PROTOTYPE OF AUTOMOBILE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION
The modern automobile is a complex technical system employing subsystems with
specific design functions. Some of these consist of thousands of component parts that
have evolved from breakthroughs in existing technology or from new technologies such
as electronic computers, high-strength plastics, and new alloys of steel and nonferrous
metals. Some subsystems have come about as a result of factors such as air pollution,
safety legislation, and competition between manufacturers throughout the world.
Passenger cars have emerged as the primary means of family transportation, with an
estimated 1.4 billion in operation worldwide. About one-quarter of these are in the United
States, where more than three trillion miles (almost five trillion kilometres) are traveled
each year. In recent years, Americans have been offered hundreds of different models,
about half of them from foreign manufacturers. To capitalize on
their proprietary technological advances, manufacturers introduce new designs ever more
frequently. With some 70 million new units built each year worldwide, manufacturers
have been able to split the market into many very small segments that nonetheless remain
profitable.
New technical developments are recognized to be the key to successful competition.
Research and development engineers and scientists have been employed by all
automobile manufacturers and suppliers to improve the body, chassis, engine, drivetrain,
control systems, safety systems, and emission-control systems.
These outstanding technical advancements are not made without economic consequences.
According to a study by Ward’s Communications Incorporated, the average cost for a
new American car increased $4,700 (in terms of the value of the dollar in 2000) between
1980 and 2001 because of mandated safety and emission-control performance
requirements (such as the addition of air bags and catalytic converters). New
requirements continued to be implemented in subsequent years. The addition of computer
technology was another factor driving up car prices, which increased by 29 percent
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between 2009 and 2019. This is in addition to the consumer costs associated with
engineering improvements in fuel economy, which may be offset by reduced fuel
purchases
Vehicle design depends to a large extent on its intended use. Automobiles for off-road
use must be durable, simple systems with high resistance to severe overloads and
extremes in operating conditions. Conversely, products that are intended for high-speed,
limited-access road systems require more passenger comfort options, increased engine
performance, and optimized high-speed handling and vehicle stability. Stability depends
principally on the distribution of weight between the front and rear wheels, the height of
the centre of gravity and its position relative to the aerodynamic centre of pressure of the
vehicle, suspension characteristics, and the selection of which wheels are used for
propulsion. Weight distribution depends principally on the location and size of the
engine. The common practice of front-mounted engines exploits the stability that is more
readily achieved with this layout. The development of aluminum engines and new
manufacturing processes has, however, made it possible to locate the engine at the rear
without necessarily compromising stability.

Fig. 1.1. automobile nomenclature.

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1.2. HISTORY

Development of the automobile started in 1672 with the invention of the first steam-
powered vehicle,[1] which led to the creation of the first steam-powered automobile capable
of human transportation, built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769.[2][3] Inventors began to
branch out at the start of the 19th century, creating the de Rivas engine, one of the
first internal combustion engines,[4] and an early electric motor.[5] Samuel Brown later tested
the first industrially applied internal combustion engine in 1826.[6]

Fig. 1.2.1. The Ford Model T (foreground) and Volkswagen Beetle (background) are
among the most mass-produced car models in history.

Development was hindered in the mid-19th century by a backlash against large vehicles,
yet progress continued on some internal combustion engines. The engine evolved as
engineers created two- and four-cycle combustion engines and began using gasoline as
fuel. Production vehicles began appearing in 1887, when Carl Benz developed a gasoline-
powered automobile and made several identical copies.[7] Recent automobile production
is marked by the Ford Model T, created by the Ford Motor Company in 1908, which
became the first automobile to be mass-produced on a moving assembly line.\

1.2.1. STEAM-POWERED WHEELED VEHICLES

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17th and 18th centuries

Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built a steam-powered vehicle

around 1672 as a toy for the Kangxi Emperor. It was small-scale and could not carry a driver but
it was, quite possibly, the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-mobile').[1][9]

Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles large enough to transport people and cargo were first
devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à
vapeur ("steam dray"), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor, in 1770 and 1771. As
Cugnot's design proved to be impractical, his invention was not developed in his native France.
The center of innovation shifted to Great Britain. By 1784, William Murdoch had built a
working model of a steam carriage in Redruth[10] and in 1801 Richard Trevithick was running a
full-sized vehicle on the roads in Camborne.

