Professional Documents
Culture Documents
nl/hjd
Noé Cornago
Faculty of Social Sciences, University of the Basque Country, Campus of Leioa,
PO Box 644, Bilbao, Basque Country 48080, Spain
noe.cornago@ehu.es
Received: 2 June 2009; revised: 25 October 2009; accepted: 30 November 2009
Summary
Against conventional approaches that tend to minimize the importance of sub-state diplomacy, this arti-
cle argues that this reality is presently undergoing a process of legal and political normalization through-
out the world and deserves greater attention from both diplomatic practitioners and experts. This process,
which is embedded in wider structural transformations, is driven simultaneously by two competing forces
that are present in virtually all states: first, international mobilization of sub-state governments them-
selves, since they increasingly pursue relevant political objectives in the international field through their
own methods and instruments; and second, the various attempts to limit and control that activism
deployed by central governments through various legal and political instruments. After a brief discussion
on the notion of normalization in critical social theory and its validity for diplomatic studies, this article
examines the normalization of sub-state diplomacy through four, closely interconnected conceptual
lenses: normalization as generalization; normalization as regionalization; normalization as reflective
adaptation; and, finally, normalization as contentious regulation. Normalization enables the diplomatic
system to operate in an increasingly complex environment while simultaneously affirming its own hierar-
chical structure. The limits of that normalization process, as well as its wider implications for diplomatic
theory and practice, are also discussed.
Keywords
diplomacy, sub-state, paradiplomacy, constituent units, foreign relations, normalization, international
socialization
Introduction
Although rarely spectacular, neither in form nor content, the international activism
of sub-state governments is rapidly growing across the world, discreetly transforming
diplomatic routines and foreign policy machineries. The institutional contours
and political relevance of that reality have been extensively studied over recent
decades from the point of view of disciplines as diverse as international law,1
1)
See Luigi Di Marzo, Component Units of Federal States and International Agreements (Alphen aan den
Rijn: Sijhoff & Nordhoff, 1980); Renaud J. Dehousse, Federalisme et relations internationales (Brussels:
Bruylant, 1991); and Manuel Pérez-González (ed.), La acción exterior de los länder, regiones y comunidades
autónomas (Oñati: IVAP-HAEE, 1994).
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2010 DOI: 10.1163/187119110X12574289877326
12 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
2)
Among the most significant works that contributed to give form to this debate, see Ivo D. Duchacek,
Daniel Latouche and Garth Stevenson (eds.), Perforated Sovereignties and International Relations: Trans-
Sovereign Contacts of Subnational Governments (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988); Hans J. Michelmann
and Panayotis Soldatos (eds.), Federalism and International Relations: The Role of Subnational Units
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990); Brian Hocking (ed.), Foreign Relations and Federal States (London:
Leicester University Press, 1993); and Francisco Aldecoa and Michael Keating (eds.), Paradiplomacy in
Action: The Foreign Relations of Sub-National Governments (London: Frank Cass, 1999).
3)
See Guy Lachapelle and Stéphane Paquin (eds.), Mastering Globalization: New Sub-States’ Governance
and Strategies (London: Routledge, 2005).
4)
Among the most important exceptions, see Brian Hocking, ‘Catalytic Diplomacy: Between Newness
and Decline’, in Jan Melissen (ed.), Innovation in Diplomatic Practice (London: Palgrave Macmillan,
1998), pp. 21-42; and Alan K. Henrikson, ‘Facing Across Borders: The Diplomacy of Bon Voisinage’,
International Political Science Review, vol. 21, no. 2, 2000.
5)
See Iver B. Neumann, ‘Returning Practice to the Linguistic Turn: The Case of Diplomacy’, Millen-
nium, vol. 32, no. 3, 2002, pp. 627-652.
6)
See Stéphane Paquin, Paradiplomatie et relations internationales: Théorie des stratégies internationales des
régions face á la mondialisation (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2004).
7)
See Ivo D. Duchacek, ‘Perforated Sovereignties: Towards a Typology of New Actors in International
Relations’, and Panayotis Soldatos, ‘An Explanatory Framework for the Study of Federated States as For-
eign-Policy Actors’, both in Michelmann and Soldatos (eds.), Federalism and International Relations: The
Role of Subnational Units, pp. 1-33 and 34-53.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 13
But beyond any attempt to clarify its content, paradiplomacy has most certainly
been a particularly contested concept given that it suggests a contentious connec-
tion with diplomacy — and not simply with the international realm — while
simultaneously affirming its own separated autonomy. That connotation is absent
in other possible notions, such as that of ‘constituent diplomacy’, which is consis-
tently suggested by Kincaid, or that of ‘multilayered diplomacy’, as advocated
by Hocking. These, in contrast, tend to emphasize the consensual and inclusive
dimensions of this reality over its possible controversial aspects.9 However, and in
order to avoid possible terminological disputes, ‘sub-state diplomacy’ can perhaps
be a more appropriate denomination for a reality that is becoming commonplace
in the daily policy-making processes of many local and regional governments
throughout the world and is increasingly accepted by the diplomatic system itself.
This article, however, will consider exclusively the case of those diplomatic
practices that are deployed by intermediate or regional governments, leaving the
case of ‘city diplomacy’ outside its scope. This decision deserves some justifica-
tion. Not in vain, it has been aptly suggested that:
[. . .] the vast array of entities commonly labelled ‘regions’ actually encompasses a wide range of quite
different phenomena.10
8)
See Noé Cornago, ‘Diplomacy and Paradiplomacy in the Redefinition of International Security:
Dimensions of Conflict and Cooperation’, in Aldecoa and Keating, Paradiplomacy in Action, p. 40.
