Q5: discuss in details the reforms of introduced by Alauddin Khailji

and Muhammad Bin Tughluq?

Sol:
The Administration of Delhi Sultanate was largely influenced by their
religion. The Sultans were the head of the state that enjoyed unlimited power
in legislative, executive and judicial. Here, we are giving the brief story of the
comparison between two personalities of Delhi Sultanate- Muhammad bin
Tughlaq will forever be remembered for the wild swings in policy, whereas
Alauddin Khilji’s administrative measures made him most powerful ruler of
the Delhi Sultanate.

Comparison between the Administration of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad

Tughlaq
Administration of Alauddin Administration of Muhammad
Khalji Tughlaq
He increases his large standing He increased his large standing
army to protect from invasion army to attack on
(defensive measure) because Transoxiana.
Delhi was attacked twice, in
1299/1300 AD and 1302-03
AD.

He constructed a new garrison He evacuates four oldest cities

town named Siri for his of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) and
soldiers. made soldiers garrison. The
residents of the old city were
relocated to the new capital of
Daulatabad in the south.

Soldiers were fed from the tax The tax collected from the area
collected from the lands between Ganga and Yamuna
between the Ganga and was used to feed the army. But
Yamuna. Tax was fixed at 50 to meet the need of the large
per cent of the produce. number of soldiers the Sultan
levied additional taxes,
including those areas which
were suffering from famine.

He paid his soldiers salaries in He paid salary in cash to the

cash rather than kind. The
soldiers were to buy their
supplies from the local market.
To stop the fear of price rise,
he controlled the prices of
goods. Prices were carefully
monitor by officers, and if
merchants did not sell at the
prescribed rates were
punished.
soldiers but never controlled
the prices. He introduced the
token system without royal
verification somewhat like
present-day paper currency,
but made out of cheap metals,
not gold and silver.

His administrative measures His administrative measures

like Military Reforms, like shifting of capital; plans to
Revenue Reforms and invade Transoxiana and
Economic Reforms (Market disbanded his large army;
Regulations) were quite raising of taxes and famine in
successful. He successfully the Ganga-Yamuna belt led to
withstood the threat of Mongol widespread rebellion; and
invasions. token system were failure
measures.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was one of the most interesting personalities of

Medieval Indian history because he is popularly called by scholars as an
intelligent fool; while Alauddin Khilji was a well-known personality of
Medieval India as an efficient reformer and mighty ruler.
Q9; Discuss the condition of India at the rise of Ghurids and Cause
of Muslim Ghznavi?

Sol:

The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Muiz-ud-din

Muhammad bin Sam, popularly known as Shihabud Din Muhammad Ghori
or Muhammad of Ghur.
t. is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India
but he failed to carve out a Muslim empire in India on account of his
premature death.

Mahmud of Ghazni also failed to set up a Muslim empire in India and

the only permanent effect of his invasions was the annexation of the Punjab. It
was left to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim empire in India on a
secure footing. In 1173 A.D.

Shihabuddin Muhammad ascended the throne at Ghazni. Proceeding

byway of the Gomal Pass, Muhammad bin Sam also known as Muhammad
Ghori conquered Multan and Uchch in 1175 A.D. In 1178 A.D. he tried to
penetrate into Gujarat but was defeated and completely routed by the
Chalukyan King Mularaj II near Mount Abu.

After that Muhammad Ghori attacked Punjab using Khyber Pass. By

1190 A.D. Muizuddin Muhammad conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot.
By 1182 A.D. the whole of Sindh was captured. His conquest of Punjab and
further inroads into northern India led to inevitable contest between him and
the Rajput’s.

While Muhammad was over-running Multan and Uchch, Prithviraj III

known as Prithviraj Chauhan ascended the throne of Aimer at the age of 14.
He was very powerful and made several conquests. He invaded Bundelkhand
and defeated the Chandellas in the battle at Mahoba.
The conflict between Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghori started for the fort of
Tarabhinda (Bhatinda). The enemies met each other in the battlefield at
Tarain known as the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 A.D. Muhammad was
defeated in the battle and his forces were severely routed. Little attempt was
made by Prithviraj to oust the Ghurids from the Punjab.

