally the current limiting reactor
or filter reactor associated with the
capacitor banks are not represented.
The effective MVAR at fundamental
frequency is sufficient to be modelled
for the load flow study. In the
harmonic analysis study, exact
representation of reactor value is very
much essential. If there is no reactor
in the capacitor circuit, for all
harmonic frequencies, as long as there
exists specific frequency harmonic
voltage, capacitor injects the
corresponding frequency harmonic
current into the system. If the current
limiting reactor value is say 6%, then
around 4thharmonic frequency, the
inductor-capacitor circuit resonates,
resonate frequency being 204.12 Hz
on 50 cycle fundamental frequency
th
basis. Till 4 harmonic frequency, the
capacitor bank acts as capacitive
circuit and injects the harmonic
current to bus. Above 4th harmonic
frequency, the capacitor bank acts as
inductive circuit and absorbs the
harmonic current, depending on the
th
impedance path. As such, 4
harmonic current presence in the
system is very minimum, 6% current
limiting reactor is referred to as de-
tuned reactor.
Page 27
This also minimizes the 2nd and 3rd conducted with the minimum fault level at
harmonic current injection by the the grid bus.
filter bank to the system, as the
presence of 2nd and 3rd harmonic Some of the harmonic study requirements
voltages in the system are less. In specify that the background harmonics in
certain designs, the current limiting the grid be considered for the simulation
reactor is selected as 0.2%, if the bus study. If the background harmonic is
fault level is less and the inrush considered as voltage source, voltage
current is controlled to acceptable harmonic distortion will not change at the
limits. With 0.2% reactor, the source bus (generally considered as PCC)
resonant frequency lies between 22 with the plant under study being
and 23 harmonic order, resonating represented. Author is of the opinion that
frequency being 1118 Hz on 50 cycle it is better to represent the background
fundamental frequency basis. harmonics in the grid as current source.
Capacitor bank with this arraignment The magnitude of the current source is
acts as capacitive circuit up to 22nd adjusted in proportion to IEEE current
harmonic. If in the plant, 5th, 7th and limits so that required total voltage
11th harmonic voltages are present, distortion at the PCC is obtained. In this
the capacitor bank starts injecting the model, if the plant load has more linear
corresponding harmonic currents, loads, the overall distortion at the PCC
there by amplifying the harmonic may come down. If the plant load has
currents in the plant or system. It is more nonlinear loads and no harmonic
better to ascertain the harmonic filters are present in the plant, then the
levels in the plant and then decide the voltage harmonic distortion at the PCC will
reactor value. Cost cutting done in the increase. Representation of the
selection of the reactor at 0.2% will background harmonic is also required to
create the problems in the plant at arrive at the voltage and current ratings of
the later date, if the lower order the filter element within the plant.
harmonic voltages are present in the
system. Peak load demand – Load flow
studies will reveal the peak load
Harmonic spectra for nonlinear loads demand. For the existing plants, the
– Harmonic sources or nonlinear loads peak load demand can be obtained
can be represented as current through measurements at site or
readings obtained from the panel
injection sources or voltage sources.
Values of the injected currents should meters.
be determined by measurement. In
the absence of measurements, 7. Harmonic Measurement
standard manufacturer data can be Objectives of the harmonic measurements
assumed for the study. are to identify power quality problems, to
minimize the losses in the production
Grid fault level and background process and to increase the plant
harmonics in the grid – In the fault productivity. Benefits of power quality
study, the grid fault level is measurement are preventive and
considered to be the maximum to predictive maintenance, determining the
determine the maximum interrupting need of mitigation equipment, ensuring
capabilities of the breaker within the equipment performance and sensitivity
plant. For harmonic study, prevailing assessment of the equipment to
fault level at the grid bus should be disturbance. The issues related to
considered and studies are also to be measuring are sampling rate, accuracy,
 Page 28 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

precision, resolution, bandwidth Table 3: Harmonic Injection for the Sample

amplitude/frequency, differential mode System
argument and frequency, anti-aliasing discussed. The reference to relevant
filter, sampling window width, flag when standards on harmonic analysis is covered.
hardware & software error occurs, flag The importance of harmonic study for the
when some frequency components proposed plant and the various
present in the signal is not recorded and measurement aspects for the existing
instrument immunity to disturbance in the plants are discussed.
supply voltage.
It is concluded that harmonic study should
Typical power quality monitoring (PQM) be taken up in the beginning of the plant
parameters measured are voltage and design stage itself, rather than facing
current harmonics up to 49th harmonics, 9. Conclusions surprises and equipment failures once the
waveforms of voltage and current, In this paper, power system harmonic, one plant is commissioned.
trending of these values, sag and swell of the major power quality issues is
events of voltage waveforms, THD and
individual harmonic distortions,
fundamental and total power
measurements. Types of PQM instruments
commercially available are wiring and
grounding test device, oscilloscope,
disturbance analyzer, power analyzer or
network analyzer, flicker meter and energy
monitor device.
Figures 1 and 2 give the typical
measurement results. The format and the
presentation may change as the
instruments used to measure differ. But
the inferences to be drawn are the same, Figure 1: Typical individual current harmonic distribution obtained from the
whatever the meters we use. measurement

8. Case Study
Figure 3 shows the typical system
considered for the harmonic study. The
encircled region in the system is the area
of concern in the harmonic study. Table 3
gives the 5th , 7th and 11th harmonic
current injection because of the non linear
load at the plant. From the harmonic
power flow, it is found that the harmonic
voltage distortions are not acceptable.
Figure 4 gives the bar graph showing the
harmonic distortion at few buses in the
system. As the harmonic voltage
distortions are not within the limit, filters
are proposed in the plant as shown in
figure 5. Figure 6 gives the bar graph
showing the voltage harmonic distortion
after the incorporation of the filter.It is
found that the voltage harmonic
distortions are within the limits in the Figure 2: Voltage and current harmonic distribution for entire spectrum at a specific time
entire system.
Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 29
Newsletter

Figure 3: Typical Problem Considered for Harmonic Analysis

Figure 4: Harmonic Distortion at Typical Buses

 Page 30 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

Figure 5: 5th , 7th and 11th Harmonic Filter Values

Figure 6: Harmonic Distortion with Filter

10. References

[1] J. Arrillaga, D. A. Bradley, P. S. Bodger, [5] G. T. Heydt, “Electric Power Quality”, [8] IEEE Guide for harmonic control and
“Power system harmonics”, Wiley, Stars in a Circle Publications, second reactive compensation of Static Power
1985. edition, 1994, Avarua, Rarotonga, Converters, IEEE Std. 519-1992.
Cook Islands.
[2] R. C. Duagan, M. F. Mcgranaghan and [9] IEC Sub-Committee 77A report,
H. W. Beaty, “Electric Power System [6] Arindam Ghosh, and Gerard Ledwich ΄΄Disturbances Caused by Equipment
Quality”, McGraw-Hill, 1221 Avenue “Power QualityEnhancement using Connected to the Public Low-Voltage
of the Americas, New York, NY 10020 custom power devices”, Kluwer’s Supply System Part 2 : Harmonics ΄΄,
Power Electronics and Power System 1990 (Revised Draft of IEC 555-2).
[3] C. Sankaran, “Power Quality” CRC series, U.S.A, 2002.
Press, New York, 2002,
[7] IEEE colour book series 399, 1997,
[4] Alexander Kusko, P.E. Marc IEEE Recommended Practice for
T.Thompson, “Power Quality in Power Systems Analysis, IEEE Brown
Electrical System” McGraw-Hill, New Book.
York Chicago.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 31
Newsletter