9)
On the notions of ‘constituent diplomacy’ and ‘multilayered diplomacy’, see Johan Kincaid, ‘Foreign
Relations of Sub-National Units: Constituent Diplomacies in Federal Systems’, in Raoul Blindenbacher
and Arnold Koller (eds.), Federalism in a Changing World: Learning from Each Other (Montreal QC:
McGill-Queens University Press, 2002), pp. 74-96; and Brian Hocking, Localizing Foreign Policy: Non-
Central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy (London: Macmillan, 1993).
10)
See Peter Schmitt-Egner ‘The Concept of “Region”: Theoretical and Methodological Notes on its
Reconstruction’, Revue d’integration européenne / Journal of European Integration, vol. 24, no. 3, 2002,
pp. 179-200.
11)
For a basic introduction to interpretive social sciences, see Mark Bevir and R. Rhodes, ‘Interpretive
14 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
venue for enquiry. After all, in spite of the crucial differences that are present
among them, the Canadian provinces, Spanish autonomous communities, Bra-
zilian and Indian states, Russian republics, Bolivian departments and Italian
regions — as is the case with many other meso-level governments that are easily
recognizable throughout the world — share common features that are difficult to
ignore. All of them are government bodies with relevant competences and sig-
nificant administrative resources, and, undoubtedly of greater importance, all of
them are more than a city but less than a sovereign state. That meso-level position
entails important implications in terms of their ultimate nature and political rel-
evance. The internationalization of cities, for instance, can hardly be considered a
challenge to the integrity — neither territorially nor simply symbolically — of
the state’s sovereignty. In contrast, diplomatic efforts deployed by territorial units
or regional governments are generally submitted to more careful political moni-
toring, by both central or federal governments as well as the diplomatic system,
precisely because of suspicions regarding that possibility.
Bearing these precedents in mind, and in contrast with relevant contributions
in the field of diplomatic studies that tend either to deny or minimize their pos-
sible relevance,12 this article asserts that so-called ‘normalization’ of sub-state
diplomacy is a politically relevant process. In addition, the article argues that this
process is highly indicative of the crucial transformation that diplomacy is cur-
rently experiencing worldwide. Bringing the insights of Foucault on social con-
trol through normalization processes to the diplomatic field,13 we can say that
normalization enables institutional diplomatic structures to operate in an increas-
ingly complex environment. Normalization simultaneously allows the flourishing
of diplomatic innovation that growing pluralization of international life produces,
while simultaneously affirming the hierarchical structure of the diplomatic sys-
tem. Normalization can consequently be defined as a mode of control that recog-
nizes an otherwise deviant practice as valid, while the limits of these practices are
fixed and carefully monitored.14
Embedded in broader structural transformations — in economic, institutional,
cultural, technological or environmental domains — these normalizing processes
Theory’, in David Marsh and Gerry Stoker (eds.), Theory and Methods in Political Science (Houndmills:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), pp. 131-152.
12)
The consideration of sub-state diplomacy in the context of diplomatic studies is still marginal and
rarely direct. For instance, the lack of specific attention to that reality is noteworthy in the otherwise
outstanding title by Christer Jönsson and Richard Langhorne (eds.), Diplomacy (3 volumes) (London:
Sage, 2004).
13)
On Foucault and international relations, see Kimberly Hutchins, ‘Foucault and International Rela-
tions Theory’, in M. Lloyd and A. Thacker (eds.), The Impact of Foucault on the Social Sciences and
Humanities (London: Macmillan, 1997) pp. 102-127; and Andrew W. Neal, ‘Michel Foucault’, in
J. Edkins and N. Vaughan Williams (eds.), Critical Theorists and International Relations (London:
Routledge, 2009), pp. 161-170.
14)
On the normalization issue, see John D. Caputo and Mark Yount, ‘Institutions, Normalization and
Power’, in J. Caputo and M. Yount (eds.), Foucault and the Critique of Institutions (University Park PA:
Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993) pp. 3-26.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 15
are simultaneously driven by two competing forces that are present within virtu-
ally all states: first, the mobilization of sub-state governments themselves, as they
are increasingly pursuing, by their own means, relevant political objectives in the
international field; and second, the various attempts to limit and control that activism
that are implemented by central governments through diverse legal instruments
and political means. For the purpose of clarity, this process of normalization will
be consecutively examined through four different, closely interconnected concep-
tual lenses: 1) normalization as virtual generalization; 2) normalization as differ-
entiated regionalization; 3) normalization as reflective adaptation; and 4)
normalization as contentious regulation. The limits of this process of normaliza-
tion, as well as its wider implications for diplomatic theory and practice, will also
be discussed. However, this exploration of the normalization of sub-state diplo-
macy does not aim to be celebratory. It will not depict a parsimonious and fluid
process but a contentious and controversial one, albeit generally peaceful and
never conducive to war. Through these processes of normalization, the interna-
tional activism of sub-state governments, which were once considered by many
academics and practitioners to be deviant, irrelevant, nonsensical or simply excep-
tional, finally becomes accepted. However, as will be suggested, this process is
never finished. Sooner or later, the political controversy reappears.15
It can arguably be said that, formulated in this way, the notion of normaliza-
tion implies that the described process has a top–down direction, one in which
central governments are the masters of the game, always aware of its political
design and ultimate objective, while sub-state governments simply try, once and
again, to find new venues for their international projection under the close scru-
tiny of their respective hosting states. But in order to understand normalization
in the diplomatic field, top–down as well as bottom–up processes are equally
relevant. Although they are situated in very different places of enunciation, both
state officials and sub-state representatives, in dealing with these issues, deploy a
mixture of utilitarian bargaining and communicative reasoning. Their respective
actions and arguments are certainly affected by a speech context, in which the
most powerful side is usually the one representing the voice of the affected state
through its central government representatives. But their interventions are also
embedded in a wider functional and normative context. That context to some
extent modulates the attitudes that both sides will observe when dealing with the
need to assess the political convenience and appropriateness of sub-state diplo-
macy, as well as its necessary adjustment to the prevailing diplomatic system.16
15)
On the ways in which the disciplining and normalizing processes described by Foucault are embedded
in wider structural conditions operating on a global scale, see Jan Selby, ‘Engaging Foucault: Discourse,
Liberal Governance and the Limits of Foucaldian IR’, International Relations, vol. 21, no. 2, 2004,
pp. 324-345.
