ZERO EMMISION VEHICLES

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Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................... 2
Brief Introduction ..................................................................................... 3
Background of Electric Cars ...................................................................... 3
First Electric Car ...................................................................................... 3
Emissions ................................................................................................. 4
Types of Zero Emissi on Cars ..................................................................... 4
Types of Electric Cars ............................................................................... 6
Electric Cars ............................................................................................ 6
Hybrid Cars .............................................................................................. 6
Hydrogen Fuel -Cell Cars ........................................................................... 7
Comparison of Electric Cars ...................................................................... 8
Working of Electric Cars ........................................................................... 8
Brake S ystem ........................................................................................... 9
Batteries .................................................................................................. 9
Pros and Cons of Batteries: ..................................................................... 9
Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery ............................................................... 10
Lithium-Ion Battery ............................................................................. 10
Drive Train Configurations ...................................................................... 11
Drive with In -Wheel Motors .................................................................... 11
Design ................................................................................................ 11
Features .............................................................................................. 11
Advantages .......................................................................................... 11
Disadvantages ...................................................................................... 12
Drive with Electric Motor in Central Drive Train ...................................... 12
Design ................................................................................................ 12
Features .............................................................................................. 12
Advantages .......................................................................................... 13
Disadvantages ...................................................................................... 13
Advantages of Advanced Electric Cars ..................................................... 13
Disadvantages ...................................................................................... 14
Petroleum-equivalent efficiency ............................................................... 14
Mileage costs ......................................................................................... 16
Citations ................................................................................................ 17

1
Abstract

Electric cars are significantl y quieter than conventional internal combustion

engine automobiles. They do not emit tailpipe pollutants, giving a large
reduction of local air pollution, and, can give a significant reduction in total
greenhouse gas and other emissions (dependent on the method used for
electricit y generation. They also provide for independence from foreign oil,
which in several countries is cause for concern ab out vulnerabilit y to oil
price volatilit y and suppl y disruption .

2
Brief Introduction

A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV, is a vehicle that emits no tail pipe

pollutants from the on board source of power. Examples of zero emission
vehicles include muscle -powered vehicles such as bicycles; gravit y racers;
battery electric vehicles, which t ypicall y shift emissions to the location
where the electricit y is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant; and
fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen, which t ypicall y shift emissions to
the location where the hydrog en is generated.

Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero -emissions, as they do

emit water or water vapor, although they are still usuall y included in this
category. Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this
definition, although more emissions are created during manufacture than
during a vehicle's operating lifetime.

Background of Electric Cars

First Electric Car

An earl y electric -powered two -wheel

cycle was put on display at the 1867 World
Exposition in Paris by the Austrian
inventor Franz Kravogl, but it was
regarded as a curiosity and could not drive
reliabl y in the street.
Figure 1-Thomas Edison and an electric
car in 1913 (courtesy of the National
Another cycle, this time with three Mu s e u m o f A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y )

wheels, was tested along a Paris street in

April 1881 by French inventor Gustave Trouvé

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France and the United Kingdom were the first nations to support the
widespread development of electric vehicles. The first electric car in
Germany was built by the engineer Andreas Flocken in 1888.

The first American electric car was developed in 1890 -91 by William
Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa; the vehicle was a six -passenger wagon
capable of reaching a speed of 14 miles per hour (23 km/h). It was not until
1895 that Americans began to devote attention to electric vehicles, after A.L.
Ryker introduced the first electric tricycles to the U.S., by that point,
Europeans had been making use of electric tricycles, bicycles, and cars for
almost 15 years

Emissions

Burning fuel produces a variet y of emissions, including sulfur, lead,

unburned hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and water. Through the years, we
have improved the emissions of both cars and power plants by reformulating
the fuels to eliminate sulfur a nd metals, and by improving combustion and
post-combustion scrubbing to eliminate unburned hydrocarbons. In the end,
an ideal engine or power plant will onl y emit carbon dioxide and water.
Water is fine, but carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas that cannot be
avoided.

Types of Zero Emission Cars

Apart from animal -powered and human -powered vehicles, battery

electric vehicles (which include cars, aircraft and boats) also do not emit any
of the above pollutants, nor any CO2 gases during use. This is a particu larl y
important qualit y in densel y populated areas, where the health of residents
can be severel y affected. However, the production of the fuels that power
ZEVs, such as the production of hydrogen from fossil fuels, may produce
more emissions per mile than the emissions produced from a conventional
fossil fueled vehicle.

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 A well-to-wheel life cycle assessment is necessary to understand the
emissions implications associated with operating a ZEV.

