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Greske Pri Razvijanju
Greske Pri Razvijanju
All color films consist of at least three black & white emulsions, coated one on top of the
other to form a permanent, multi-layered structure supported by the film base. The top
emulsion responds only to the blue third of the spectrum, while the middle and lower
emulsion layers respond only to the green and red thirds, respectively. Each layer of a
color negative film emulsion absorbs a specific subset of the entire spectrum of visible
light wavelengths, prescribed by the properties of the dyes embedded in that layer.
Other colors will react with two or more of the emulsion layers to reproduce that color
when the negative is printed. Color negative film produces an image that is
complementary with respect to colors and density of the original microscopic viewfield.
Subsequently, the negative is printed, usually onto color photographic paper, to yield a
positive color print. When negative film is processed, the developer converts light-
sensitive crystallites of silver halide (usually the bromide salt) compounds in the emulsion
layers into metallic silver. While doing this, the developer also oxidizes and combines
with dye couplers that are either built into the emulsion layers or added during
development. The result is the formation of three dye layers, one from each of the
subtractive primary colors: cyan, magenta, and yellow. The blue-sensitive layer of the
original film forma a yellow image, while the green and red-sensitive layers form magenta
and cyan images, respectively. Bleach is then utilized to remove all of the silver metal,
and each layer is left with only a color image. Color negative film has an orange mask
that is used to help control contrast and correct for deficiencies in green and red-
sensitive layers when the negatives are printed.
Processing color film requires considerably more effort and attention than does black &
white film. Although the basic steps are similar in nature, color processes require more
steps and greater temperature control than do black & white processes. The stability of
chemical solutions is also a factor in color processing, because sensitive combinations
must be mixed immediately prior to use to avoid rapid deterioration of the components. In
general, the shelf life of diluted color process chemicals is far less than those used for
black & white film processing.
When color negative film is processed, the first step (color developer) is designed to
initiate reduction of silver halide salts in each of the three emulsion layers into metallic
silver that produces a negative image. This step is common to all color photographic
materials regardless of whether they ultimately produce positive or negative images on
film or paper. After the silver has been formed, exhausted agents reach with dye
couplers to simultaneously form colored dye images, which represent the complementary
color to the wavelengths of light that were originally recorded by the film. This process is
commonly referred to aschromogenic development. In the emulsion, yellow dye is
formed and coupled to the blue-sensitive layer, magenta dye is formed in the green-
sensitive layer, and cyan dye is formed in the red-sensitive layer of the film.
The next step is a bleach solution, which actually stops the development process and
oxidizes black silver metal back into silver halides that can be fixed out together with
other unprecessed halides. Fixer is either used alone (Kodak C-41 process), or coupled
with a fixer in the same solution (called a bleach/fix), in "hobby" kits that feature
truncated color negative process solutions. After bleaching and fixing, the film is washed
to remove fixer and other soluble by-products, then rinsed in stabilizer to improve dye
stability and harden the emulsion.
Most brands of color negative film are processed by the Kodak C-41 color processing
system of chemicals. Similar processing chemistry is also offered by aftermarket
manufacturers such as Beseler, Unicolor, Photocolor, and Tetenal. The processing steps
are identical for all C-41 type processes and include a color developer, bleach, fixer,
bleach/fix, final wash, stabilizer, and drying. Provided temperature control can be
established (a constant 37.8 degrees centigrade +/- 0.1 degree), this process can be
conducted in the laboratory using small daylight developing tanks, or if the expense
account allows, more complex motorized rotary-tube film processors with built-in water
baths and temperature control. Commercial roller-drum tank units for processing color
negative film are available for under $1000. Truncated C-41 process kits that simplify the
process by combining several of the steps are also available for amateur photographers.
These simplified processes contain a color developer, fixer, combined bleach and fixer,
and a stabilizer bath. Although they also require strict control of temperature, the
aftermarket "hobby" C-41 kits are much easier to use and do have somewhat more
temperature latitude than do standard C-41 processes.
The color developer is the critical part of the C-41 (or hobby kit) process, and it is
essential that the temperature be held to within the specified limits. The bleach, fixer,
washes, and stabilizer should also be maintained under tight temperature control, ideally
at the same temperature as the color developer, although the specified range is usually
24 to 41 degrees Centigrade. C-41 hobby kits by Kodak and other manufacturers can be
used to develop 16 rolls of film with 24 exposures in the magazines. As the solutions
age, extended processing times are necessary to achieve the desired effects. Details on
the time increases are given in an instruction booklet supplied with the kit. It is probably
better to add one to two minutes to the color developer time given and about five minutes
to the bleach/fixer time to insure adequate bleaching of unwanted dyes.