16)
On these notions, as well as on their validity for understanding innovation and change in the diplo-
matic milieu, see Harald Müller, ‘Arguing, Bargaining and All That: Communicative Action, Rationalist
16 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
Socialization is defined as a process of inducting actors into the norms and rules of a given com-
munity. Its outcome is sustained compliance based on the internalization of these norms. In adopt-
ing community rules, socialization implies that an agent switches from following a logic of
consequences to a logic of appropriateness; this adoption is sustained over time and is quite inde-
pendent from a particular structure of material incentives and sanctions.17
But in spite of the fruitfulness of that notion, and from the point of view that
inspires this article, the normalization approach is preferred for four basic reasons.
First, mainstream literature on international socialization is generally centred
on further exploring the middle ground between rationalist and constructivist
approaches to foreign policy and international institutionalization.18 Conversely,
the literature has generally ignored structural dimensions, which have an impor-
tant explanatory weight for this article’s purposes. Second, sub-state governments
are invariably ignored in the most influential literature in the field. Despite its
growing interest in NGOs, private groups or epistemic communities, central gov-
ernments are the sole relevant governments for this body of literature. Third, as
happens with its original sources in social theory and political science, literature
on international socialization tends to focus on the consensual dimensions of
political life, while this article, on the other hand, emphasizes the contentious
dimensions of this normalizing process.19 Finally, in contrast to prevailing
approaches to international socialization, this article is less interested in explain-
ing how sub-state diplomacy reveals the internalization of existing diplomatic
norms than in the opposite — that is to say, how the diplomatic system responds
to the growing international activism of sub-state governments across the world.
Theory and the Logic of Appropriateness in International Relations’, European Journal of International
Relations, vol. 10, no. 3, 2004, pp. 395-435.
17)
See Jeffrey T. Checkel, ‘International Institutions and Socialization in Europe: Introduction and
Framework’, International Organization, vol. 59, no. 4, 2005, p. 803.
18)
See Frank Schimmelfennig, ‘International Socialization in the New Europe: Rational Action in an
Institutional Environment’, European Journal of International Relations, vol. 6, no.1, 2000, pp. 109-139.
19)
For instance, in spite of her careful attention to domestic complexity, Flockhart ignores the impor-
tance of sub-state governments in her very innovative work. See Trine Flockhart, ‘Complex Socialization:
A Framework for the Study of State Socialization’, European Journal of International Relations, vol. 12,
no. 1, 2006, pp. 89-118.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 17
state diplomacy over virtually the entire world. Against conventional views, the
international activism of sub-state governments is neither exclusive to federal
countries nor to firmly established democracies. It is undoubtedly particularly
salient in the case of some federal countries, such as Canada or the United States,
as well as in Australia, Austria, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland, but it is also
relevant in many unitary and decentralized countries, such as France, Italy, Spain
or the United Kingdom. More interestingly, and beyond the Western world, sub-
state diplomacy is becoming increasingly present in countries as diverse as Argen-
tina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia
or South Africa.20 As Paquin has succinctly pointed out, the growing involvement
of sub-state governments in the international realm has become so ‘intensive and
extensive’ across the world, that its ultimate significance certainly demands greater
attention.21
Efforts to promote foreign trade and investment, the maintenance of perma-
nent delegations abroad, the extension of international agreements through
diverse soft-law mechanisms, limited participation in international treaty-making
processes in cases where it is constitutionally established — for example, Austria,
Belgium or Germany — intensive participation in multilateral negotiation schemes
on a geographical or functional basis, direct relationships with international orga-
nizations, the frequent sending and hosting of international missions, the launch-
ing of occasional political statements on international issues, place branding and
public diplomacy campaigns, foreign aid programmes and cross-national envi-
ronmental cooperation schemes . . .; all of the above, and many other instruments
with their corresponding administrative and budgetary provisions, are becoming
common practice for sub-state governments worldwide. In fact, with this reality
in mind — and particularly intense in cases where constituent units have legisla-
tive powers — Criekemans has convincingly suggested that the boundaries
between paradiplomacy and diplomacy are perhaps watering down.22
The causes of this trend are very diverse, but in broad terms it can be said that
under present global conditions, sub-state governments have to respond to a
20)
Evidence of the global spread of sub-state diplomacy can be found in Rudolf Hrbek (ed.), External
Relations of Regions in Europe and the World (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2003); Tullo Vigevani, Luiz E. Wan-
derley and Marcelo Passini (eds.), A dimensão subnacional e as relações internacionales (Sao Paulo: Cedec/
EDUC-EDUSC, 2004); Sergio Gelfenstein (ed.), La paradiplomacia: Las relaciones internacionales de los
gobiernos locales (Mexico: Porrua, 2006); Raoul Blindenbacher and Chandra Pasma (eds.), Dialogues on
Foreign Relations in Federal Countries (Montreal: Forum of Federations/IACFS, 2008); and Hans J.
Michelmann (ed.), Federalism and Foreign Relations (Ottawa ON: McGill-Queens University Press,
2009).