Other zero emission vehicle technologies include plug -in hybrids (e.g.
ICE/electric battery) when in electric mode, some plug -in hybrids in both
recharging and electric mode (e.g. fuel cell/electric battery, compressed air
engine/electric battery), liquid nitrogen vehicles, hydrogen vehicles (utilizing
fuel cells or converted internal combustion engines), and compressed air
vehicles t ypicall y recharged by slow (home) or fast (road station) electric
compressors, fl ywheel energy storage vehicles, solar powered cars, and
tribrids.

Segway Personal Transporters are two -wheeled, self-balancing,

battery-powered machines that are eleven times more energy -efficient than
the average American car. Operating on two lithium -ion batteries, the Segway
PT produces zero emissions during operation, and utilizes a negligible
amount of electricit y while charging via a standard wall outlet.

Finall y, especiall y for boats (although Wind -powered land vehicles

operating on wind exist (using wind turbine and kite) and other watercraft,
regular and special sails (as rotor sails, wing sails, tur bo sails, skysails exist
that can propel it emission less. Also, for larger ships ( as tankers, container
vessels), nuclear power is also used (though not commonl y).

5
Types of Electric Cars

Electric Cars

In most electric cars, such as the Nissan Leaf, electricit y is supplied by

a rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged into one of three power
sources: a standard household outlet, an upgraded home charging system that
cuts recharging time in half, or a quick-charge station provided by a cit y or
public utilit y. When an electric car's battery pack needs to be recharged,
plugging the car in to one of these three sources is as easy as plugging in a
heavy-dut y extension cord. It can take as little as one ho ur to recharge the
car using a high -voltage public quick -charge station or as long as 12 hours
using a standard household outlet.

Hybrid Cars

A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct t ypes of power, such as

internal combustion engine + electric motor, e.g. in diesel-electric trains
using diesel engines and electricit y from overhead lines, and submarines that
use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged.

All hybrid cars available today have no provision to charge their

batteries except by using energy that is ultimatel y generated by their gasoline
engines. This means that they may be considered, from a pollution and energy
efficiency perspective, to be nothing more
than somewhat more efficient gasoline
cars.

The Chevrolet Volt is a plug -in hybrid

electric vehicle that features a small gas -
powered engine/generator. The Volt's
battery can be charged by a standard
Figure 2-2010 Honda Insight
p h o t o g r a p h e d i n Ma n a s s a s , V i r g i n i a , household 120 -volt outlet in approximate ly
USA.

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10 hours. When the battery pack is empty, the Volt's gasoline engine turns on
and generates energy that is converted to electricit y , which extends the
driving range by an additional 300 miles or so.

Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Cars

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehic le that

uses hydrogen as its on board fuel for
motive power. Hydrogen vehicles
include hydrogen fueled space rockets,
as well as automobiles and other
transportation vehicles. The power
plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy of hydrogen to
mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion
engine, or by reacting hydrogen with ox ygen in a fuel cell to run electric
motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is a key
element of a proposed hydrogen econom y.

The Honda FCX Clarit y is a Fuel Cell

Electric Vehicle (FCEV) that combines
hydrogen with oxygen to make electricit y.
The onl y byproduct of this vehicle is
water vapor, which makes it one of the
most environmentally friendl y cars on the
road. FCEVs must be refueled at a F i g u r e 3 - T h e 2 0 1 5 T o y o t a Mi r a i i s o n e o f t h e
first hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to be sold
designated hydrogen refueling station, just c o m m e r c i a l l y . T h e Mi r a i i s b a s e d o n t h e
Toyota FCV concept car (shown).
as a normal car is refilled at a gas station

The fuel cell is another alternative energy device. The process that
takes place in the fuel cell to produce electrical energy from chemical energy
is similar to a combustion engine. The energy conversion from “fuel” t o
output is much more direct with the fuel cell. The efficiency of a fuel cell is
greater than a combustion engine. In a combustion engine, the chemical
energy that is contained in the fuel molecules is converted into kinetic energy

7
by combustion. This can then be used to drive a transmission or suppl y an
alternator. In a combustion engine, a large amount of energy is converted into
heat due to friction. In the fuel cell, chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy. No alternator is required to gene rate electrical energy.

Comparison of Electric Cars

Working of Electric Cars

An electric car has an array of

rechargeable batteries, at least one
electric motor, a controller that feeds
electricit y to the electric motor(s) based
on input from the accele rator pedal, and
a charging system. In modern electric
passenger cars, the electricit y to power
the electric motor(s) is provided by a

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rechargeable battery pack, an onboard gasoline -engine generator, or a
hydrogen fuel cell.

The controller takes power from the batteries and delivers it to the motor.
The accelerator pedal hooks to a pair of potentiometers (variable resistors),
and these potentiometers provide the signal that tells the controller how much
power it is supposed to deliver. The controller can de liver zero power (when
the car is stopped), full power (when the driver floors the accelerator pedal),
or any power level in between.