19th century

Fig. 1.2.3. A replica of Richard Trevithick's 1801 road locomotive 'Puffing Devil'

During the 19th century, attempts were made to introduce practical steam-powered vehicles.
Innovations such as hand brakes, multispeed transmissions and better steering developed. Some
commercially successful vehicles provided mass transit until a backlash against these large
vehicles resulted in the passage of legislation such as the UK Locomotive Act (1865), which
required many self-propelled vehicles on public roads to be preceded by a man on foot waving a
red flag and blowing a horn. This effectively halted road auto development in the UK for most of
the rest of the 19th century; inventors and engineers shifted their efforts to improvements

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in railway locomotives. The law was not repealed until 1896, although the need for the red flag
was removed in 1878.

In 1816, a professor at Prague Polytechnic, Josef Bozek, built an oil-fired steam car. [11]: 27  Walter
Hancock, builder and operator of London steam busses, in 1838 built a two-seated car phaeton.
[11]: 27 

In 1867, Canadian jeweler Henry Seth Taylor demonstrated his four-wheeled "steam buggy" at
the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec and again the following year.[12] The basis of the buggy,
which he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a two-
cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor.[13]

One of the first "real" automobiles was produced in 1873 by Frenchman Amédée Bollée in Le
Mans, who built self-propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.

The first automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the US was a steam-powered
vehicle invented in 1871 by Dr. J.W. Carhart, a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
in Racine, Wisconsin.[14][15][self-published  It induced the state of Wisconsin in 1875 to offer
source]

a US$10,000 (equivalent to $246,758 in 2021) award to the first to produce a practical substitute

for the use of horses and other animals. They stipulated that the vehicle would have to maintain
an average speed of more than 8 km/h (5 mph) over a 320 km (200 mi) course. The offer led to
the first city to city automobile race in the US, starting on 16 July 1878 in Green Bay,
Wisconsin, and ending in Madison, Wisconsin,
via Appleton, Oshkosh, Waupun, Watertown, Fort Atkinson, and Janesville. While seven
vehicles were registered, only two started to compete: the entries from Green Bay and Oshkosh.
The vehicle from Green Bay was faster but broke down before completing the race. The Oshkosh
finished the 323 km (201 mi) course in 33 hours and 27 minutes and posted an average speed of
9.7 km/h (6 mph). In 1879, the legislature awarded half the prize.[16][17][18]

20th century
Pre-WWII

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Fig.1.2.4.1924 Doble Model E

Steam-powered road vehicles, both cars and wagons, reached the peak of their development in
the early 1930s with fast-steaming lightweight boilers and efficient engine designs. Internal
combustion engines also developed greatly during World War I, becoming simpler to operate
and more reliable. The development of the high-speed diesel engine from 1930 began to replace
them for wagons, accelerated in the UK by tax changes making steam wagons uneconomic
overnight. Although a few designers continued to advocate steam power, no significant
developments in the production of steam cars took place after Doble in 1931.

Post-WWII

Whether steam cars will ever be reborn in later technological eras remains to be seen. Magazines
such as Light Steam Power continued to describe them into the 1980s. The 1950s saw interest in
steam-turbine cars powered by small nuclear reactors [citation needed] (this was also true of aircraft),
but the fears about the dangers inherent in nuclear fission technology soon killed these ideas.