21)
See Stéphane Paquin, ‘Les actions extérieures des entités subétatiques: quelle signification pour la politique
comparée et les relations internationales’, Revue internationale de politique comparée, vol. 12, no. 2, 2005,
pp. 129-142.
22)
See David Criekemans, ‘Are the Boundaries between Diplomacy and Paradiplomacy Watering Down?’,
paper presented at the Second Global International Studies Conference/WISC, Ljubljana, Slovenia,
23-26 July 2008.
18 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
[. . .] not only on the basis of traditional location factors — transport, taxes, and labor market — but
also by calling up the image of an entirely alternative society which is portrayed as both ‘flexible’ and
‘capable’ of reinvention, adopting a new [. . .] rhetoric which invariably relies on a mixture of cultural
and technological arguments.24
This understanding of the situation gives sub-state diplomacy its distinctive dis-
cursive tone, one that can be encountered all over the world with only minor
variations, in places such as Texas in the United States, Shandong in China, Anda-
lusia in Spain, Gauteng in South Africa, or Kansai in Japan, to name only a few.
Of course, in spite of these general aspects, sub-state involvement in foreign affairs
generally acquires specific profiles depending on the precise political and consti-
tutional systems that are present in each sovereign state, as well as in each broader,
regional context. However, it is worth noting that global dynamics seem to
prevail over domestic conditions.25 But relevant dynamics here are not solely
functional. Significant normative dimensions are also highly influential. Social
23)
See David Sadler, The Global Region: Production, State Policies and Uneven Development (Oxford: Per-
gamon Press, 1992); and Darel E. Paul, Rescaling International Political Economy: Subnational States and
the Regulation of the Global Political Economy (New York: Routledge, 2005).
24)
See Gertjan Dijkink and Constance Winnips, ‘Alternative States: Regions and Post-Fordism Rhetoric
on the Internet’, Geojournal, vol. 48, no. 4, 2004, p. 323.
25)
For an accurate reflection on the importance of these issues, see Marcelo A. Medeiros, ‘Sub-National
State Actors and their Role in Regional Governance’, in Andrea Ribeiro Hoffmann and Johanna Maria
van der Vleuten (eds.), Closing or Widening the Gap?: Legitimacy and Democracy in Regional Integration
Organizations (London: Ashgate, 2008), pp. 103-116.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 19
institutional strength are consequently able to cooperate with each other in spite
of their heterogeneity. Within the limits of this brief article, this section will offer
some examples regarding the ways in which this process actually works.
The European case is particularly relevant for illustrating the structural link
between sub-state diplomacy and both regional cooperation and integration schemes.
In addition, it shows how the normalization process that we are discussing has
been effectively implemented by both the European Commission and EU mem-
ber states simultaneously, following the path previously set by the Council of
Europe. Although the EU initially undermined important sub-national compe-
tences, its evolving institutional framework — over the course of various con-
secutive reforms — has finally established a somewhat favourable political context
for sub-state mobilization. This process has substantially transformed administra-
tive cultures among EU member states and has enabled the spread of a shared
perception concerning the need to provide institutional venues for mobilizing
sub-state governments across the European region and beyond.28
For those not familiar with the European integration process, it is worth men-
tioning the milestones in the EU’s institutional recognition of regional govern-
ments as actors of political relevance: first, the creation in 1994 of the Committee
of the Regions with its consultative role on issues such as territorial and social
cohesion, education and culture, public health, transport and infrastructure; sec-
ond, the recruitment of regional authorities as partners in implementing Euro-
pean structural policies; and third, the provision that EU member states can
be represented in the Council of Ministers by representatives of their respective
constituent units. The latter has been effectively implemented by Austria, Bel-
gium, Germany and, more recently, Spain. Moreover, through significant fund-
ing incentives, the EU has actively promoted the launch of multiple, cross-border
and inter-regional cooperation schemes across the continent. All of these aspects
have been of significance in contributing to the growing acceptance of multi-level
governance as one of the driving forces behind the whole European integration
process. On analysing this reality, it is important to stress that the initiatives
adopted by the EU have always been designed in a particularly inclusive manner.
In so doing, the EU deliberately attempted to enable the most disparate incarna-
tions of sub-state governments to participate in these innovative venues for pol-
icy-making in the European polity. Furthermore, through the provision of these
institutional venues for political participation, the EU has been quite successful
in responding to sub-states’ claims for greater political recognition, which were
particularly intense in countries such as Belgium, Spain, Italy and the United
Kingdom. Although problematic issues such as ethno-territorial claims remain to
28)
Comprehensive accounts of this process can be found in John Loughlin (eds.), Subnational Democracy
in the European Union: Challenges and Opportunities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); and
Michael Keating, Regions and Regionalism in Europe (London: Edward Elgar, 2004).
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 21
38)
See Sergio González Miranda, Arica y la triple frontera: Integración y conflicto entre Bolivia, Perú y Chile
(Santiago: Aríbalo, 2006).
39)
For a contextualized assessment on these early developments in the immediate post-Soviet context, see
Neil Melvin, Regional Foreign Policies in the Russian Federation (London: RIIA, 1995).
40)
On the proliferation of Russian sub-state diplomacies during the Yeltsin era, see Andrey Makarychev,
Islands of Globalization: Regional Russia and the Outside World, ETH Working Paper no. 2 (Zurich: ETH,
2000); and Jerome Perovic, Internationalization of Russian Regions and the Consequences for Russian Foreign
and Security Policy, EHT Working Paper no. 3 (Zurich: ETH, 2000).
41)
See Renata Dwan and Oleksandr Pavliuk (eds.), Building Security in the New States of Eurasia: Subre-
gional Cooperation in the Former Soviet Space (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2000).