Brake System

An electric vehicle has two independent brake systems. One system is the
traditional mechanical/ hydraulic br ake system. The second brake system is
formed by the electric drive motor as an “engine brake”. The advantage of
this “engine brake” compared with the combustion engine is that the energy
released by the electric motor/generator during braking and decelera tion is
recovered and fed into the high -voltage battery. This regenerative braking
contributes to the high efficiency of the electric vehicles in particular in cit y
traffic. In addition, the wear of the vehicle brakes is reduced by the
regenerative braking system.

Batteries

Lead-Acid Battery the traditional 12 V vehicle electrical system battery has

plates made from lead and lead/lead oxide and are used as electrodes.
Sulfuric acid is the electrol yte.

Pros and Cons of Batteries:

 Requires maintenance (distil led water needs to be added to ensure the

required electrol yte liquid level)
 Not well suited for powering electric vehicles because they are very
heavy and large, reducing the load capacity

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  Can lose a large part of its capacit y after just six years
 If damaged, electrolyte (acid) can leak Nickel -Cadmium Battery
Cadmium (Cd) and a nickel compound are used for the electrodes in
these batteries. Potassium hydroxide is used as the electrol yte.
 Also called an alkaline battery
 Has a higher energy densit y than lead acid batteries
 Less prone to damage and electrol yte leaks
 Subject to a memory effect. This t ype of battery can tolerate deep -
discharging or overcharging onl y to a certain extent without becoming
less efficient
 Cadmium and cadmium compounds are pois onous

Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery

These batteries use a nickel compound and a compound of another

metal for the electrodes. Potassium hydroxide is the electrol yte. They have a
higher energy density than Ni -Cd batteries and are relativel y resistant to
damage.

Even if a memory effect does not occur to the extent of the Ni -Cd
batteries, these batteries also lose efficiency over the course of their life. To
a certain extent, this loss in efficiency is reversible. Nickel metal hydride
batteries do not contai n any poisonous heavy metals like lead or cadmium.
The electrol yte is stored in the battery in solid form. If the housing is broken,
onl y a few droplets will escape.

Lithium-Ion Battery

This battery uses lithium metal oxides and graphite for electrodes.
Different solvents for lithium salts form the electrol yte. Lithium ion batteries
contain onl y a small amount of water and do not have a memory effect.
Compared with the nickel cadmium batteries, they have more than twice as
much energy densit y. This means that this battery t ype requires less space in
an electric vehicle leaving more room for the occupants and the luggage
compartment.

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Drive Train Configurations

An electric vehicle is driven by at least one electric drive motor. It can

be configured as a fo ur-wheel drive vehicle or with one drive axle. Other
hybrid variations are also possible. The two main concepts are described in
this section.

1. Drive with in-wheel motors

2. Drive with just one electric drive motor in the central drive train.

Drive with In-Wheel Motors

Design

The wheels are connected directl y to the in -wheel motors. The in -wheel
concept is used for electric scooters, electric bicycles and electricall y driven
wheel chairs.

Features

 No drive shafts are required .

 No differential transmission required.

Advantages

 Four-wheel drive is technicall y possible

 Output axles of the in -wheel motors are directl y on the wheel
 High efficiency because there are hardl y any mechanical losses

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  Possibilit y of regenerative braking

Disadvantages

 Un sprung masses in the wheel are greater than wheels on a

conventional vehicle
 High mass of driven components (inertia and torque of whole vehicle
affected)
 New vehicle design required
 Control is complex, both electric motors must run synchronousl y
 Combination with a hydraulic friction brake is still currentl y necessary
 Limited space on the wheel

Drive with Electric Motor in Central

Drive Train

Design

The electric motor/generator drives a transmission, the drive shafts and the
wheels. In a pure elect ricall y powered vehicle, a reduction transmission is
used. Four-wheel drive can be added with a drive shaft from the front axle.
Another possibilit y is to use a second electric motor.

Features

 Two drive shafts on each driven axle • A differential on each driven

axle • Driveshaft required

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 Advantages

 Single-axle drive simple to design • Four -wheel drive is possible •

Combination as hybrid drive (HEV / PHEV / RXHEV) possible •
Integration in exist ing vehicle concept is possible

Disadvantages

 Output shaft of central electric motor/generator is not on the drive

axles.
 Differential required
 Reduction gear required

Advantages of Advanced Electric Cars

Electric drive motors run quieter than internal -combustion engines. The noise
emissions from electric vehicles is very low. At high speeds, the rolling noise
from the tires is the loudest sound.