Electric automobiles

Fig. 1.2.4.German Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888, perhaps the first electric car in the world[19]

See also: History of the electric vehicle

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19th century

In 1828, Ányos Jedlik, a Hungarian who invented an early type of electric motor, created a tiny
model car powered by his new motor.[5] In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport, the
inventor of the first American DC electric motor, installed his motor in a small model car, which
he operated on a short circular electrified track.[20] In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh
of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small-scale
electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.[21] In 1838, Scotsman Robert
Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of 6.4 km/h (4 mph). In England, a
patent was granted in 1840 for the use of tracks as conductors of electric current, and similar
American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.

Sources point to different creations as the first electric car. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact
year is uncertain) Robert Anderson of Scotland invented a crude electric carriage, powered by
non-rechargeable primary cells. In November 1881, French inventor Gustave
Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International
Exposition of Electricity, Paris.[22] English inventor Thomas Parker, who was responsible for
innovations such as electrifying the London Underground, overhead tramways in Liverpool and
Birmingham, and the smokeless fuel coalite, built the first production electric car in London in
1884, using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries. [23] However, others
regard the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by German inventor Andreas Flocken as the first true
electric car.[19]

20th century

Electric cars enjoyed popularity between the late 19th century and early 20th century, when
electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion, providing a level of
comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time.
Advances in internal combustion technology, especially the electric starter, soon rendered this
advantage moot; the greater range of gasoline cars, quicker refueling times, and growing
petroleum infrastructure, along with the mass production of gasoline vehicles by companies such
as the Ford Motor Company, which reduced prices of gasoline cars to less than half that of
equivalent electric cars, led to a decline in the use of electric propulsion, effectively removing it
from important markets such as the US by the 1930s. 1997 saw the Toyota RAV4 EV and

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the Nissan Altra, the first production battery electric cars to use NiMH and Li-ion batteries

(instead of heavier lead acid) respectively.

21st century

In recent years, increased concerns over the environmental impact of gasoline cars, higher
gasoline prices, improvements in battery technology, and the prospect of peak oil have brought
about renewed interest in electric cars, which are perceived to be more environmentally friendly
and cheaper to maintain and run, despite high initial costs.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEVE

[1] For nearly a century, physicians and laypersons have attempted to repair, reconstruct, and
embellish the human body in numerous ways by injecting various oils beneath the skin. Soon
after Gersuny's first reported subcutaneous injection of oil, the local and systemic complications
became apparent. Despite this, the practice of oil injections continues. "Medical grade" silicone
injection was investigated in the 1960s to 1980s with varied success and complications. While
few physicians practice oil injection therapy, some laypersons continue to subject themselves or
their clients to the risk of the disfiguring complications of sclerosing lipogranulomata.
Accidental high-pressure injection injury of liquids, so-called grease gun injuries, continues to
provide a therapeutic challenge for the hand surgeon. Our case of a man who injected automobile
transmission fluid into his scrotum illustrates the classical course and proper management of
sclerosing lipogranulomata. A subcutaneous inflammatory and fibrosing reaction occurred with
regional lymphadenopathy. The need for complete excision of all involved tissue to treat the
condition successfully is illustrated. This case also illustrates the tendency of patients to conceal
from their doctors the history of self-injection of foreign bodies. In cases of self-injection,
psychological counseling might certainly be appropriate.

[2] Driving is a complex task involving distinct cognitive, perceptual, motor, and decision
making skills. After placing the vehicle on the road, the driver must constantly survey the ever
changing roadway environment to keep the vehicle in the lane and moving at an appropriate safe
speed. This surveillance involves two distinct visual tasks: estimating and responding to the
oncoming curvature and controlling lane position. Driving is therefore a divided attention task
involving speed and lane control as well as monitoring. To do this in a safe manner requires
careful attention and alertness which can be problematic for patients with obstructive sleep
apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome (OSAHS) or other sleep disorders.