24 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
concentrate political power at the core of the Russian presidency hindered the
international activism of Russian republics for some time. The Law on Coordina-
tion of Foreign Relations and International Trade of the Subjects of the Russian
Federation, which was passed in January 1999, established that international
agreements by the regions would only be allowed if they went through a complex
process of securing approval at the federal level, but still allowed sub-state inter-
national relations in fields such as trade and investment, science, environmental
and cultural cooperation, and humanitarian relief. However, according to recent
assessments, Russian sub-state diplomacy is at present still significantly active.42
The Chinese case also presents some interesting peculiarities. In the framework
of its experimental transition to capitalism, China promoted the international
projection of its provinces for strictly economic purposes. But later, this narrow
economic approach was revised under a renewed foreign policy doctrine in which
provinces were called upon to play a major role. This process began in coastal
regions such as Guangdong, among others, with the aim of promoting de facto
economic integration with Hong Kong, Taiwan and Japan. But the increasing
economic disparities between coastal provinces and the more depressed northern,
inland and western provinces later provoked significant complaints from the
remaining provinces, which facilitated their international mobilization too. After
the Tiananmen crisis, China adopted a new diplomatic strategy, seeking to elude
its international isolation through innovative foreign policy instruments. In this
context, sub-state diplomacy, with the exceptions of Tibet and Xingjian, was wel-
comed by Beijing. As a result of these overlapping dynamics, Chinese provinces
are among the most active actors all over the world in the field of sub-state diplo-
macy. They have been able to extend a particularly dense network of relationships
with diverse public and private counterparts across the world.43 Moreover, a num-
ber of case studies show the important role played by the Chinese diaspora in the
shaping of these paradiplomatic efforts.44
In contrast with the Russian and Chinese cases, the Japanese case has received
very little attention among specialists. Japanese prefectures have also, however,
been very active in the international realm. In addition to being especially active
in the economic and environmental fields, Japanese prefectures have found their
42)
On the current state of sub-state diplomacy in Russia, see Alexander S. Kuznetsov, ‘Paradiplomacy
as the Domestic Source of Russian Foreign Policy: An Analysis on the Basis of Theoretical Framework’,
paper prepared for the 50th annual International Studies Association meeting, New York, 15-18 February
2009.
43)
See Peter T.Y. Cheung and James T.H. Tang, ‘The External Relations of China’s Provinces’, in David
M. Lampton (ed.), The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978-2000
(Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), pp. 91-120; and Chen Zhimin, ‘Coastal Provinces and
China’s Foreign Policy-Making’, in Yufan Hao and Lin Su (eds.), China’s Foreign Policy Making: Societal
Forces and Chinese American Policy (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), pp. 187-207.
44)
See, for instance, Miguel Santos Neves, ‘Macau and Europe: The Challenges of the Paradiplomacy
Game’, China Perspectives, vol. 44, no. 6, 2002, pp. 54-66.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 25
more distinctive contribution to sub-state diplomacy across the world in the pro-
motion of pacifism and nuclear disarmament.45
Conversely, the Indian federal system has not had sub-national sub-state diplo-
macy facilitated until very recently.46 Ethnic claims and border disputes have
always complicated Indian foreign policy designs, but it has been suggested that
the very existence of ethnic ties across borders — as in the case of Kashmir, Pun-
jab or Assam — could be turned into different forms of cross-border cooperation
that would favour economic development and regional stability.47 In addition,
during recent years, and because of the considerable economic success of south-
ern states, a certain north-south cleavage seems to have emerged. Some Indian
states, such as Kerala, Karnataka, Andra-Pradesh and Maharastra are becoming
increasingly active in the economic field. Others, such as Jammu and Kashmir,
have only recently begun to show a new international ambition. However, these
mobilization efforts depend largely on personal leadership, political coalitions
and party politics in the broader Indian political system. Nevertheless, despite
federal governments’ concerns on the issue, the most relevant force driving Indian
constituent units to develop new transnational ties are, without doubt, the disci-
plining schemes resulting from both India’s membership of the WTO and the
World Bank’s direct financing of sub-national debt.48
Within the ASEAN space, and in coherence with its overall lack of suprana-
tional ambition and its low institutional profile, instead of missions around the
world and incentives for foreign investors, the internationalization of constituent
units in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines has been largely the
result of a variety of informal, economic cooperation schemes in border areas.
Through the configuration of the so-called ‘growth triangles’, a particularly effi-
cient division of labour among regional governments was promoted with spec-
tacular economic results. The oldest and most celebrated ‘growth triangle’ is the
one that links Singapore, Malaysia’s Johor province and Indonesia’s Riau Island,
although dozens of them were created in recent decades.49 While the concept
of ‘growth triangles’ has caught the public’s imagination in Asia, these transna-
tional economic experiments also had important social implications, in the form
of increasing income inequalities, territorial imbalances and ecological distress.
In addition, the effects of the economic crisis and new security concerns are
45)
See Jain Purnendra, Japan’s Subnational Governments in International Affairs (London: Routledge,
2005).
46)
See Amitah Matton and Happymon Jacob, ‘Republic of India’, in Hans J. Michelmann (ed.), Federal-
ism and Foreign Relations (Ottawa ON: McGill-Queens University Press, 2009), pp. 169-189.
47)
See R. Dossani and S. Vijakumar, ‘Indian Federalism and the Conduct of Foreign Policy in Border
States’, APARC/Stanford Working Papers, 2005.
48)
See Rob Jenkins, ‘India’s States and the Making of Foreign Economic Policy: The Limits of the Con-
stituent Diplomacy Paradigm’, Publius: The Journal of Federalism, vol. 33, no. 4, 2003, pp. 63-82.
49)
A reflective balance on these initiatives can be found in Katsuhiro Sasura, Microregionalism and Gov-
ernance in East Asia (London: Routledge, 2004).