Ferroresonance Phenomenon in Power Transformers -

Simulation Study using MiPower
3. Dr. K.Parthasarathy, Veerabrahmam Bathini
5. Energization of lightly loaded or
1. Introduction
M/s PRDC has carried out a number of unloaded transformers.
Ferroresonance or nonlinear resonance 6. Transformer connected to a series
projects (both Indian and Overseas)
can occur on circuits with power relating to overvoltage studies and compensated transmission line.
transformers connected to overhead lines insulation co-ordination wherein study of 7. Transformers operating with voltages
or cables and also where wound type ferroresonance phenomenon of power very close to the knee point.
electromagnetic voltage transformers are and voltage transformers was a part of 8. Switching of CVT/CCVT in the system,
connected to isolated sections of busbar. technical task. Based on the experience 9. Ungrounded transformer primary
Energy is coupled via the inter-circuit gained M/s PRDC has developed a connections.
capacitance of the parallel lines or open comprehensive skill set for analyzing 10. Cable damage and manual switching
circuit breaker grading capacitance to possible occurrence of ferroresonance in during construction of underground
sustain the resonance. power transformers connected in either cable systems.
In linear resonance the current and transmission or distribution systems. Typical network configurations causing
voltage are linearly related in a manner, Ferroresonance in power transformers is ferroresonance in power transformers are
which is frequency dependant. In the case briefly described in this technical article shown in figure 1 [3].
of ferroresonance the relationship through a case study.
between voltage and current is dependent
not only on frequency but also on a 2. Ferroresonance Phenomenon
number of other factors such as excitation A. Network configurations cause
voltage magnitude and initial conditions Ferroresonance
such as the transformer magnetic flux and
Ferroresonance phenomena occurs in a
point on wave of the initiating switching (a)
low loss electric circuit containing a non-
incident. The ferroresonance is
linear inductance, capacitor and voltage
characterized by a sudden jump of voltage
sources. Power network is example of
or current from one stable state to
such an electrical circuit, where non-linear
another [1].
inductances are due to magnetizing
On transformer feeder circuits ferro
impedances of power transformers,
resonant condition can be established
measurement inductive voltage
between the circuit (overhead line /
cables) capacitance and the transformer transformers and capacitances are due to (b)
magnetizing inductance. Immediately cables, series capacitors etc. Hence,
following the transformer feeder de- certain switching actions, operating
energisation the transformer can be driven conditions and a few system
into saturation due to the discharge of the configurations may cause occurrence of
capacitance-to-earth on the isolated ferroresonance. Some examples of
network, and a non-linear oscillation switching actions are transformer-
occurs between the reactive components. switching, capacitor switching etc. (c)
On a transformer feeder associated with a Some of the configurations/conditions
double-circuit overhead line route, the that may cause ferroresonance are;
ensuing resonance is maintained by energy 1. Transformer supplied through a long
transferred to the resonating circuit via transmission line or cable with low
capacitive mutual coupling from the short circuit power.
adjacent circuit(s) on the towers, 2. Opening of one or two phases of a
producing the nonlinear current and cable feeding the primary side of a
(d)
voltage waveforms characteristic of lightly loaded transformer.
ferroresonance. Since the power 3. Transformer energized through the
transformer is driven into saturation, grading capacitance of one or more
leakage flux can cause overheating and open circuit breakers.
consequent damage to the transformer 4. Transformer connected to a de-
core and windings. Therefore, an energized transmission line running in
aggregate maximum time limit is normally parallel with one or more energized
lines (e)
assigned to this condition [2].
 Page 32 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

open
Causescondition
over voltages,
arises while
over currents
performing and load flow and short circuit study results.
single pole reclosing.
distortions resultingSimilarly,
in thermaltwo phases and Equivalent network considered for the
could be leftstresses
dielectric open with which
the other mayphase be simulation is shown in Figure 2.
energized during
dangerous for electrical
line de-energization.
de equipment
Shunt reactors
(failure, reduction increase
in performance
the open-phase
open and
voltage of
lifetime considerably
insulators etc.,).
because of unequal
(f) compensation
Various methods of the used positive
are based andonzero-
zero
the
Figure 1. Examples of unbalanced sequence principles:
following line capacitances. As reactors
systems at risk from ferroresonance. • Avoid,
are in parallel by withproper the design
line conductor
and/or
capacitance
switchingtooperations,
ground, the equivalent
configurations
B. Ferroresonance Prediction [3] phase-to-ground
phase reactance at power
susceptible to ferroresonance. Figure 2. Equivalent network considered
Ferroresonance is frequently accompanied frequency is inductive and may reach high
• Ensure that the energy supplied by for simulation
by some of the symptoms described value when the shunt compensation is
below: largethe source65%).
(above is notIn sufficient
such cases, to parallel
sustain
System data considered for simulation as
• High permanent over voltages of the phenomenon.
combination
combina of the shunt This reactor technique
and the
follows.
differential mode (phase-to-phase) line normally consists ofin
shunt capacitance introducing
series with losses
the 1) Equivalent network data:The equivalent
and/or common mode (phase-to- inter-phase
interwhich damp capacitance forms a series
out ferroresonance when source impedance data considered for
earth). resonant circuit. These conditions could
it occurs. study are presented in Table I.
• High permanent over currents, high result in series resonance on shunt
Table 1. Equivalent Source Impedance
permanent distortions of voltage and compensated lines with attendant
3. Ferroresonance Simulation Study Data
current waveforms. overvoltages and their detrimental detrimen effects
A. the
System Modelling [5] SS-A SS-B
• Displacement of the neutral point on connected equipments.
R1 (Ω) 2.0 3.34
voltage, transformer heating (in no- Steady
Equivalent state
Source: analysis
Equivalent of sources
equivalent at X1 (Ω) 32.0 53.34
load operation). network model have to be
different busses are represented using performed for R0 (Ω) 4.5 5.34
• Continuous, excessively loud noise in various
positive and simulated
zero sequence stuck impedance
breaker X0 (Ω) 73.14 85.34
transformers and reactors. conditions.
values corresponding to the expected fault 2) Transmission line data:
data:The 210 km,
• Damage of electrical equipment Details
levels atofthose
one busses.
stuck breaker condition to 400kV double circuit transmission line
(capacitor banks, VT, CVT etc.) due to be simulated are&as follows.
Transformers Shunt reactors: At configuration considered for the study is
thermal effect or insulation • Energizefrequencies,
ferroresonnace transmission line from
transformers presented in Figure 3. Two transposition
breakdown. A characteristic SS-AA
behave to SS
SS-Bas with one
induc
inductive pole of SS-A end
elements. points are considered for simulation and a
symptom of VT destruction by breaker
Capacitances do not have keeping
with one pole stuck and to be shunt compensation of 400 kV, 80 MVAr
ferroresonance is a destroyed open all the Saturation
considered. three polesofofthe breaker at SS-B
magnetizingSS has been considered at one end of each
primary winding and an intact end.
inductance, residual flux and losses circuit for the studies.
secondary winding. •
(copper Vary
andNGRmagnetizing)
value from 0%play to 100% an
• Spurious tripping of protection of phase reactor
important rolevalue.in ferroresonance
devices. •
generation Record
and damping.steady state open
Some of these symptoms are not conductor
Transmission line to or
(s) phase ground vol
voltage.
cable: When
necessary specific to the ferroresonance •
representing
represen Record overhead lines it neutral
steady state is of
phenomenon. For example permanent voltage
importance and tocurrenttake for into allaccount
line shuntthe
displacement of the neutral point of an reactors.
frequency
unearthed neutral system may be the •
dependence Observe of whether
the zero there is any
zero-sequence
consequence of a single phase-to-earth possibility
parameters. Asymmetry hasat specific
of getting resonance to be
fault. Due to the multitude of various value of NGR.
considered as well. Shielding wires may be
sources of capacitances and non linear Perform
eliminatedother assumingstuckzero breaker
voltagesimulated
on these
case studies. Figure 3. Transmission line data
inductances in a real power network and wires. Travelling wave model of
the wide range of operating conditions, Induced
transmission voltages
line isonusedde
de-energized
in the study. circuit: 3) Power transformer data:500
data: MVA,
configurations under which this study is applicable
Loads: Loads represented as constant for only double 400/132 kV, Ynyn trans
transformer with short
ferroresonance can occur are endless. circuit
impedance lines.type A with
shunt compensated
parallel –RL load. de de- circuit impedance of 12.5% and non
non- linear
energized circuit running on the same magnetization branch represented as
C. Preventing or Damping
right
B. of way
System data with an energized circuit can piece-wise
wise linear representation using
Ferroresonance[4]
be subjected to high high-induced voltages due open circuit characteristics of transformer
A number of practical measures can be Equivalent network model considered for
taken to prevent ferroresonance, that to parallel resonance between the line [4].
simulation studies is derived based on
shunt
hunt reactor and the line capacitance.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 33
Newsletter

B. Case Study Results Three pole opening: 3-pole opening of

circuit breaker A as shown in Figure 3.
Single pole opening: 1-pole opening of Voltage waveforms at bus 4 and
circuit breaker A as shown in Figure 2. transformer magnetizing current waveform
Voltage waveforms at bus 4 and are shown in figures 8 and 9 for no load
transformer magnetizing current and 10% load on transformer respectively.
waveform are shown in figures 4 and 5 for
no load and 10% load on transformer (a)
respectively.