[3] The use of catalytic converters in automobiles is mandatory to reach current emission limits
for toxic engine byproducts. The goal of zero-emissions remains elusive for internal combustion
engines, yet tightening of legislation towards this ideal continues. To meet this demand,
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scientists and engineers must further their understanding of the operation of catalytic converters
to improve their performance. This literature review describes the research on gaseous reactions
catalysed by platinum, rhodium and palladium metals. While results using 'conventional' single
crystal surface science techniques are explored, much of this review considers results obtained
using field ion microscopy/atom probe (FIM/AP) nanocrystalline systems, which are excellent
methods for examining catalytic particles in a similar form to which they exist commercially. To
conclude, areas requiring further investigation are identified, such as lean burn reduction,
improving light-off temperatures, increasing resistance to poisoning and improving
understanding of the effects of gaseous reactant pressure. A great deal of fundamental work has
still to be carried out in order to appreciate reaction mechanisms at an atomic level.

[4] We examine the life cycle implications of a wide range of fuels and propulsion systems that
could power cars and light trucks in the US and Canada over the next two to three decades ((1)
reformulated gasoline and diesel, (2) compressed natural gas, (3) methanol and ethanol,
(4) liquid petroleum gas, (5) liquefied natural gas, (6) Fischer–Tropsch liquids from natural gas,
(7) hydrogen, and (8) electricity; (a) spark ignition port injection engines, (b) spark
ignition direct injection engines, (c) compression ignition engines, (d) electric motors with
battery power, (e) hybrid electric propulsion options, and (f) fuel cells). We review recent studies
to evaluate the environmental, performance, and cost characteristics of fuel/propulsion
technology combinations that are currently available or will be available in the next few decades.
Only options that could power a significant proportion of the personal transportation fleet are
investigated.

[5] Day by day Automobile sector is going through new innovative trends in all aspects like
design, appearance, performance and economy. While choosing an automobile for personal use,
customer always look for aesthetics, economics and safety measures. First and far most part of
an automobile that appears before user, is the dashboard. It acts as console for various
components and holds the sense pleasantness of occupant space. In this paper a brief review of
various types of material used in the making of dashboard is taken into account on the basis of

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detailed literature survey. Various types of dashboard are discussed along with their
manufacturing methods. Ideal properties of a dashboard material are also taken into
consideration. Testing techniques for dashboard materials are mentioned thereafter. Finally the
concerns with the dashboard materials are highlighted.

[6] Household vehicle ownership, and the associated dimensions including fleet size, vehicle
type and usage, has been one of the most researched transport topics. This paper endeavors to
provide a critical overview of the wide-ranging methodological approaches employed in vehicle
ownership modeling depending on the ownership representation over the past two decades. The
studies in the existing literature based on the vehicle ownership representation are classified as:
exogenous static, exogenous dynamic, endogenous static and endogenous dynamic models. The
methodological approaches applied range from simple linear regressions to complex
econometrics formulations taking into account a rich set of covariates. In spite of the steady
advancement and impressive evolution in terms of methodological approaches to examine the
decision process, we identify complex issues that pose a formidable challenge to address the
evolution of vehicle ownership in the coming years. Specifically, we discuss challenges with
data availability and methodological framework selection. In light of these discussions, we
provide a decision matrix for aiding researchers/practitioners in determining appropriate model
frameworks for conducting vehicle ownership analysis.

[7] The continuous drive for increased fuel efficiency and sustained innovation in the automobile
industry requires the adoption of radically new technological advances. Road vehicle
aerodynamic design is primarily concerned with reduction in the drag and generation of a
downforce. Current trends in both aircraft and wind turbine blade design show significant
interest in shape-adaptive (morphing) advanced structural concepts for improved aerodynamic
performance or the realization of new functionality. Morphing structures are also of interest
because they have the potential to create designs of simple construction and reduced mass.
However, there is an inherent contradiction between the need to create compliant structures to
keep actuator demands low and the requirement for designing stiff load-carrying structures. This

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highlights the key design challenge for morphing structures. Ways of addressing these
conflicting demands include the use of advanced composite materials which have extremely
anisotropic stiffness properties or multistable behaviour. This review provides a perspective on
recent developments in research on morphing structures and the potential applications for these
emerging technologies in automobile aerodynamic design.