26 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
50)
On the social and political implications of ‘growth triangles’, see Aihwa Ong, Neoliberalism as Excep-
tion: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2006), pp. 88-92.
51)
See Christina Murray and Salim A. Nakhjavani, ‘Republic of South Africa’, in Hans J. Michelmann
(ed.), Federalism and Foreign Relations (Ottawa ON: McGill-Queens University Press, 2009), pp. 212-240.
52)
See Nico Steyler, ‘Cross-Border External Relations of South African Provinces’, in R. Hrbek (ed.),
External Relations of Regions in Europe and the World (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2003), pp. 247-253.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 27
53)
See Andre Lecours, ‘Paradiplomacy: Reflections on the Foreign Policy and International Relations of
Regions’, International Negotiation, vol. 7, 2002, pp. 91-114.
28 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
54)
Some of the most important regional networks are the Assembly of European Regions (AER), http://
www.aer.eu/en/home.html; the International Association of French-Speaking Regions (AIRF), http://
www.regions-francophones.com/; the Latin-American Organization of Intermediate Governments (OLAGI),
http://www.olagi.org/sitio.html; and Northern Forum, http://www.northernforum.org. Among the most
active-issue thematic international networks are the Network of Local Authorities for Information Soci-
ety/it4all, http://www.it4all-regions.org/it4all/; the Network of Regional Governments for Sustainable
Development/nrg4SD, http://www.nrg4sd.net/; the Conference of Peripheral Maritime Regions (CPMR),
http://www.crpm.org/index.php; and the Association of European Border Regions (AEBR), http://www.
aebr.net/. Even the most sceptical observer will be impressed by the intense activity of these networks (all
websites were accessed on 10 November 2009).
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 29
achieved at the price — more or less abruptly — of silencing that old diversity of
voices. As early as 1931, Harald Stoke pointed out in quite solemn words that:
Generally speaking, two types of federations may be distinguished with reference to the conduct of
foreign relations: those which allow a degree of international intercourse to members of the union,
and those which deny all such intercourse. The federations of the latter type are much numerous
than those of the former.55
But on contemplating the existing practice over the world, it can be said that this
reluctance has been notorious, even in such exceptional cases when constitutional
systems acknowledge that constituent units play a certain role in the domain of
international relations. In past decades, however, diplomacy has been gradually
adapted to the growing demands of global capitalism and to the increasing com-
plexities and pluralization of social life, challenging its conventional understand-
ing as mere statecraft. This new context has facilitated a new international activism
alongside sub-state governments that appear to be both difficult to contain and
necessary to regulate. Consequently, and in an attempt to respond to that new
situation, states all over the world have, during recent decades, established differ-
ent legal and institutional mechanisms in order to acknowledge, albeit reluctantly,
a new and more active role by sub-state governments in their foreign policy
designs and diplomatic machineries. As with the heterogeneous practice that
they try to regulate, these mechanisms are not fully uniform, but they are widely
extended with important implications not only for each directly affected state,
but also for the whole community of states. Sooner or later, all states need to
consider both the treatment that they are expected to offer to foreign constituent
units, as well as the treatment that they understand that other states should offer
to their own constituencies. Consequently, when countries as diverse as Australia,
Brazil, India, Mexico, Spain and South Africa decide to reform their foreign pol-
icy schemes in parallel forms, opening the doors to a new diplomatic role for their
constituent units, the adaptive process becomes evident.56
These processes of recognition at a domestic level, which are widely spread over
the most disparate countries around the world, have in addition shaped the recip-
rocal basis for what can be considered a formative process of a new customary
practice in the field of diplomatic law.57 To analyse thoughtfully the diverse legal
and institutional mechanisms that exist in each state across the world is, of course,
55)
See Harald Stoke, The Foreign Relations of the Federal State (Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1931), p. 1.
56)
Evidence about it can be found in the chapters on Austria, Belgium, Germany and Spain, in Brian
Hocking and David Spence (eds.), Foreign Ministries in the European Union (Basingstoke: Palgrave Mac-
millan, 2002).
57)
For more on this, see Noé Cornago, ‘Paradiplomacy as International Customary Law: Subnational
Governments and the Making of New Global Norms’, in Klaus-Gerd Giesen and Kees Van der Pijl (eds.),
Global Norms for the Twenty-First Century (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2006), pp. 67-81.
30 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
outside the scope of this article. Fortunately, there is substantial literature with an
in-depth analysis of developments in this field in a vast array of countries. How-
ever, a brief characterization of that diversity seems necessary in the context of the
aims and rationale of this article. In some cases — such as Austria, Belgium, Ger-
many or Switzerland — constitutions assign an international role to constituent
units, recognizing a certain international dimension to their exclusive or shared
competences. This legal clarification — later enhanced through various constitu-
tional amendments — generally facilitates a climate of intergovernmental coop-
eration and mutual respect with regard to the internationalization of sub-state
governments. But more frequently, constitutions reserve exclusive powers in the
international sphere for central or federal government, ignoring any international
dimension for sub-state competences, as is the case for Australia, Canada, France,
Italy and Spain, among many others. In these cases, the existing legal framework
has been the result of frequent disputes, leading to legal controversies that were
later resolved by the ruling decisions of supreme courts. In other cases, and in the
context of the democratization process, some federal states — such as Argentina,
Brazil, India, Mexico, Russia and South Africa — as well as unitary states — for
example, Bolivia, Chile and Poland — have adopted diverse legal and administra-
tive reforms in order to facilitate a greater, albeit carefully limited, role for their
constituent units in the international realm.