This gave Muhammad Ghori time to re-group his forces and make another
bid for India the following year. He met Prithviraj for the second time in the
battle field of Tarain in 1192 A.D. Prithviraj was decisively defeated this time.

Though the numerical strength of Prithviraj’s army was more, the superior
organization and skill of the Turkish cavalry decided the issue. Soon after
Prithviraj was captured and put to death. The second battle of Tarain paved
the way for the ascendancy of the Turks. From this point Rajput power
entered a phase of irreversible decay. Thus the area of Delhi and eastern
Rajasthan passed under the Turkish rule. Muhammad came back to India in
1194 A.D. This time his target was the kingdom of Kannauj.

Jayachandra the ruler of Kannauj and Muhammad fought a battle at

Chandawar. Rajputs were defeated and Jaychandra was killed in the war.
Muhammad proceeded as far as Banaras and captured all the important
places of the kingdom of Kannauj. The battle of Chandawar laid the
foundation of Turkish rule in northern India.

Causes of Ghorian Invasions:

1. The perpetual conflict of the Ghurids with the Seljukids and the Turkish
tribes across the Oxus impelled the Ghurids towards India.

2. The rising power of the Khwarizmi Empire severely limited the Central
Asian ambitions of the Ghurids. Khorasan, which was the bone of contention
between the two, after being conquered by the Khwarizmi Shah left no option
for the Ghurids but to look for expansion towards India.

3. The imperilistic ambitions of the Ghurids was one of the main cause for
their Indian invasion.
Consequences of Ghorian Invasions:
1. The Turkish conquest of India paved the way for the liquidation of the
multi-state system in India as the political ideal of the Turkish sultan was a
centralised political organization under the monarch.

2. The institution of iqtas served their purpose of breaking the feudal

traditions of the various areas and for linking up the various parts of the
empire to one centre.

3. The Turks also gave India a centralised administration by which trade

received a new impetus.

4. The intimate contact between India and the outer Asiatic world was
restored by the Ghorian conquest.

Q10: Elaborate the rise of Gjayasud Din Balban his Reorganization

of Central Governmen and Measures for the suppression of rebels
and Robbers and mangols?

Sol:

‘’A great warrior; ruler and statesman who saved the infant Muslim state
from extinction at a critical time, Balban will ever remain a great figure in
medieval Indian history” -Dr. Iswari Prasad.
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban who ruled India as the Sultan of Delhi from 1266 to
1287 A.D. was one of the greatest Sultans of the Mediaeval period.

He like his master Iltutmish rose to power and became the Sultan of Delhi.

His period has been marked as an illustrious chapter in the history of the Delhi
sultanate.

Early Career:
Balban like his master Iltutmish was born in a Turkish family of Ilbari Tribe. He
was kidnapped by the Mongols in his early youth and was sold to a slave trader
named Khwaja Jamal-ud- din. He took him to Delhi where he was purchased by
Iltutmish. During his stay at Delhi, Iltutmish was very much impressed by the
intelligence and ability of Balban and enrolled him as a member of the famous
corps of the forty slaves.

During the reign of Raziya Sultana, he was promoted to the post of Amir- i-Shikar
(Lord of the Hunt). He was loyal to Raziya in his early days. But later on he joined
hands with the nobles who deposed Raziya Sultana from the throne of Delhi
successfully. The next Sultan was Bahram Shah who gave him the Jagir of Rewari
and Hansi in lieu of his service to him.

He played the role of a kingmaker. As a great warrior, he also successfully repelled

a Mongol invasion during the period of Bahram Shah. Similarly he was
instrumental in deposing Masud and raising Nasir-ud-din Mahmud to the throne of
Delhi. Nasir- ud-din rewarded him by offering the post of principal adviser to the
Sultan. He also strengthened his relations with Sultan by his daughter in-marriage
to him.