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3. METHODOLOGY

Designing a prototype of vehicle which can self explain layout of vehicle with various
component like

Front wheel

Engine

Clutch

Gear box

Propeller

Rear wheel

Steering

We are designing such prototype which can be convert into various layout

1] front engine front wheel drive

2] front engine rear wheel drive

3] front engine all wheel drive

4] rear engine rear wheel drive

5] rear wheel all wheel drive.

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4. COMPONENT OF AUTOMOBILE

4.1. Fig. automobile layout

An automobile has several numbers of parts. But there are four essential components of
automobile. These are:

1. The Chassis.

2. The Engine.

3. The Transmission System.

4. The Body.

Apart from these four essential parts of automobile, there are controls and auxiliaries.

The controls are meant for controlling the movement of the vehicle. The auxiliaries are
additional components meant for providing comfort to the user of the automobile.

1. The Chassis.

The chassis of an automobile incorporates all the major assemblies consisting of an engine,
components of transmission system such as clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, axles, a control
system such as brakes and steering, and suspension system of the vehicle.

In other words, it is the vehicle without its body.

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The chassis of an automobile has the frame, suspension system, axles, and wheel as the main
components. The frame could be in the form of conventional chassis or unit construction may be
adopted.

In a conventional chassis frame, the frame forms the main skeleton of vehicle. It supports engine,
power transmission, and car body.

The frame is supported on wheels and axles through springs. The frame carries the weight of the
vehicle and passengers, withstands engine, transmission, accelerating, and braking torques.

It also withstands the centrifugal forces while cornering and takes up stresses due to the rise and
fall of axles.

In the unit construction type, there is no frame. The structure of the body of the automobile is
first formed, and then different components such as the engine, transmission system, and other
parts are placed at suitable places in the body structure.

The transmission system itself consists of a number of parts such as clutch assembly, gearbox,
propeller shaft, differential, and axles.

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The other parts include the interior details which are utilized by the passengers and driver of the
vehicle. Through suitable designing, the parts are so arranged that they provide maximum
comfort and make journeys in the automobile enjoyable.

The other parts of the chassis are suspension system, axles, and wheel. The suspension system
absorbs the vibrations due to up and down movement of wheels.

Springs and shock absorbers connecting the frame and the axle perform this function. The
springs can be leaf spring, coil spring, or torsion bar. Even rubber or air can form the material of
springs.

The wheels of the vehicle can be suspended independently on springs or on spring-suspended

axles. The axle may be ‘live’ if power from the engine is transmitted to it.

It may be a ‘dead’ axle if no power is supplied to it and it is just supporting the weight of the
vehicle. In ‘four-wheel drive,’ the power is supplied to both the axles and therefore both the
axles are ‘live.’

In addition to providing support to the weight of the vehicle, the axle also resists the stresses due
to braking and driving torque.

Read Also: What is Flat Belt Drive? | Its Advantages and Disadvantages.

2. The Engine.

The engine is the source of motive power to an automobile. Obviously, it is a very important part
of the automobile because in the absence of an engine, the automobile may not move at all, and
its basic function of transporting passengers or goods would be defeated.

The power of the engine determines the working of the automobile. In the same manner, the
efficiency of the engine determines the efficiency of an automobile.

The engine, nowadays, is invariably an internal combustion engine. This may be a spark-ignition
engine consuming petrol as fuel.

Alternatively, it could be a compression ignition engine using diesel as fuel.

The engines used are multi-cylinder engines. A single-cylinder engine, though capable of
providing the desired power may become very heavy and therefore may be unsuitable.

In a multi-cylinder engine, each cylinder handling a smaller amount of power may keep engine
light in weight. In an internal combustion engine, total heat produced by the burning of fuel is
not converted into work.

Part of it causes over-all heating of engine which is undesirable. This heat is to be dissipated
properly. Coolant in the form of air or water may be used to take away this heat.