But in order to understand the real significance of that plethora of legal reforms,
judicial decisions and political instruments, it may be useful to take distance from
the legal–positivist approaches that are commonly adopted in the scholarly treat-
ment of this reality. Not in vain do the political implications of these conflicting
legal arguments on the limits of sub-state diplomacy vary considerably in each
case, but ultimately there is always a form of empirical compromise between the
scenarios desired by each party, the truly available options, and, finally, the
achieved outcomes. After all, as Michelmann has recently pointed out:
The cooperation of the two orders of government requires consultation through durable and ade-
quately conceptualized institutions of intergovernmental relations, and it requires the willingness to
make compromises. Effective cooperation is essential.58
In sum, when the crudest power politics are not at play — such as in Chechnya —
sooner or later that compromise adopts the grammar of political bargaining and
deliberation, consequently reaffirming the contours of a stable, albeit recogniz-
ably plural, political community. However, it is worth emphasizing that strictly
legal arguments never resolve the case. Only factual politics will resolve the case.59
58)
See Hans J. Michelmann, ‘Conclusion’, in Hans J. Michelmann (ed.), Foreign Relations in Federal
Countries (Kingston ON: McGill-Queens University Press, 2008), p. 352.
59)
For the concrete case of Tatarstan, the ambivalences of that game have been aptly examined by Kath-
erine E. Graney, ‘Projecting Sovereignty in Post-Soviet Russia: Tatarstan in the International Arena’, in
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 31
Yet factual politics have a double sense here: first, they can be circumscribed
to the existing power relationships between central and sub-state governments
within the affected state; second, and far beyond the contours of a particular
state, the political context can also be understood with regard to the many impli-
cations of the restructuring of the global political economy upon states’ sover-
eignty. These implications — whether in the economic, political, social, or legal
domain — are shaping both new opportunities and constraints for policy innova-
tion and institutional change within and beyond states. Some additional reflec-
tions can help us to understand how these two driving forces could operate
simultaneously.
Sub-state diplomacy is frequently controversial, not because of its material
scope or its supposedly undesirable legal consequences for the affected states, but
to the extent that it appears as symbolically relevant — significant expressions of
certain values that seem to question precisely those other values that sustain the
centralization of international relations as optimum. As mentioned above, this
symbolic dimension usually reveals a will of recognition as well as a more or less
controversial assertion of political subjectivity.60 It is that assertion of a differenti-
ated subjectivity that is perceived as a challenge by hosting states. On this matter,
Paquin has convincingly argued that:
Against common beliefs, nationalist claims are negotiable and can be the object of compromise.61
Rather than seeing paradiplomacy as a threat, it should be embraced as a necessity and an opportu-
nity in the process of managing and ultimately resolving what might otherwise be protracted self-
determination conflicts.62
But it is worth commenting that even in those cases where a clear will of differen-
tiation with regard to the hosting state exists — as happens in Catalonia, Flanders,
Quebec or Tatarstan — sub-state diplomacy only rarely turns into what Duchacek
called ‘protodiplomacy’ — that is, those ‘initiatives and activities of a non-central
government abroad that graft a more or less separatist message on to its economic,
John McGarry and Michael Keating (eds.), Minority Nationalism and the Changing International Order
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 264-294.
60)
In real practice, however, it is not always easy to differentiate symbolic concerns from functional
issues. This is something particularly clear in the case of cross-border cooperation where ethno-cultural,
socio-economic and environmental issues are frequently mixed. For a reflective overview on this, see
James Anderson, Liam O’Dowd and Thomas M. Wilson (eds.), New Borders for a Changing Europe: Cross-
Border Cooperation and Governance (London: Frank Cass, 2003).
61)
Stéphane Paquin, ‘La paradiplomatie identitaire: Le Québec, la Catalogne et la Flandre en relations
internationales’, Politique et sociétés, vol. 23, no. 2-3, 2004.
62)
Stefan Wolff, ‘Paradiplomacy: Scope, Opportunities and Challenges’, The Bologna Center Journal of
International Affairs, vol. 10, 2007, pp. 141.
32 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
social, and cultural links with foreign nations’, even at the risk of provoking
serious conflict.63 That would be the case of Trans Dniester, Puntland or Somalil-
and among other so-called ‘states within states’.64 These attempts to simulate full
sovereignty in the international realm are, however, incompatible with the stable
and confident political context that conventional sub-state diplomacy needs to
enjoy in order to be truly effective and, ultimately, non-conductive to unafford-
able intergovernmental conflict. As Lecours has pointed out in simple but con-
vincing words:
Considering the game from another angle, states also need to establish criteria for
judging the accordance of certain sub-state diplomatic practices with the new
standards that they are reluctant — but ultimately inclined — to accept in con-
formity with the changing rules of the game. In this case, the underlying rule is
very easy to identify: the maintenance of sub-state diplomacy as a relatively low-
profile activity that is always submitted to the ultimate consent of the affected
sovereign states. The precise contours of these limits are nevertheless very difficult
to specify. But some recent controversies can serve to illustrate how elastic the
criteria sustained by states with regard to the limits of sub-state diplomacy can be,
depending on their diverse perceptions and interests. In August 2009, the US State
Department harshly protested after Scottish authorities decided to hand over
the notorious Lockerbie airline bomber, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, to Libyan
authorities on ‘compassionate grounds’. Yet only two months earlier, the United
Kingdom had regarded President Obama’s direct negotiations — without British
Foreign Office consent — with Bermuda’s government over the release of four
Guantanamo Bay detainees to the British overseas territory as ‘humiliating’.
In contrast, the growing recognition of sub-state governments as legitimate
interlocutors or important policy partners in some multilateral institutions gener-
ally offers a more consensual profile. Both the Council of Europe and the Euro-
63)
See Ivo D. Duchacek, The Territorial Dimension of Politics Within, Among, and Across Nations (Boulder,
CO: Westview), p. 240.