(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Voltage and current waveform at
(a) transformer terminal with no load on
transformer

(b)
Figure 9.Voltage and current waveform at
transformer terminal with 10% load on
transformer
(b)
4. Observations &Conclusions
Figure 4. Voltage and current waveform at
transformer terminal with no load on
(a) Based on system considered for simulation
transformer study, it is observed that when a
transmission line terminated with
unloaded power transformer and uneven
breaker pole opening operations at source
end can cause ferroresonance in power
transformers. It is also observed that, 10%
(b) load on secondary terminal of transformer
Figure 7. Voltage and current waveform at helps in damping the ferroresonance
transformer terminal with 10% load on oscillation for all the cases. It is necessary
(a) transformer to ensure a minimum 10% loading on
secondary side of power transformer to
minimize the possible occurrence of
ferroresonance.
5. References
[1] Bernard C.Lesieutr, Jama A.mohamed “Analysis
of Ferroresonance in Three-Phase
(b) Transformers, IEEE POWERCON 2000. pp.
1013-1018.
Figure 5. Voltage and current waveform at [2] S.Mozaffari, S.Henschel, A.C.Soudack “Chaotic
transformer terminal with 10% load on (a) ferroresonance in power t transformers”, IEE
transformer Proc. Gener.Transm.Distrib.,Vol.142,No.3,May
1995. pp. 247-250.
[3] Ph. Ferracci, Collection Technique Schneider
Ferroresonance - n° 190.ECT190, first issued
Two pole opening: 2-pole opening of March 1998.
circuit breaker A as shown in Figure 2. [4] Yunge Li, Wei Shi and Furong Li “Novel
analytical solution to Fundamental
Voltage waveforms at bus 4 and ferroresonance –part II: Criterion and
transformer magnetizing current elimination”, IEEE Transactions on Power
(b) Delivery, Vol.21.No.2, April 2006. pp.794-800.
waveform are shown in figures 6 and 7 for Figure 8. Voltage and current waveform at [5] IEC Std-60071-4, 2004-06, Insulation co-
no load and 10% load on transformer ordination–Part 4: Computational guide to
transformer terminal with no load on insulation co-ordination and modeling of
respectively. transformer electrical networks.
 Page 34
Shunt Reactor Switching in Extra High Voltage System - Criterion for Verification of
Proposed Circuit Breaker Parameters
Dr. K. Parthasarathy, VeerabrahmamBathini
I. Introduction
Shunt reactors are mainly used in
transmission networks to regulate the
reactive power balance of the power
system by compensating the surplus
reactive power generation of transmission
lines and thereby stabilize the system
voltage. Reactors are normally
disconnected at heavy load conditions and
are connected to the bus bars/lines at
periods of low load conditions. Shunt
reactors are quite often switched in and
out on daily basis. Shunt reactors absorb
the reactive power and reduce the over
voltages during light load conditions, and
also assist in reducing transient
overvoltages caused by switching and
lightning. Consequently, frequent
switching is a significant characteristic of
reactors.
M/s PRDC has carried out a number of
projects (Overseas and India) relating to
overvoltage studies and insulation co-
ordination wherein selection of circuit
breaker for shunt reactor switching was a
part of the technical task. Based on the
experience gained, Power System Studies
group of M/s PRDC has evolved a set of
guidelines for selection of circuit breaker
for shunt reactor switching. These are
briefly described in this technical article.
Technical functions of a circuit breaker are
briefly described in section II.
Overvoltages occur during shunt reactor
de-energization and inrush current appear
during energization of shunt reactor.
These phenomena are described in section
III.Methodologies to be followed for
analyzing the transient effects caused
during opening and closing operations and
for selecting suitable circuit breaker
ratings accordingly are described in
section IV and V. EMTP-type program has
to be used for this analysis.
Power Research and Development Consultants
II. Switching Device Characteristics
Switchgear is the general term covering
switching and interrupting devices.
Switchgear performs two important but
different tasks. The first task is to perform
routine switching operations such as
disconnecting or isolating apparatus for a
variety of system requirements. The
second task is to interrupt current flow
under abnormal or fault conditions to
prevent excessive damages. Switching
devices should be capable of not only
interrupting normal load and fault
currents but also capable of re-
establishing the connection within the
system very quickly. Therefore, the
function of a switching device is both of
opening and closing of a circuit.
When a switching device interrupts the
flow of current several basic activities are
involved. The first is the mechanical
separation of the contacts. This
mechanical separation of the conducting
contacts establishes an arc since this
mechanical separation would not normally
take place at precisely current zero. This
arc will remain until the load or fault
current passes through a normally
occurring current zero. All alternating
current switching devices take advantage
of this naturally occurring current zero to
interrupt the normal flow of current.
When the current is interrupted at
instants other than normal zero crossing,
transient recovery voltage (TRV) appears
across the switching device terminals. The
shape and magnitude of TRV are
determined by the parameters of the
system within which the switching device
is located. To minimize re-ignition or
possible re-strikes due to TRV, it is
necessary to ensure that the dielectric
Newsletter
strength between the CB contacts
increases faster than the build-up of TRV.
III. Shunt Reactor Switching
A. Opening Operations (Chopping
Overvoltages and Re-ignitions)
In addition to the inductance of the shunt
reactor winding, the windings, the
bushings, and the connecting leads of the
reactor have stray capacitances. When a
reactor is de-energized, the voltage across
it will oscillate with a natural frequency
determined by the inductance and stray
capacitances. The oscillation frequency is
typically in the order of few kHz. Due to
chopping (premature interruption) of the
current slightly before the natural current
zero, the oscillating voltage across reactor
will have higher amplitude than the
supply voltage.
For modern SF6 circuit breakers, typical
magnitudes of this “chopping
overvoltage” are in the order of 1.2 to 2.0
p.u. with the highest values occurring for
low MVAr reactors. The chopping
overvoltage, with its limited amplitude
and frequency, is normally quite harmless
both for the reactor itself and for the
surrounding system. However, during de-
energization, transient recovery voltage
with considerable magnitude occurs
across the breaker contacts. Due to
oscillatory nature of the reactor voltage,
there will be a high voltage stress across
the circuit breaker contacts if the contact
gap is small.
If the arcing time is short, the circuit
breaker probably will reignite. A re-
ignition will generate high-frequency
transients (typically in the order of
hundreds of kHz) in both reactor voltage
and current. Following a re-ignition, the
reactor current will be interrupted again,
either at a high-frequency zero of the
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
current, or most probably at the
subsequent power frequency zero. The
very steep voltage transients caused byre-
ignitions will be unevenly distributed across
the reactor winding, with the highest stress
across the initial turns. This voltage stress
may lead to puncture of the winding
insulation in the reactor, which in the long
run may lead to complete breakdown.
Insulation of nearby equipment may also
be affected. During these stresses surge
arresters protect the equipments to a
limited extent, since the severity of the
voltage stress is related both to the rate-of-
change and the amplitude.
The main insulation of reactors can be
overstressed if the breaker has high current
chopping character. The switching
overvoltage can be dangerous for
equipment if their peak value exceeds the
rated switching impulse withstand voltage
of the equipment. It is very important to
know the level of dielectric stress that
occurs during operation of the system in
order to avoid the insulation failures.
Successful synchronous (controlled)
switching can reduce the mechanical and
electromagnetic stresses which occur
during switching operations.
B. Closing Operations (Inrush Current):
During energization of a shunt reactor,
inrush currents with high asymmetry and
long time constants may occur. The actual
magnitude of the inrush current is quite
dependent on the range of linearity of the
reactor core. The unsymmetrical phase
inrush currents during a shunt reactor
energisation may cause saturation of the
reactor, resulting in overheating. Due to
the air gaps utilized in shunt reactor cores
there are no severe saturation effects. In
spite of their limited amplitude, reactor
inrush currents may still have adverse
effects. They may lead to zero sequence
current, cause saturation of CT cores, with
resulting nuisance tripping of relays, or
cause other network disturbances. Excess
inrush currents can be avoided by
employing controlled switching of circuit
breaker.
IV. De-Energization of Shunt Reactor
A. Circuit Breaker Model
There are several methods for
interrupting current and the most
effective method will depend upon the
system voltage and current application.
Air, oil, SF6,andvacuum are all dielectrics
interrupting media commonly used in
commercial switchgear. Vacuum and SF6
switching devices are presently used
routinely, at medium voltages. For high
voltage applications, SF6 circuit breaker is
the most predominant technology offered
today. All these technologies have
(depending upon the interaction with
system parameters) the potential for
premature current interruption (current
chopping) and/ or re-ignition which can
produce an additional oscillatory voltage
on the reactor terminals.
When a circuit breaker (CB) interrupts
while carrying a small inductive current,
high frequency and high-amplitude
transient voltage appears between the CB
contacts. The generated high transient
recovery voltage (TRV) may cause
undesired effects on the reactor and/or
the switching equipments. SF6 is widely
used in the HV and EHV insulation systems
because of its stable chemical
characteristics. However, for CB
applications on extinguishing the arc
plasma, there are many complicated
gaseous behaviors occurring due to the
dissociated and recombined subspecies.
For interrupting small inductive current
namely switching off shunt reactors, SF6
Circuit Breakers exhibit less stable and
unpredictable arc extinguishing
performance and may lead to several re-
ignitions.
For analyzing the transient effects caused
during interruption of small inductive
current accurate modeling of circuit
breaker arc is essential. The model should
take into consideration the physical
phenomena of arc process with cold gas
characteristic and associated system
parameters. An accurate CB model for
switching studies should take into account
Page 35
the rate of change of the arc conductance
(i.e., dg/dt), parameters (e.g. time constant
and power loss) used to describe the arc,
and the rate of rise of dielectric recovery
voltage.
When interrupting a small inductive
current associated with switching off the
shunt reactor, small inductive current
dominates the arc conductance variation
during the interruption process. This
phenomena may cause multi-oscillations
and resonances with the circuits connected
to CB. Hence, the arc model parameters
have to be determined by considering
complex interactions between CB, source
line/feeder and reactor circuits. Therefore,
it is more appropriate to adopt Mayr’s
model given by equation (1), for modeling
such arc behavior, where the CB
surrounding circuit plays an important role.
During the CB contacts parting, the arc
behaves as a nonlinear conductance. The
equation (1) can be used to control the arc
conductance, g, and to accomplish the
energy balance. It is observed that, in
addition to the initial value of g, other
parameters, τ, P, i, α and β are required as
inputs to solve Mayr’s arc model equation
(1).
b| 1 ' 1 '
~ |• ~ |• <1=
ba } }. | € . | •
Where,
g is conductance of arc, in Siemens.
P is Power dissipated from the arc to
surrounding gas in Watts.
i is current through the arc , in Amperes.
τis the time constant of arc, in seconds.
αis the parameter that influences the
conductance dependency of τ
βis the parameter that influences the
conductance dependency of P
τ and P are judiciously selected from data
sheets of CB under consideration.
Using arc model and equivalent system
considered for the system study transient
recovery voltage VTRV is computed
 Page 36 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