 Electric vehicles produce no harmful emissions or greenhouse gases

while driving. If the high -voltage battery is charged from renewable
energy sources, an electric vehicle can be run CO2 -free.
 In the near future, if particularl y badl y congested town centers are
turned into zero -emissions zones, we will onl y be able to drive through
them with high -voltage vehi cles.
 The electric drive motor is very robust and requires little maintenance.
It is onl y subject to minor mechanical wear.
 Electric drive motors have a high degree of efficiency of up to 96%
compared with internal -combustion engines that have an efficienc y of
35–40%.
 Electric drive motors have excellent torque and output characteristics.
They develop maximum torque from standstill. This allows an electric
vehicle to accelerate considerabl y faster than a vehicle with an internal
combustion engine producing the same output.

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  The drive train design is simpler because vehicle components like the
transmission, clutch, mufflers, particulate filters, fuel tank, starter,
alternator and spark plugs are not required.
 When the vehicle is braked, the motor can also be used as an alternator
that produces electricit y and charges the battery (regene rative braking).
 The high-voltage battery can be charged at home, in a car park and by
using any accessible sockets. The blue charging connector on the
vehicle and on public cha rging stations has been standardized across
Germany and is used by all manufacturers.
 The energy is onl y supplied when the user needs it. Compared with
conventional vehicles, the electric drive motor never runs when the
vehicle stops at a red light. The el ectric drive motor is highl y efficient
particularl y in lines and bumper -to-bumper traffic.
 Apart from the reduction gearbox on the electric drive motor, the
electric vehicle does not require any lubricating oil.

Disadvantages

Electric vehicles have a limit ed range due to battery size and construction.

 Charging a high voltage battery can take a long t ime, depending on the
battery charge and power source.
 The network of electric charging stations is sparse.
 If the destination is beyond the range of the electric vehicle, the driver
will need to plan the journey. “Where can I charge m y electric vehicle on
the road?

Petroleum-equivalent efficiency

An electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more

electric motors, using electrical energy stored in rechargeable batteries or
another energy storage device. Electric motors give electric cars instant
torque, creating strong and smooth acceleration. They are also around three
times as efficient as cars with an internal combustion engine.

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Internal combustion engines are relatively inefficient at converting on -board
fuel energy to propulsion as most of the energy is wasted as heat. On the
other hand, electric motors are more efficient in converting stored energy
into driving a vehicle, and electric drive vehicles do not consume energy
while at rest or coasting, and some of the energy lost when braking is
captured and reused through regenerative braking, which captures as much as
one fifth of the energy normall y lost during braking.

Typicall y, conve ntional gasoline engines effectivel y use onl y 15% of

the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and
diesel engines can reach on -board efficiencies of 20%, while electric drive
vehicles have on-board efficiency of around 80%.

Production and conversion electric cars typicall y use 10 to 23

kW·h/100 km (0.17 to 0.37 kW·h/mi). Approximatel y 20% of this power
consumption is due to inefficiencies in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors
indicates that the vehicle efficiency (including cha rging inefficiencies) of
their lithium-ion battery powered vehicle is 12.7 kW·h/100 km (0.21
kW·h/mi) and the well -to-wheels efficiency (assuming the electricit y is
generated from natural gas) is 24.4 kW·h/100 km (0.39 kW·h/mi) .

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Mileage costs

Most of the mileage-related cost of an electric vehicle can be attributed

to electricit y costs of charging the battery pack, and its potential replacement
with age, because an electric vehicle has onl y around five moving parts in its
motor, compared to a gasoline c ar that has hundreds of parts in its internal
combustion engine. To calculate the cost per kilometer of an electric vehicle
it is therefore necessary to assign a monetary value to the wear incurred on
the battery. With use, the capacit y of a battery decrea ses. However, even an
'end of life' battery which has insufficient capacit y has market value as it can
be re-purposed, recycled or used as a spare.

The Tesla Roadster's very large battery pack is expected to last seven
years with t ypical driving and costs US$12,000 when pre -purchased today.
Driving 40 miles (64 km) per day for seven years or 102,200 miles (164,500
km) leads to a battery consumption cost of US$0.1174 per 1 mile (1.6 km) or
US$4.70 per 40 miles (64 km).

Plug in America has among drivers of the Tesla Roadster, a survey

carried out with respect to the service life of the installed battery. It was
found that after 100,000 miles = 160,000 km, the battery still had a remaining
capacit y of 80 to 85 percent. This was regardless of in which climate zone
the car is moved. The Tesla Roadster was built and sold between 2008 and
2012. For its 85-kWh batteries in the Tesla Model S Tesla are 8 -year
warrant y with unlimited mileage.

The now-defunct company Better Place provided another cost

comparison when it anticipated meeting contractual obligations to deliver
batteries, as well as clean electricit y to recharge the batteries, at a total cost
of US$0.08 per 1 mile (1.6 km) in 2010, US$0.04 per mile by 2015 and
US$0.02 per mile by 2020. 40 miles (64 km) of driving would initiall y cost
US$3.20 and fall over time to US$0.80.

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