64)
See Paul Kingston and Ian S. Spears (eds.), States within States: Incipient Political Entities in the Post-
Cold War (London: Palgrave, 2004).
65)
See André Lecours, ‘Political Issues of Paradiplomacy: Lessons from the Developed World’, Discussion
Papers on Diplomacy, no. 113 (The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’,
2008), p. 8.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 33
pean Communities were pioneers in this field, opening some venues that were to
some extent later emulated by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe (OSCE) and Mercosur respectively. But that trend is also becoming
increasingly visible among some institutions of the UN system, such as the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation (FAO), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the United
Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM). The venues for this have
been diverse. Sometimes, sub-state governments simply declared themselves com-
mitted to their respective declared goals, offering complementary resources and
consequently contributing to the effective achievement of their objectives. In
these cases, sub-state governments do not have as their objective any form of
formal membership. They simply aim to be recognized as relevant partners in
global development efforts. Examples of this are the unilateral signing of ‘Agenda
21’ by many regional governments throughout the world, or more recently the
campaign of the United Nations ‘Millennium Development Goals’. But in addi-
tion, and particularly when they are acting as donors, constituent units are also
able to sign diverse Memorandums of Agreement (MoA) with institutions such as
UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, UNIFEM, the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), among others. These agreements are usually implemented
in a consistent and non-controversial way, generally under the silent supervision
of the Official Development Assistance (ODA) agencies of each of the affected
states, and the goodwill of executive teams in international organizations. Even
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has recently opened its doors to
sub-state governments, albeit in a rather more selective way. Under the so-called
State Partnership Programme, the US Department of State has been able to link
the US states’ National Guard to their overseas operations under NATO rule.66
These forms of recognition have nonetheless always had a low institutional pro-
file, invariably submitted to the ultimate consent of the affected member states.
They constitute an important innovation in multilateralism, which is opening the
door to new forms of multi-level governance on a global scale.67
Perhaps of more relevance is the way in which institutions such as the World
Bank or the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have recently entered in direct
contact with constituent units in countries such as Argentina, Brazil or India.
Although these relationships were for technical reasons initially facilitated by fed-
eral governments, their consequences are far-reaching, given that the decentral-
ization of borrowing can contribute in a critical way to states’ territorial imbalances
66)
See Peter Howard, ‘The Growing Role of States in US Foreign Policy: The Case of the State Partner-
ship Program’, International Studies Perspectives, vol. 5, 2004, pp. 179-206.
67)
See Ian Bache and Mathew Flinders (eds.), Multi-Level Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2004).
34 N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36
and institutional fragmentation. But beyond these specific cases, sub-state inter-
national mobilization is frequently a rather contentious process in which, in the
words of Sagan and Halkier:
[. . .] different public and private actors have attempted to institutionalize their particular visions and
priorities, frequently questioning both the external delimitation and the internal constitution of
regions.68
Conclusion
This article offers an interpretative exploration on the normalization of sub-state
diplomacy. Normalization can be defined as a mode of institutional control that
recognizes as valid — albeit reluctantly — an otherwise deviant practice, while
the limits of that practice are immediately fixed and carefully monitored. In the
international realm, normalization enables the diplomatic system to operate in an
increasingly complex environment, facilitating its own adaptation and durability.
Normalization allows the selective incorporation into the diplomatic field of
important innovations that are produced by the pluralization of global life, sim-
ply because they are — both for functional and normative reasons — too relevant
to be ignored. But it simultaneously reaffirms the hierarchical structure of the
diplomatic system.
For the case of sub-state diplomacy, four main venues for that normalizing
process have been identified here. First, the notion of normalization as generaliza-
tion has been suggested as a way to emphasize that the growing involvement of
68)
See Iwona Sagan and Henrik Halkier, ‘Introduction: Regional Contestations’, in I. Sagan and
H. Halkier (eds.), Regionalism Contested: Institutions, Society and Governance (London: Ashgate, 2005),
p. 2.
69)
For more on this, see Sol Picciotto, ‘Regulatory Networks and Multi-Level Global Governance’, in
O. Dilling, M. Herberg and G. Winter (eds.), Responsible Business: Self-Governance and the Law in Tran-
snational Economic Transactions (Oxford: Hart, 2008), pp. 315–341.
N. Cornago / The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 5 (2010) 11-36 35
The most salient difference would nonetheless be that in the case of sub-state
diplomacy, negotiation and manipulation of ambiguous identities, which Sharp
aptly identifies as the core of diplomatic culture, take place not only among states
but also within them. If this statement has some plausibility, sub-state diplomacy
would be another, particularly ubiquitous, illustration of the way in which some
current existing diplomatic practices exceed the ‘representational capabilities’ of
mainstream diplomatic discourses.71
Noé Cornago is Associate Professor of International Relations at the University of the Basque Country in
Bilbao, Spain, where he is also in charge of the Masters Degree in International Decentralized Cooperation:
Peace and Development. He has published widely on diplomacy, multilateralism, decentralized cooperation and
the international relations of constituent units. He has been a visiting scholar at Ohio State University and the
University of Idaho in the United States; Université Laval in Quebec, Canada; the Bordeaux Institute of
Political Studies/ ‘Sciences Po Bordeaux’ in France; the Free University of Colombia; as well as various uni-
versities in Spain.
70)
See Paul Sharp, ‘For Diplomacy: Representation and the Study of International Relations’, Interna-
tional Studies Review, 1999, vol. 1, p. 33.
71)
On both the formative process as well the current exhaustion of classic diplomacy’s representational
dimensions, see Costas M. Constantinou, On the Way to Diplomacy (Minneapolis MN: University of
Minnesota Press, 1996), pp. 1-30.