stray inductance
by EMTP-type and Capacitance between
program. on the capacitance
B. Theoretical AnalysisCt seen from the equation peak and (10)
‡‹„ 1 2M ‡+ <B. Œ= <10=
is computed by equation (7)
the
FigureCB 1contactsLb
representsis the
the equivalent
connecting circuit
series circuit breaker
Refer figure terminals,
1. During the N the number
switching of
off the
‡ 2M ‡+ <B. Œ= <7=
inductance CL is the
to be considered for load side capacitance
the transient analysis. interrupters
shunt reactor in series
(CB per opening)pole and the
energy
(3) Where -
1
L is shunt reactor inductance chopping
conservationnumber λ for a bysingle
can be approximated
1 The1chopping1current ich level
is given \by \J (4). ‰'-Š <3= The per unit M
interrupter.
J
2 2 2 2 is computed by
Dielectric recovery characteristics for SF6 J + equation ˆ crest overvoltage-to-ground
' • – —\ “ <4= J
due to a re-ignition
•
0.01b 20.7b
-Š i
cold gas is given by the equation (2)
In equation (3) Vo is the voltage across the equation (8)
‚ƒ „ of the Q is three phase reactor rating (VA)
7.1 ‡ <2=
According to equation
at the (3), the ratio
the λ is the chopping number Ž • ’ for single
shunt reactor instant of current
‡ž 1 Ÿ<1 2M ‡+√‘ =<B. Œ=<8=
suppression
interruption. Va peak overvoltage
is the suppression to peak
Figure.1. Single-phase equivalent circuit of
reactor
overvoltage voltageto the can ground
be expressedacross the by interrupter
shunt reactor
equation
inductor, which(5), where is thekafirst is the
peakper-unit
of the ω is the angular rated power frequency
with d =Cvs are
Ls and × t, the
where Vdwsv
source sideis inductance
the circuit Theis per
breaker contact gap withstand voltage, d is
and capacitance
value of thewith
oscillation suppression
the samepeak overvoltage
polarity as the N the unit crest overvoltage
interrupting excursion
units in series per
and can be used to estimate
system voltage at the time of interruption. pole. the peak-to peak due to a re-ignition is
the
Lp contact
andCp gap
are atthea time
strayinstant t (ms) and
inductance and parameters required for describing the CB computed by equation (9)
ich is the inductor chopping current. For L is main reactor inductance (H)
vCapacitance
(m/s) is the between
contact velocity at opening.
the CB contacts arc
SF6 model.
currents are typically in the range of 2- ‡ <1 Ÿ=<1 2M ‡+ =<B. Œ= <9=
circuit breaker the values of chopping LN is neutral reactance inductance (H)
‰'-Š
Lb is the connecting series inductance
14A. ‡The +
™1 <5=
Based on computed values VTRV and
+
\J ˆ Ct seen from
C value of the chopped current Case 2: Shunt reactor neutral solidly
L is thethe
loadre-ignition/re-strike
side capacitance checks are
depends onˆ the capacitance
Vdwsv
grounded.
Damping factor β can be considered to be
r
carried
L is shuntoutreactor
by theinductance
following condition.
the circuit breaker terminals, N the For
o[ ‚ƒ „
0.5. the case substitute K=0 in all equations
Generally
number ofininterrupters
EHV systems in Cs>>
seriesCLperandpole
Cp (6) to (10) and compute corresponding
Dielectric recovery
Magnitudes characteristics
of different for SF6
crest voltages is
andnegligible,
the choppingso thatnumber
Ct equalsλ to forCL.a single crest
The pervalues.
unit crest recovery voltage across
cold gas is given by the equation
namely ka (suppression peak overvoltage (2)
Case 1: Shunt
interrupter. Thereactor
chopping neutral
current grounded
ich level Case study results
the circuit breakerareis presented
computedfor bya
to the ground across the inductor in p.u),
0.01b 20.7b
through
is given by reactor
equation (4). typical
equation system
(10) described in section IV-C.
'-Š ka•–—\ i“ <4=
kc (maximum ‚ƒ „ chopping overvoltage-to- For this case is computed by equation
7.1 ‡ <2= C. ‡ Case 1 Study ‡+ <B. Œ=
2M results <10=
ground at the instant of recovery voltage (6)
‹„
1 3—•
peak in p.u), kp (per unit crest overvoltage- According to equation (3), the ratio of the

Where data considered: N=2, λ=4x10 “/

Refer figure 1:
‡+ <1 M=™1 › œ~ • by System
to-ground due to a re-ignition), ks (per unit suppression peak overvoltage to the
can 1 be M 2`
4

equation (5), where ka is the per-unit √A,ω=377 rad/sec,1

crest
with dovervoltage
= v × t, where excursion
Vdwsv peak-to peak
is the circuit reactor voltage expressed
M <6= M
6
Q=80x10 VAr,
2
due to reignition)
contact gapand krv (per unit crest
J
breaker withstand voltage, d is
L=4.787H, L =1.9148H, System voltage 380
J•
recovery voltage N
the contact gap atacross
a timethe circuitt (ms)
instant breaker)
and value of the suppression peak overvoltage
can be iscomputed
v (m/s) the contacttheoretically based on
velocity at opening. and can be used to estimate the kV.
the equivalent circuit shown in figure 1. The maximum
parameters chopping
required the CB Based
overvoltage-to-
for describing on the theoretical analysis the
Q is three phase
valuesreactor ratingcrest
(VA)voltages
arethe chopping number Ž ’ for single
•
This theoretical analysis is brieflyVTRV
presented ground
arc model. occurs at the recovery voltage computed of various
Based on computed values and
√‘
peak and is computed by equation (7) λ is
C.
‡- +2M ™ ‡+ <B. ‰' -ŠŒ= <7=
in section IV-B.
Vdwsv the re-ignition/re-strike checks are
‡+ 1 <5=
interrupter
\J ˆ
B. Theoretical Analysiscondition.
r
carried out by the following
ˆ
kωa=1.08
is the p.u,
o[ ‚ƒ „
Refer figure 1. During the switching off the angular rated power frequency
shunt reactor (CB opening) energy kNc=1.52
is thep.u,
interrupting units in series per
The per unit
Generally in EHV crest overvoltage-to-ground
systems Cs>> CL and Cp is kp=2.22 p.u,
conservation
Magnitudes can of be approximated
crest by (3) pole.
namely1 ka (suppression
1 1
different voltages due to asoreignition
negligible, that Ct equals is to computed
CL. by
kLsis
=3.78
mainp.u,
\J + across \ ‰'-Š <3=in p.u),
peak overvoltage equation (8) reactor inductance (H)
to the2ground 2 J ˆ the 2inductor 1 Ÿ<1 2M ‡+ =<B. Œ=<8=
‡ž reactor
Case 1: Shunt reactor neutral grounded krv=2.52 p.u
LN is neutral reactance inductance (H)
through The current and voltage waveforms
In equation (3) Vo is the voltage
kc (maximum chopping overvoltage-to across the
computed by EMTP simulation of the
shunt
ground at the instant of recovery current
reactor at the instant of voltage For this Case 2: Shunt reactor neutral solidly
The per case
unit ka is computed
crest overvoltage by excursion
equation equivalent system are presented in Figures
interruption.
peak in p.u), kp Va(per
is the
unit suppression peak
crest overvoltage- (6) grounded.
peak-to peak due to a re-ignition is 1 to 3.
1 3—•
overvoltage
to-ground duetoto the ground across
a re-ignition), the
ks (per unit
‡‡+ <1 <1 Ÿ=<1 M=™1 2M›
computed by equation (9) From simulation krv is computed as 2.42
œ~ • p.u this figure closely matches with the
inductor, which isexcursion
crest overvoltage the first peak-to
peak ofpeak the For the case substitute K=0 in all equations
oscillation with theand
due to reignition) same
krv polarity
(per unitascrest
the 1
‡+ =<B. Œ=M 2` <9= theoretically
(6) to (10) and compute corresponding
M <6=
computed value of 2.52 p.u.
system
recoveryvoltage
voltageatacross
the timethe of interruption.
circuit breaker) crest values.
ich
can isbethe inductor theoretically
computed chopping current.based Foron Damping factor β can be considered to be
SF6
the circuit
equivalent breaker the shown
circuit values of in chopping
figure 1. 0.5.
currents are typically
This theoretical analysisinis briefly
the range of 2-
presented The maximum chopping overvoltage-to-
The per unit crest recovery voltage across
14A. The IV-B.
in section value of the chopped current ground occurs at the recovery voltage
the circuit breaker is computed by
depends
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 37
Newsletter