The Sultan being pleased with the loyalty and devotion of Bulban, bestowed on
him with the title of Ulugh khan and made him Naib-i-mamlikat or the Deputy
Sultan. This was perhaps due to the fact that Nasir-ud-din was weak and
incompetent and was relying more on him for the management of state affairs. As a
result, the real power gradually passed into the hands of Balban.

His power and popularity grew more and more. He put down a number of internal
rebellions and also checked the external aggressions especially of Mongols. The
Sultan Nasir-ud-din felt him indispensable. As Nasir-ud-din had no heir to the
throne, he had nominated Balban to be his successor. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud died
in 1266 and Balban ascended the throne by assuming the title of Ghiyasuddin
Balban.

His Early Difficulties:

Balban had to face a number of problems after his accession to the throne. The
affairs of the state had fallen into confusion as well as the prestige of the crown
had sunk low due the misrule of weak and incompetent successors of Iltutmish.
The powers of the nobles had increased and the majority of the members of the
famous Forty had become disloyal to the throne.
They were proud, arrogant and were jealous of Balban. In the words of Barani,
“Fear of the governing power which is the basis of all good governments and the
source of the glory and splendor of the state, had departed from the hearts of all
men, and the country had fallen into a wretched condition.”

The royal treasury was empty and the army was not well-organised. The Mongol
invasion was imminent as well as the internal rebellions were raising their heads at
regular intervals. Such was the critical stage, when Balban had been given the
responsibility to face and fight. However he proved himself to be more than an
equal for them.

Restoration of the Crown’s Prestige:

Balban had realized that without the restoration of crown’s prestige which had
sunk low during the rule of weak successors of Iltutmish, no better and effective
government could be possible. He also knew that this could be restored through the
policy of absolute despotism. He believed that absolute despotism alone could
exact obedience from his subjects and ensure security of the country.

He also knew that in order to be a successful despot one must follow the policy of
theory of kingship. The concept of theory of kingship is that the right to rule is
given by the God and not by the people and for his actions whether good or bad,
the ruler is answerable and accountable to God but not to the people he rules.

Balban at first made out his concept of theory of kingship to his subjects. Secondly
he emphasized on external dignity and prestige as essential for kingship. He
maintained a great distance from the people and denied to meet the common
people. He organised his court on the Iranian model and followed the etiquette and
Ceremonials of the Persians very strictly.

Having a long beard on his long face and wearing a very big crown on his head, he
sat on the throne with the dignity of the great Sassanid kings. He maintained his
dignity by grim and serious looks. He appointed tall and fearsome body-guards
who stood round him with their swords drawn and dazzling in the sun.

He ordered for Sijda (prostration) and paibos (feet- kissing) as the normal form of
Salutation for the king. He prohibited drinking, jokes, laugh and even smile among
the courtiers and officers. He himself also gave up wine and merry-making. He
also dismissed all low-born persons from important offices of his administration.
Thus Balban by displaying his power, authority and dignity struck terror in the
hearts of the people and made them submissive. This was a right step at that time
for the restoration of the crown’s prestige.

Destruction of the Forty:

The Forty a select body of Turkish nobles was created by Iltutmish for better and
effective administration. The members of this body were chosen on the basis of
loyalty and meritorious service. But after Iltutmish, the members of the Forty
enjoyed unlimited power due to his weak and incompetent successors. They
considered the Sultan just a puppet in their hands. Balban clearly knew that in the
path of his despotism, the Forty would be a great obstruction.

And without its destruction, he could not achieve his goal. So he planned to bring
them under control by destroying their organisation. At first, he promoted the
junior Turks to important positions and placed them on par with the Forty.
Secondly, he inflicted severe punishments on the members of the Forty for minor
offences and reduced their importance in the eyes of the people.

He flogged Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun and a member of the Forty,
publicly for beating his servant to death. Haibat Khan, another influential member
of the Forty and governor of Awadh, had killed a man while he was drunk with
wine. He was flogged with 500 stripes and was handed over to the widow of the
deceased whom he paid 20,000 tankas to get himself liberated.