Because the C-41 process color developer (the first step) has such a short process time
(three and a quarter minutes), agitation is extremely critical. The pre-warmed solution
should be rapidly added to the development tank and agitation started immediately. After
the color developer has completed its alotted time, it is discarded and the film is rinsed
thoroughly with wash water. The last starges are typically a pre-bleach solution,
designed to stop chemical carry over, followed by bleaching, fixing, and washing
exhaustively to remove all solubilized silver salts.
Development is the critical stage in processing color negative film. Most films of this type
will not tolerate development changes because color is affected along with film density
and contrast. Some color negative films are designed to allow adjustment of color
development times (push or pull processing) to compensate for exposures made either
at lower or higher ISO ratings than the film emulsion is registered for. When
overdeveloped, most color negative films demonstrate color casts that are different in
shadowed and highlight regions. In addition, pushed film has a high level of fog and
grain.
Evaluation of color negatives is somewhat difficult and requires more skill and
experience than do black & white negatives or color transparencies. Highlight areas
should not be excessively dense and shadowed features should be sufficiently detailed
to render an overall balanced photomicrograph. Judging specific colors in color negatives
is complicated by the presence of a mask that produces an orange tint over both the
sprocket holes and the image area, including the color dye layers. The purpose of this
mask is to help control contrast and correct for deficiencies in green and red-sensitive
layers when the negatives are printed.
In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between errors that occur during processing
and those that arise as a result of mishandling the microscope. Some errors are
extremely subtle in nature, such as small contrast discrepancies and unusual density
shifts, but others are often blatant. A variety of the most common errors encountered in
color negative film processing are discussed in the paragraphs below with accompanying
illustrations derived from photomicrographs of the specimen
described above.
When the film is totally clear, but edge markings are present and
have been properly developed, there is a possibility that the film
has not been exposed. This can be indicative of a serious
problem with the film advance mechanism on automatic cameras
or a malfunction of the camera shutter system. If the entire roll is
unexposed, yet the camera appeared to be functioning properly
during photomicrography, check to make certain the camera is
receiving light from the microscope. Also examine the take-up
spool to make sure it is working properly and the film is correctly
attached. Many automatic exposure systems will not allow film to be exposed when
insufficient light is being received, but older manual systems do not have this safety
feature. In film rolls where only a single or couple of frames are unexposed, check the
camera to make sure film is advancing properly.
Water marks are light or dark gray spots that occur when water
containing a significant amount of dissolved salts (hard water)
dries on the emulsion surface. Careful use of hypo clearing agent
or similar wetting agents followed by squeegeeing the film will
help alleviate this problem, but will not guarantee a cure. Spots
having a dark outline are caused by water coming into contact
with the film surface after the emulsion has dried. This mistake
usually occurs during cutting and packaging of the film and can
be avoided by careful handling of film after processing and drying. Water marks can
often be removed with film cleaner without compromising the integrity of the emulsion
surface.
Air bells are circular light spots that form in regions where the film
developer was unable to reach the emulsion as a result of air
bubbles clinging to the surface. The easiest way to avoid air bells
is to gently tap the developing tank on the laboratory benchtop
just after the developing solution has been added. In addition, the
developing solution should be agitated according to the manufacturer's instructions
during processing to dislodge any air bubbles that subsequently form on the film. On
some occasions, air bells appear reddish or blue when they occur during fixing.
Squeezing reels too tightly in the developing tank can also cause
film to overlap and touch. When this occurs, developing solution
is prevented from reaching the film emulsion at the point of
contact, and the film will not be adequately processed. In most
instances, the affected area will remain totally unprocessed and
opaque, but can become clear if the film separates later in the
development process. To avoid the problem, check to ensure film
is winding correctly on the reel, and listen for crackling or other
unusual sounds when loading film reels in the darkroom. If the
winding doesn't proceed smoothly, unwind the film and start over again.
Processing color negative film in the laboratory has a number of advantages and may be
less expensive than using commercial processors in the long run. It is definitely faster
and more convenient to process film at a local drug store or supermarket, but if quality
control and special techniques are important, then it is probably better to process in-
house. Some popular and redily available color negative films that are easily developed
in the laboratory are Agfacolor, Fujicolor, Kodak Vericolor, and Gold Plus films.