Case study results are presented for a Figure 3: Current through circuit breaker Figure 5: Zero sequenc ecurrent during energization of shunt reactor
CBC In
typical system described in section IV-C. 0.200
-0.172
0.140
-0.000
0.150 -0.000 0.120 0.064
0.172 0.064
C. Case Study Results 0.100 0.100
Min -0.172 Min -0.000
0.050 0.080

C u rre n t (k A )
Max 0.172 Max 0.129

C u rre n t (k A )
0.000 0.060

System data considered: N=2,λ=4x10 “/

Refer figure 1:
4 -0.050 0.040

√A,ω=377
-0.100 0.020
rad/sec,Q=80x106VAr, -0.150 0.000
L=4.787H, LN=1.9148H, System voltage 380 -0.200 -0.020
kV. t (sec) 0.380 0.400 0.420 0.440 0.391 t (sec) 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.193
0.420 0.323
Based on the theoretical analysis the 0.028 0.130
computed values of various crest voltages Fig.2: Current & voltage Waveforms Fig.3: Inrush current waveforms
are:
Check simulated TRV and RRRV (rate of The inrush current magnitudes as shown in
ka=1.08 p.u, rise of recovery voltage) values with figure 3 compared with breaker current
kc=1.52 p.u, corresponding ratings of the proposed ratings well within limit.
kp=2.22 p.u, circuit breaker and decide on the
ks=3.78 p.u, adequacy of the proposed circuit breaker VI. References
krv=2.52 p.u for shunt reactor switching.
[1] Gary W. Chang, M. Huang, and Jiang-
The current and voltage waveforms V. Energization of Shunt Reactor Hong Lai ‘Modeling SF6 Circuit Breaker
computed by EMTP simulation of the for Characterizing Shunt Reactor
equivalent system are presented in Plots 1 For system shown in figure 1,typical Switching Transients’, IEEE
to 3 of figure 2. inrush currents waveforms obtained Transactions on Power Deliver, Vol 22,
during energization of 380 kV, 80 MVAr No.3, July 2007.
From simulation, krv is computed as 2.42 shunt reactor are presented in Plots 4&5
p.u this figure closely matches with the of figure 3. Normally these inrush current [2] G. St Jean, M. Landry, Y. Leclerc, and A.
theoretically computed value of 2.52p.u. magnitudes are well within breaker Chenier, ‘A new concept in post-arc
current rating. However, controlled analysis applied to power circuit-
Figure 1: Tranisent Recovery Voltage across the circuit breaker
TRV switching of circuit breaker is breakers’, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
800
600
0.011
297.570
recommended to minimize the magnitude vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 1036–1044, Jul. 1988.
400 297.558 and duration of zero sequence current
Min -749.621
200 which may otherwise result in nuisance [3] A.T. Johns, R.K. Aggarwal, and Y.H.
V o lta g e (kV)

Max 411.337
0
tripping relays or other network Song, ‘Improved techniques for
-200

-400
disturbances. modeling fault arcs on faulted EHV
-600 transmission systems’, IEEE Proc.
-800 Generation, Transmission, and
t (sec) 0.380 0.400 0.420 0.440 0.460 0.400
0.450 Figure 4: Inrush current drwan by shunt reactor during energization Distribution, Volume 141, Issue 2,
0.049 Ir
0.30
-0.000 March 1994, pp: 148-154.
Figure 2: Voltage at reactor terminal
0.20 -0.070
Vr -0.069
500
134.690 0.10 Min -0.116
400 1.777
C u rre n t (k A )

Max 0.294
300 -132.913 0.00
200 Min -312.058
V o lt a g e (k V )

100 Max 438.736 -0.10

0
-0.20
-100
-200
-0.30
-300 t (sec) 0.190
0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400
-400 0.360
t (sec) 0.396 0.170
0.400 0.420 0.440
0.435
0.039
 Page 38 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

Events and Achievements

Five-Day National Workshop
on Power System Stability and Control

PRDC- VTU Research Centre and the EEE

Department of CMR Institute of
Technology jointly organized five day
national workshop on “Power System
Stability and Control” at Bangalore during
27th February - 02nd March 2012. The
event was conducted with technical
sponsorship of IEEE PES Bangalore Chapter.
The chief guest and the keynote speaker
was Prof. D.P. Sengupta,Honorary
professor of National Institute of Advanced
Studies (NIAS), Bangalore. The invited
speakers for the workshop were Dr. R.
Nagaraja, MD, PRDC, Dr. K. R. Padiyar,
Emeritus professor, IISc, Mr. M.M. Babu
Narayanan, ChiefTechnical Advisor, PRDC,
Prof. D. Thukaram, Professor, IISc and Mr.
Faraz Khan, Sr Engineer, PRDC. About 33
participants from various Industries and
academic institutions participated in the
workshop. Dr. R. Nagaraja, MD, PRDC addressing the five-day national workshop on ‘Power
system stability and control’ at CMRIT, Bangalore

Two-Day National Workshop on Automated Fault Analysis (AFAS)

PRDC organized a workshop on

“Automated Fault Analysis”during 24th and
25th of February, 2012 at Hotel Atria in
Bangalore. The main purpose of this
workshop was to familiarize the practicing
engineers of utilities and industries about
the benefits of AFAS, the challenges
involvedin setting it up as well as the
variousanalyses possible using this
package. Participants
includedrepresentatives from various
utilities and industries like POSOCO, KPTCL,
TNEB, MSEB, Alstom, PRDC etc. The
speakers for this workshop were Dr. R.
Nagaraja, Faraz Zafar Khan, Raghavendra G,
Francis C Joseph and Mayank Nagendran.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 39
Newsletter

Our Expertise in Training

Upcoming Events Training Calendar - 2012
At PRDC, we conduct various training
programmes throughout the year. The
duration of the training programme varies
from one to four weeks.

One Week Training

We conduct one week training programme
on MiPower. It’s a Standard Course.

MiPower Training Level 1

Level 1 is a training programme on basic

theory & simple problems (hands-on).

Level 1 Batch:
th th
1. 5 Nov 2012 to 9 Nov 2012

MiPower Training Level 2

Level 2 is a training programme which

consists of only hands-on and solving own
system problems, sorting out issues and
clarifications.