He was so much insulted that he never came out of his home till death. Similarly
Amir Khan, governor of Awadh was hanged at the city gate for his failure to curb a
rebellion in Bengal. Sher Khan, another influential member of the Forty, excited
jealousy of Balban who poisoned him to death. In this way he finished some of his
great enemies and others surrendered at his feet for the safety of their life and
honour. This was in fact a bold step in the direction of his royal despotism.

The Spy system:

Balban organised an efficient system of espionage as an instrument of his
despotism. He appointed reporters and news- writers in every department, in every
province and district to collect information’s of various happenings in the state.
They did it with utmost honesty and secrecy. They were severely punished if they
failed in their duties.

The news reporter of Badaun was hanged over the city gate because he failed to
report in time regarding the misconduct of Malik Baqbaq. They were highly paid
and were independent of the control of the governors and commanders. They were
also rewarded for their daring services. With the result, internal rebellions could
not take place and even the nobles could not meet for discussions. Balban through
this system of espionage could keep effective control over the government and
people. Law and order was perfectly established throughout his reign.

Re-organisation of Army:
Balban re-organised his army and made it strong and efficient as it was the main
pillar of his despotic government. He appointed Imad-ul-Mulk who was a
competent vigilant officer, as the Diwan- i-Ariz (minister of war) in charge of the
army. The minister in charge of the army was made independent of the financial
control of the Wazir and he enjoyed full confidence of the Sultan.

The lands, given in Jagir to the military personnel since the time of Aibak and now
enjoyed by their widows, sons and successors were taken back and they were paid
pensions in cash. Of course, the young men whose predecessors were in military
service were asked to retain their Jagir but they were not allowed to collect
revenue. They were also paid in cash but the revenue from their land was collected
by the government. But it is said there was a lot of reactions against this order.

However, Balban did not introduce any revolutionary change in the military
organisation. But certainly he raised the efficiency and morale of the Army. With
the help of a strong and powerful army he could successfully suppress the internal
rebellions and external aggressions.

Suppression of Rebellions:
During the reign of Balban, Some severe rebellions took place which he put down
with a strong hand. The most dangerous rebellious men were the Mewatis, the
people of Mewat, who were very often plundering the vicinity of Delhi. As there
were jungles around Delhi, it was covenant on their part to plunder and escape.
Balban closed the western gate of the capital and cleared off the jungles around
Delhi and built roads to facilitate movement. He sent his army against the Mewatis
and massacred them. He constructed four forts around Delhi and garrisoned them
with Afghan soldiers. Similarly he crushed the rebellions of the Hindus of the
Doab region and their chiefs were cowed down.

The people of Katehar also revolted against him. Balban ordered his soldiers to
attack and set fire to their houses and to wipe out their adult male population. Their
women and children were made slaves. Barani says, after this incident, the
kateharias never raised their heads and the entire region became safe for the
travellers.

Rebellion in Bengal:
Bengal was a part of the Delhi Sultanate and its governor, Tughril Khan was a
slave of Balban. Tughril Khan was very courageous and ambitious and was loyal
to the Sultan in the beginning. But in 1279 he declared the independence of Bengal
and defied the authority of Balban. Most probably, he was encouraged by the old
age of Balban as well as frequent Mongol invasions. But Balban was not the man
to leave him so easily. He sent an expedition under Amin-Khan against him. But
Amin-Khan was defeated by Tughril. This enraged Balban so much that he ordered
Amin-Khan to be hanged publicly.

Balban also sent another army under a military officer named Bahadur. He was
also driven back by Tughril Khan. At last Balban proceeded in person against
Tughril. When Tughril heard of the approach of Balban, he fled away towards east
but was captured and put to death. His followers were also mercilessly put to
death. Then he appointed his own son Bughra Khan as the governor of Bengal and
returned back to Delhi.