Level 2 Batch:
rd th
1. 3 Dec 2012 to 7 Dec 2012

Short Term Training

/Workshop
In addition to the above said programme
PRDC is also conducting short term training PRDC organized a two day workshop on The faculty for this workshop included
program and workshops to impart “Power System Grounding Practices “on Dr. R. Nagaraja, MD, PRDC, Dr. G.R
knowledge and practical approach on 2nd and 3rd of August, 2012at Hotel Atria, Nagabhushana,Ex IISC professor , Mr.
specific topics, which are of relevance to Bangalore. The main purpose of the M.M. Babu Narayanan,Chief Technical
power engineers in day-to-day works. Such workshop wasto provide comprehensive Advisor, PRDC, Mr.N.Raman, Senior
training not only enhances their knowledge coverage of boththeoretical background and Consultant, PRDC, Mr.Jayakumar, Ex
but also helps to implement in their regular practicalunderstanding of concepts related Joint Director, CPRI, and Mr. Vamsi
routine works. to designand field testing of earthingsystems Krishna Dadi,Engineer , PRDC.About 40
besides addressing the adequacyof the participants from variousutilities and
For short term and special trainings contact existing grounding systems.Ground Grid industries like , Druk Green Corporation –
our marketing team: design using PRDC’sMiPower packagewas Bhutan, KPTCL, BESCOM, MESCOM,
marketingteam@prdcinfotech.com demonstrated during the workshop. The CESC- Kolkata, GE, ABB,TCE, JSPL, M N
workshop was inaugurated by Mr. S. Dastur Co etc. participated in the
Sumanth, Director (Transmission),KPTCL workshop.
 Page 40
Power System Simulation Tools
Abstract:
Successful operation of today’s complex
power systems requires a balanced
understanding of technical and economic
issues relating to the generation,
transmission and distribution of electrical
energy. A thorough understanding of the
operating characteristics and the
limitations of each device within the
network is needed in order to ensure
reliable and secure source of power. A
wide variety of study tools are available to
help engineers gain knowledge and
confidence required to design and operate
networks in a manner consistent with end-
user expectations. Advances in power
system simulation have made it possible
to study in detail, the dynamic behavior of
even very large power systems with
varying degree of complexity. This paper
summarizes the various simulation tools
that are employed in such studies both off
line and in real time applications.
I. Introduction
Design and stable operation of an electric
power system requires careful study of the
interaction of the different equipment
that constitutes the power system.
Stretching of electric system performance
to its operational limits and deployment of
special fast-acting controls has not only
made dynamic simulation more common
and essential to utility planning and
operation, but has made the study process
more complex. In this context, simulation
tools are critical to the effective
investigation of system response to a
variety of disturbances in a fast and
accurate manner. These tools have been
widely used for the design and
improvement of electrical systems since
the mid twentieth century. A wide variety
of both analog and digital simulation tools
are available. However, advances in
computer hardware and software
complemented by the sophisticated power
system component modeling techniques
have more or less replaced the analogue
simulators with digital simulation.
Furthermore, the large scale induction of
Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
M.M. Babu Narayanan
power electronics based controllers and 5) Small signal stability (for small
systems in the modern day power system disturbances)
has created the need for real time digital 6) Electromagnetic transients (EMT)
simulators (RTDS) for the purpose of simulation
Hardware-in-loop (HIL) testing of these 7) Relay coordination studies
controllers for optimizing their 8) Load forecasting
performance before being installed in the 9) Unit commitment
field. 10) Economic dispatch
11) Steady state contingency analysis
The evolution of simulation tools has (security assessment) and
progressed in step with the evolution of 12) Dynamic security assessment.
computing technologies. In recent years,
computing technologies have improved Indeed the power system is very complex
dramatically in performance and become both in terms of dimension (physically and
widely available at a steadily decreasing mathematically) and the kind of non-
cost. Consequently, simulation tools have linearities present. There are no explicit
also seen dramatic performance gains and analytical solutions for the problems
steady cost decreases. Researchers and associated with the faults and
engineers now have access to affordable, contingencies in such a complex system.
high performance simulation tools that Simulation is the only method to predict
were previously too cost prohibitive, the performance of the power system
except for the largest manufacturers and that is subjected to the above mentioned
utilities. eventualities.
This paper gives an overview of the
various simulation tools that are widely Further, the sizes of power systems have
used by the manufacturers, developers, grown steadily over the years and the
researchers and utilities in the planning, need for interconnected power systems
design and operation of modern day for economic operation resulted in a host
power system. Application of these tools of other problems such as economic
for various types of studies is also dispatch, transient stability, low frequency
highlighted. A brief history of power oscillations etc. More recently, the de-
system simulation is presented at the regulation posed further challenges such
beginning. as congestion management, interaction
with market dynamics etc. The solutions
II. Need for Power System Simulators for many of these problems, which have
There are a number of decisions to be generally been on an approximate and
taken both at the operational level and at sometimes been on heuristic basis,
the planning level. Any such decision needed an integrated approach. The big
process must be based on analysis with a blackouts in North America in 1965 and
great emphasis on modeling and 2003 as well as grid failures in many
simulation techniques. The kind of studies countries including India placed fresh
done by utilities is numerous of which emphasis on the aspect of modeling and
some are given below: simulation of power systems for taking
corrective measures to avoid such
1) Short circuit studies blackouts.
2) Load flow studies, also called as power
flow studies III. Power System Simulation
3) Optimal power flow The tool for simulation was first in the
4) Transient stability (for large form of a DC network analyzer for short
disturbances)
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
circuit and load flow studies and then an
AC network analyzer to accommodate
transient stability studies. The traditional
method of performing transient studies
utilized simulators made up of scaled
down power system components. Each
component is physically connected to the
next in a manner similar to that of the real
system. This analog simulation technique
formed the basis of both the well known
Transient Network Analyzer (TNA) and the
HVDC simulator [1].
The impact of the digital computer on
simulation was first felt in the late1950s
and the early sixties saw a steadyandrapid
rise in the use of computers ascomparedto
that of the network analyzers. For the last
three decades, theevolution of simulation
tools has been driven by the rapid
evolution of computingtechnologies. As
computer technologies have decreased in
cost and increased in performance, the
capability of simulation tools to solve
increasingly complex problems in less time
has improved. In addition, the cost of
digital simulators has also steadily
decreased, making them available to a
larger number of users for awider variety
of applications. This resulted in the
evolution of the most commonly
employed study of electromagnetic
phenomenon which is based on
mathematical representation of thesystem
and its dynamics rather than on scaled
down physical components. The
algorithms necessary for software
basedelectromagnetic transient simulation
were first described by H. Dommel in 1969
[2] and have been utilized in several well
known programs like EMTP [3] and EMTDC
[4].
A. Issues and Challenges in Simulation
The secure operation of power systems
has become more and more dependent on
complex control systems and power
electronic devices. Furthermore, the
proliferation of distributed generation
plants, often based on the use of
renewable energy resources, presents
significant challenges to the design and
stable operation of today’s power
systems. Examples include the integration
of wind farms, photovoltaic cells or other
power-electronic-based distributed energy
generation systems, domestic loads and
future plug-in electric vehicles into the
existing power grid. The above
applications take full advantage of several
very fast and distributed power electronic
systems which in many cases, are of
innovative design and consequently have
never been integrated together or with a
power grid. Validated models suitable for
electromagnetic transients, as well as
dynamic stability analysis under normal
and abnormal conditions, are usually not
available. This poses a new and
significantchallenge to utility and system
engineers who must guarantee total
system performance and security.
B. Simultaneous Simulation of Short and
Long Term Phenomena
Simultaneous simulation of fast and long
phenomena pushes simulation tools that
are required in the planning and operation
of power systems to their limits. One such
example is checking the transient stability.
The transient response of an
interconnected power system ranges from
fast (microseconds) electromagnetic
transients, through electro-mechanical
power swings (milliseconds), to slower
modes influenced by the prime mover,
boiler and fuel feed systems (seconds to
minutes). For the modeling of
electromechanical transients caused by
large disturbances such as network faults
and/or plant outages, system states must
be evaluated at intervals in the order of
milliseconds over time scales of seconds.
For small-signal and voltage stability
assessment, the time scale needs to be
extended to minutes and for voltage
security, tens of minutes to hours. During
this period, accurate representation of
power electronic devices require relatively
small time steps, typical of
electromagnetic transients (EMT)
simulators, but impractical for phasor-
Page 41
type electromechanical dynamic
simulation tools.
C. Small Time Step Simulation
It is a common practice with
electromagnetic transient simulators to
use a simulation time step of 30 to 50 μs
to provide acceptable results for
transients up to 2 kHz. Better precision
can be achieved with smaller time steps.
Simulation of transient phenomena with
frequency content up to 10 kHz typically
requires a simulation time step of
approximately 10 μs. Power electronic
converters with higher Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) carrier frequency in
the range of 10 kHz, such as those used in
low-power converters, require smaller
time steps of less than 250 nanoseconds.
AC circuits with higher resonance
frequency and very short lines, as
expected in a low-voltage distribution
circuit and railway power feeding system
may require time steps below 20 μs. In
such cases, it is prudent to carry out tests
with practical system configurations and
parameters to determine minimum time
step for accurate simulation.
IV. Simulation Tools
Simulator technology has evolved from
physical/analogue simulators (HVDC
simulators, TNA’s) for electromagnetic
transients and protection & control
studies, to hybrid TNA/Analogue/Digital
simulators with the capability of studying
electro-mechanical transient behavior and
to fully digital real-time simulators.
Physical simulators served their purpose
well. However, they were very large,
expensive and required highly skilled
technical teams for the tedious job of
setting up networks and maintaining the
extensive inventory of complex
equipment. With the development of
microprocessors and floating-point
DSPs,physical simulators have been
replaced with fully digital real-time
simulators. Nevertheless, the scaled-down
model approach used in physical
simulators findsits virtue, in the relative
ease with which
 Page 42
the model components could duplicate
their actual counterparts with their non-
linear behavior.
A. Transient Network Analyzer (TNA)
TNA is a special purpose analog simulator,
which has scaled down models of all the
power system components. On a TNA, the
system elements can have either equal
ohmic values or scaled down values, but
the voltages are always scaled down. Thus
the scaled down system is represented on
the simulator and switching actions are
performed. The resulting voltages and
currents are recorded for analysis. These
are quickly acquired and processed by the
data acquisition system and presented in a
form required by system designers. One
specific advantage of such analog
simulators are that they operate on real
time as in an actual system and thus prove
to be useful for testing of plant size
controllers.
Modeling Features of TNA:
TNA generally has models of 3-phase
transmission line PI sections, Single phase
and 3 phase transformer banks with
saturation, Linear or non-linear Shunt
Reactors, Static Var Compensators (6 pulse
or 12 pulse TSC or TCR) with generic
controls, Load models, Circuit Breakers
(manually programmable or computer
controlled to close at any instant of sine
wave and with possibility to simulate
current chopping, current zero opening or
pre-strike phenomenon), Synchronous
machines, Lightning Arresters (gap type
and gap less type), Voltage & Current
sources etc.
Studies that can be performed on TNA [1]
TNA had been acquired by many
equipment manufacturers, Research
centers and utilities to find solutions for
their design, research and operational
problems. Traditionally, the following
types of studies were performed using the As mentioned in Section III above, digital As is the case in most electromagnetic
TNA prior to the introduction of modern simulation is based on the mathematical
day EMTP and real time digital simulators:
Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter
• Statistical distribution of
switching surges
• Energizing and reclosing
transients on lines, cables, open
ended transformer lines
Switching surge reduction by
means of controlled closing and
pre- insertion resistor
• Single pole reclosing
• Load rejection & Ferro resonance
studies
• Transient Recovery over voltages
• Fault initiation surges and
• Requirement on surge arrester
location and rating
B. Digital Simulators:
Digital simulators of electric power
systems have found wide application in
power industry and allow to solve a wide
range of important tasks such as:
1) Producing computational
experiments when doing research
work in developing new technical
measures that provide the desired
reliability and security of power
system;
2) Implementing projects concerned
with the choice of the main
electrical equipment and its
parameters, the choice of over
current and overvoltage protection
devices;
3) Analyzing power system accidents
and developing measures aimed at
preventing similar accidents in
power system’s operation.
4) Performing simulations in hard
real time for (a) testing of existing
or new electrical devices (digital
devices of relay protection and
automation, monitoring devices,
etc.) and (b) designing, testing and
implementation of new software
products (simulators, SCADA, etc.).
transient simulations, the RTDS utilizes
the so called Dommel algorithm. In this
algorithm, the trapezoidal rule of
representation of the power system to
study its steady state and dynamic
behavior by employing various solution
techniques. The equations governing the
elements of the power system are
algebraic and/or differential equations
depending upon the appropriate modeling
strategies adopted.
Currently, popular electromagnetic
transient simulation software is actively
expanding, such as EMTP [3],
PSCAD/EMTDC [4], etc. Besides, checking
transient stability of a power system is
one of the important objectives of running
a simulation program which among other
things, can give a lot more information
such as predicting the dynamic
performance of the system involving low
frequency transients (typically below 5 Hz)
[5]. A variety of programs are available in
the public domain like SIMPOW®, PSS/E®,
MiPower® to name a few.
C. Real Time Digital Simulators (RTDS)
It has now been more than 10 years since
the introduction of first fully digital real
time power system simulator. Real time
operation implies that an event in the
system which lasts for one second can be
simulated on the simulator in exactly one
second. The usual digital simulation
programs typically require many seconds
or even minutes to perform the necessary
computations and produce a solution for
such an event. Although specific
applications vary, real time digital
simulators are particularly useful when
actual power system devices and
controllers such as FACTS and HVDC are to
be included in the test program or study.
This so called closed loop testing method
[6] represents an accurate way to
evaluate the performance of such physical
devices/controllers prior to their
installation in the actual power system.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 43
Newsletter

integration is used to convert integral capability of existing systems, hence CIM based power system simulation has
equations, which result from nodal pushing their operating points closer to been implemented in few of the software
analysis of the power system, into stability limits. The performance and development projects. Future simulation
algebraic equations. Application of effect of any new device must be well programs will have an open architecture
trapezoidal rule requires that the solution understood in order to ensure safe and with loosely coupled pluggable
be computed only at discrete instants of secure operation of power system in components. This kind of architecture will
time, rather than a continuous solution. which these devices are embedded. A enable components and models
The time between the successive solutions RTDS simulator is an excellent tool for the developed by others to be easily plugged
is known as the time step denoted by Δt.
All of the system of equations
representing the power system model
must be computed in each time step. For
large complex power system models, it
may take a modern computer many
seconds to compute even a single time
step. These types of simulators are said to
be non-real time digital simulators as
already explained in section IV above. The
RTDS simulators on the other hand, are Fig 1: Conceptual Overview of RTDS
able to continuously perform the
necessary calculations for a single time investigation,development and integration into to augment their functionality.
step in a measured time that is exactly of new and complex power system
equal to the time step. The RTDS components. Figure 1 gives a conceptual VI. References
simulators combine specialized processing [1] ‘TNA & HVDC Simulator’,
overview of the RTDS that is being
hardware and software to achieve http://www.cpri.in
increasingly used in closed loop with
continuous real time operation [7]. /testing/psd/psd_home.html
various control and protection devices in a [2] H.W. Dommel, ‘Digital computer solution of
power system for development and electromagnetic transients in single and
In order to achieve and sustain real time testing activities.
multiphase networks’, IEEE Transactions on
operation, many RTDS simulators take Power apparatus and systems, Vol PAS 88,
advantage of the two levels of inherent V. Future Trends in Power System no.4, April 1969, pp 388-399.
parallelism in the Dommel algorithm. First, Simulation [3] ‘Electromagnetic transients program
equations for closely coupledcomponents Common Information Model (CIM) is an (EMTP) Rule Book’, Bonneville Power
within the network are solved using effort to develop a common power system Administration
closely coupled processors. These network operation model that can be [4] ‘Electromagnetic Transients including DC’,
components could be part of a sub system shared and exchanged among different Manitoba HVDC Research Centre,
in a power system. The second level of applications. Power system simulation is Winnipeg, Canada,
https://pscad.com/products/pscad/
parallelism results when the overall power one of many intended CIM usage
[5] K.R. Padiyar, “Power System Dynamics,
system model is split into two or more sub scenarios. Being a canonical power system stability and control’, (Book), BS
systems. Each sub system is then solved in data model, CIM is the foundation to Publications, 2006.
parallel using processors. integration of modern information [6] D. Brandt et al, ‘Closed loop testing of a
systems in the power industry. IEC CIM joint Var controller using digital real time
A. RTDS applications model is a general purpose power system simulator’, IEEE Transactions on Power
Since its introduction, the application systems, August 1991, Vol.6, No.3, pp
data model, which is designed to
scope of RTDS has continued to expand. 1140-1146.
model/describe physical power networks [7] M.M. Babu Narayanan et al ‘Real Time
Real time simulators are most suited for and serve multiple purposes. Information, Digital Simulator at CPRI and case studies’,
closed loop testing of physical control and such as connections among physical Proceedings of the Workshop on Real Time
protection devices. Recent trends in the equipments, equipment physical sizes, simulation of power systems, Bangalore,
power industry have led to the equipment geographical locations 24th January 2005, pp 1-8.
introduction of many new and complex (attitude and longitude), and equipment
devices. The purpose of many of these electrical parameters (R, X, Rating), are
devices is to increase power transfer commonly included in the model.
Page 44
Events and Achievements
Achievements
• Hindustan Electro Graphite
(HEG) situated in Mandideep,
Near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh,
world’s largest integrated
graphite manufacturing plant has
appointed PRDC as technical
consultant for design and
development of Electric Arc
Furnace (EAF) Reorder hardware
for measurement & recording of
EAF operation along with design
& development of EAF
simulation software for study
and Optimization of EAF
Operation. This is a unique
developmental project, as similar
solutions are not ready available
in the market.
• Raj West Power Ltd. (RWPL), a
wholly owned subsidiary of JSW
situated in Barmer district of
Rajasthan has appointed PRDC as
a expert consultant for power
system study for tuning of power
system stabilizers (PSS) for their
Raj West lignite based pit-head
(8x135MW) generating station.
• PRDC has bagged the order from
Surana Power, for rendering the
engineering services for
development of transmission
system for their on-going
2x210MW generating station at
Raichur, Karnataka. The
consultancy services include
selection of survey agency,
preparation of tender
documents for 400kV line by
vendors, coordination with
various authorities for approvals
and monitoring progress of
400kV double circuit line
construction.
Power Research and Development Consultants
Achievements
• PRDC has been appointed as a
technical consultant by
Karnataka Electricity Regulatory
Commission (KERC) for
preparation of guidelines and
roadmap for implementation of
HVDS system in Karnataka.
• PRDC has been appointed as a
technical consultant by World
Institute of Sustainable Energy
(WISE) for providing
consultancy services for large
scale renewable energy
integration and power
evacuation facilities in Tamil
Nadu.
• PRDC has been awarded the
contract for Long Term Demand
Forecasting and Perspective
Planning by Karnataka Power
Transmission Corporation
Limited.
• PRDC has successfully bagged
the contracts for supplying
Transmission Line Simulators
with Automation to O.P. Jindal
Institute of Technology, Raigarh
and Vellore Institute of
Technology, Vellore.
• PRDC is been selected as
Technical Advisory to Platina
Partners LLP, a UK based
company investing in Wind
Power Sector in India.
• PRDC has bagged the contract
for undertaking Insulation
Coordination Studies for ABB
Switzerland.
Newsletter
Upcoming Events
• Launch of new release of
MiPower™ 2012
onOctober 31, 2012 in
New Delhi.
• Workshop on Power
System Protection in Qatar
along with IEI, Qatar
Chapter on October 18,
2012 at Asiana Restaurant,
Doha.
• PRDC is participating in
“Wind Power India 2012”
– 2nd International
Conference and Exhibition
to held on 28 -30
November 2012 in
Chennai. The conference
is being held at Chennai
Trade Center, Chennai.
• Workshop on Computer
Applications to Power
Systems using MiPower™
at Ambala, Punjab.
• Platinum Sponsors for
NPSC 2012 at BHU,
Varanasi.
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 45
Newsletter