Mongol Invasion:
The Mongol invasion was frequent on the border and it was a constant headache to
Sultan Balban. In the western border, Lahore was then under the sphere of Mongol
influence and Sind and Multan were always exposed to their invasion. Sultan
Balban, therefore, adopted a number of measures for the safeguard of the western
borders.
He built a line of forts along the frontier and garrisoned them with able-bodied
Afghan soldiers, secondly he appointed Sher Khan, a distinguished warrior as the
commander of the army at the border. She Khan was successful against the
Mongols on a number of occasions. But due to the unfortunate death of Sher Khan
in the year 1270, the Mongols started their plundering raids without any fear.
Balban appointed experienced Amirs in charge of frontiers, but they failed to check
the Mongols.

At last he divided the frontier region into two parts. One part which consisted of
Sind, Multan and Lahore was kept under the charge of his eldest son, Prince
Muhammad Khan. The second part which consisted of the province of sunam and
Samana was given to his second son Bughra Khan.

Prince Muhammad though successfully repelled the Mongol invasion twice in

1279 and 1285, but he himself became a victim of the Mongols in his third
encounter with them. Prince Muhammad died fighting in the battle field in the year
1286. This was the greatest shock to Balban. Though he re-occupied Lahore from
the Mongols, but he could not recover himself from the shocks of his son’s death.
Prince Muhammad was his most favorite son.

Death of Balban:
Balban’s health gradually declined after the shock of his son’s death. He was old
and was at quite advance stage of his life. Realizing his end he summoned his
youngest son Bughra Khan, the governor of Bengal to Delhi. But Bughra
apprehending some danger did not turn up. Balban then nominated Kai Khusrav,
the son of his eldest son prince Muhammad as his heir. He died in 1287 at the age
of eighty.

Estimate of Balban:
It can be said undoubtedly that Balban was one of the greatest Sultans of Delhi. He
to his credit, guided the destinies of the Sultanate for a long period of forty years,
twenty as prime minister and twenty as Sultan. By ascending the throne at a time
of confusion and crises, he did everything right and appropriate for the restoration
of crown prestige and good governance of the state.

By following the divine right theory of kingship he maintained a great distance

from the common people. He set up a magnificent court and displayed his power
and authority with kingly dignity. He did everything to strike fear in the heart of
the people and officers in the administration. Thus he could restore the status and
prestige of the Sultan.

Next he was successful in destroying the power and influence of the corps of forty
which was the greatest obstruction in the path of his royal despotism. He even did
not mind to inflict severe exemplary punishments to them for their slight offence
and mistakes. Further by organizing an efficient espionage system, he was
successful in establishing law and order in the country.

He kept the nobles under control and strengthened the Central Government. He
was also a good administrator and he had strong sense of justice. Peace, protection
and consolidation of the empire were the prime objectives of his administration.
According to Dr. Iswari Prasad, “A great warrior; ruler and statesman who saved
the infant Muslim state from extinction at a critical time, Balban will ever remain a
great figure in medieval Indian history.

It was Balban who saved the country from the frequent Mongol raids. It was he
who consolidated the empire by bringing Rajput States to the fold of Sultanate of
Delhi and by rendering a good administration. Dr. Iswari Prasad has remarked
further that the successful career of conquest of the great Ala-ud-din was possible
because of the consolidation work of Balban.

Balban was a great patron of learning and education. He had provided scope and
facilities to a large number of learned men migrated from Central Asia. The great
Persian poet Amir Khusru and Amir Hosan flourished during his time. His son
Prince Muhammad was a learned man and was greatly inspired by those two great
poets. Besides he was a very affectionate father. He dearly loved his sons and
relations. The shock of his son’s death practically killed him. He was also very
much religious and had great respect for the Ulemas.

Nevertheless he had some grave defects in his character. Balban was often harsh
and cruel. He did not forgive anybody even for small offence. He did not care for
the means for the achievement of his goal. Balban did not live the men of low birth
and he had great hatred for Indian Muslims. He always insisted on high birth and
appointed the men of Turkish origin in army. For that he could not raise a vast and
strong army. However he was one of the greatest Sultans of Delhi Sultanate.