About the Authors

Dr. K. Balaraman Prof K. R. Padiyar

Ltd., Bangalore- one of the reputed Power
System Consultants in the country.
R. Nagaraja has done his B.E. in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering from Mysore
University (India) in the year 1986. He
obtained his M.E in the year 1988,
specialized in Computer Applications to
Power System and Drives and Ph.D. Degree
Prof. K.R. Padiyar is associatedin the field of Energy Management System
Dr. K.Balaraman, M.Tech, (Ph.D)
from Indian Institute of Science (IISc).His
with Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
worked for BEML at their R&D division.
since 1987, where he is currently an specializations are Power System Analysis,
After a brief stint, he joined Karnataka
Honorary Professor in the Department of Simulation, Power Engineering Education
Electricity Board (now Karnataka Power
and Power System Protection. Dr. Nagaraja
Electrical Engineering. Prior to joining IISc,
Transmission Company Limited – KPTCL) in
he was with Indian Institute of has authored several technical papers and
1992 as Assistant Engineer. He has served
Technology, Kanpur. He obtained M.E conducted a number of
as Shift engineer in 220kV substation also
degree in 1964 from IISc and Ph.D degree workshops/conferences/seminars
worked in Load Dispatch Centre as Shift
from University of Waterloo, Canada in throughout the country.
Engineer till early 1997. In 1997 he was
awarded BRITISH OVERSEAS SCHOLARSHIP 1972. He has taught and lectured at
various Universities in Canada and USA. Dr. Nagaraja is the brain behind the
by CONFEDERATION OF BRITISH INDUSTRY
architecture, design and development of
to undergo practical training in NATIONAL
GRID COMPANY PLC. England. In 2007, he He has authored over 200 papers and 4 the MiPower – Power system analysis
was awarded Doctorate by Visvesvaraya Books including ‘Power system dynamics, software package widely used by Electric
Technological University in the subject of stability and control’. His research interest utilities, Industries, Consultants and
“Developing New Methodologies in Energy are in the areas of HVDC and FACTS, Engineering colleges. Dr. Nagaraja has been
Management System”. In 2006, he joined power system stability and control. He involved in the planning studies of State
Power Research Development Consultants was a member of the Review committee Utilities and Industries in India and abroad.
Pvt.Ltd as General Manager (Power System on the National HVDC project. He is the
studies). recipient of 1999 Prof. RustomChoksi Dr. G. Govinda Rao
award for excellence in research. He was
His areas of interest are power ABB chair professor (2001-03). He is
system studies, power system operation, fellow of Indian national academy of
regulatory issues, project appraisal and Engineering.
Electricity market. He has published over
15 research papers in National Conference Dr. R. Nagaraja
and international conferences. He has
guided over 25 projects of Master degree
and Bachelor degree students. He has
delivered over 200 lectures across the Dr. G. Govinda Rao obtained
Country in the areas of Power system B.E.(EE)and M.E.(Power Systems)from
studies, Power System Planning, Energy Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India
Management System, Power system and Ph.D. in the area of Long Term
operation, ABT. Dr. R. Nagaraja is the founder Dynamics in Power Systems from IISc,
and Managing Director of M/s. Power Bangalore, India. After working for a short
Research & Development Consultants Pvt. while as an Electrical Engineer, he joined
 Page 46 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter

About the Authors

the Teaching Faculty of Andhra University He was Visiting Fellow at the University Research papers in national conferences.
College of Engg., Visakhapatnam, India and of Manchester Institute of Science and Presently, he holds the position of Sr.
served for more than 40 years in different Technology, UK (1970-71). He was ABB Engineer-PSS at PRDC.
positions. After relinquishing his service chair professor (1996-1997). He is fellow
there, he worked as Professor at of Indian national academy of M. M. Babu Narayanan
ANITS,Visakhapatnamfor four years. After Engineering.
working for a semester at Southern He has Over 200 publications in
Polytechnic State University, South National & International journals He was
Marietta, USA as a Visiting Professor, he is Member, R&D Committee, CPRI and
presently working as a Senior Professor in served as Vice Chairman, Protection
the GVP College of Engg., Visakhapatnam. Committee, CBIP, New Delhi. Presently, he
To his credit he presented and published holds the position of Chief Technical
more than 55 Papers in Conferences and Advisor at PRDC.
Journals of National and International
Repute. He was awarded the Best Teacher Veerabrahmam Bathini
Award by the A.P. State Government. His
research interests are in fundamentals of M.M. Babu Narayanan has 35
Circuit Analysis, Power System Dynamics, years’ experience in Power Industry. He
Voltage Stability and Reactive Power works in the areaof Design,planning, R&D,
Management. simulation & Reforms in Transmission and
Distribution. He obtained B.Sc (Engg. ) from
NIT, Calicut and M.Sc (Engg.) from IISc,
Prof K. Parthasarathy Bangalore in 1991.. He has undergone
training at ABB, Sweden in HVDC
Transmission systems and real time
simulation.
VeerabrahmamBathini obtained
B.Tech (Electrical & Electronics) in 2004 He was responsible for setting up
and M.Tech (Integrated Power Systems) in state-of-the-art Real Time Digital
2007 from J.N.T.U College of Engineering, simulation facility in Central Power
Anantapur and V.N.I.T Nagpur Research Institute. At CPRI, he has been
respectively. His areas of interest are involved in dynamic performance studies
Power Systems Dynamics and control and for a number of HVDC and FACTS projects
Dr. K. Parthasarthy obtained Power Electronics Applications to Power in India. He is a recipient of Central Board
M.E.(Power Systems) in 1961 and Ph.D. systems. of Irrigation & Power award for excellence
degree (Protective Relays) in 1967 from in power transmission systems.
Indian Institute of Science Bangalore. His He joined in PRDC in 2007 as
areas of interest are Switchgear and Engineer-PSS, from 2007 majorly he His research interests are HVDC
Protection, Power System Dynamics and executed various projects in the field of transmission, & Grounding. He has lectured
Control, Computer Aided Protection and EMTP Studies (detailed Insulation co- at many Universities in India and abroad.
Power System Analysis. He held various ordination of GIS and AIS substations, He has also been a member of several
positions at IISc, Bangalore during the 1961 Ferroresonance, circuit breaker Switching Govt. of India committees in Transmission
– 1997. He served as Chairman, etc.,).He is also involved in the & Distribution related areas including the
Department of Electrical Engineering IISc development of EMTP-Type module in Power System Development Fund of
(1987-88). MiPower software. He has published CERC.Currently he is Chief Technical
Adviser at PRDC, Bangalore
 Power Research and Development Consultants
Page 47
Newsletter

• Load Flow Analysis

• Short Circuit Analysis
• Transient Stability Studies
• Relay Coordination
• Voltage Instability Studies
• Harmonic Analysis
• • Load Analysis
Dynamic Stability Flow Analysis
• • Short Circuit Analysis
Network Reduction
• • Transient
Sub-Synchronous Stability Studies
Resonance
• Relay Coordination
• Electromagnetic transients
• Voltage Instability Studies
• Line and Cable Parameter
• Harmonic Analysis
Calculation
• Dynamic Stability Analysis
• Long Term Load Forecast
• Network Reduction
• D C Network Solutions
• Sub-Synchronous
Synchronous Resonance
• Unit Protection Schemes
• Electromagnetic transients
• Reliability•Analysis
Line and Cable Parameter Calculation
• Open Access• Long
Feasibility
Term Load Forecast
• • D C Network Solutions
ATC Computation
• Unit Protection Schemes
• Reliability Analysis
• Open Access Feasibility
• ATC Computation
For Details Contact:
Power Research & Development Consultants Pvt. Ltd
Page 48 Power Research and Development Consultants
Newsletter