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So an engine can be air-cooled or water-cooled. These days some chemicals have been
developed which have a cooling property, and these remain unaffected for a longer period of
time.

These chemicals are being used as coolants, and these do not require frequent replacement. Apart
from their long life, they are more efficient also.

Similarly, lubrication is another aspect to be taken care of in an engine requiring periodic

attention from the user.

The moving parts in an engine need regular lubrication to reduce unwanted friction. The
chemistry of lubricant is now highly developed. There is a standard rating for lubricants and for
every purpose a specific lubricant is available.

3. The Transmission System.

The transmission system transmits power developed by the engine to the road wheels. The power
available as output from the engine is in the form of rotation of the crankshaft.

This movement is to be transferred to the road wheels to cause their rotary motion. Their rotary
motion makes possible the movement of the vehicle.

The transmission system consists of different parts. These include clutch, gearbox, propeller
shaft, differential and axle, live axle to be more precise.

The road wheels are at the ends of the axle. The motion is transmitted through these parts. Every
part of the transmission system performs its own function.

i. Clutch.

The clutch, part of the transmission system is next to the crankshaft. It is a mechanism enabling
the rotary motion of one shaft transmitted to the second shaft ‘at will.’

When the engine starts, it should not be connected to road wheels, i.e., these should not start
moving as soon as the engine starts.

Secondly, this motion should be smoothly transferred so that passengers in the car do not feel
discomfort, and its mechanism is not spoiled.

In the case of vehicles used for the transportation of goods, the smooth transmission process is
essential as otherwise, it may cause damage to goods.

Read Also: Soldering vs Brazing; Its Process, Advantages, Disadvantages.

ii. Gearbox.

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The gearbox is the component of the transmission system next to the clutch. It has got a gear
train, and it provides different gear ratios. These ratios determine the rotary speed of output shaft
from the gearbox.

The torque transmitted to the road wheels gives rise to a propulsive force or (tractive effort)
between these and the road. When starting from rest, a large tractive effort is required.

This makes essential the introduction of considerable ‘leverage’ between the engine and the
wheels so that torque from the engine, which is almost constant, produces the large tractive
effort.

This ‘leverage’ is provided by the gearbox.

Different gear ratios available in the gearbox can provide the required tractive effort to overcome
the resistance faced by the automobile under different conditions.

Propeller shaft transmits the output from the gearbox to the axle. This axle may be in the rear or
in the front or in some cases both the rear and front axle may receive output from the gearbox.

The output from the gearbox is in the form of rotary motion of the shaft, and this motion is
transferred to the axle.

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iii. Differential.

The differential is the next component of the transmission system. The motion of propeller shaft
is fed to the differential which turns it through 90 degrees. This is essential as the axle is at 90
degrees to the propeller shaft.

The function is performed with the help of a pinion and a gear. Another important function of the
differential is to reduce the speed of inner wheels and at the same time, enhance the speed of
outer wheels by the same amount.

This is required when the automobile is moving on a curved path. On a curved path, the outer
wheels are required to traverse a circle of a bigger radius than the inner wheels.

This means that the outer wheels are required to traverse larger distance as compared to inner
wheels. As the automobile is to move as a single unit, all the four wheels must travel together.

Therefore, the outer wheels should travel larger distance and inner wheels should travel smaller
distance in the same time period.

Hence, the variation in the speed of inner and outer wheels is needed. This is performed by the
differential with the help of sun and planet gear system.

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iv. Axle.

The axle is the next component of the transmission system. The axle receiving power from the
engine is termed as ‘live’ axle. It is in two halves.

The ends of the axle have road wheels connected to it. These road wheels are in direct contact
with the road surface. The body of the automobile is above the axle.

The axle also takes up the various loads including the weight of the automobile. It also transmits
motion to the road wheels.

Read Also: What is Bearing? 15 Types of Bearing

4. The Body.

The use of a separate frame to which the body structure is attached is now almost obsolete except
for some applications for heavy-duty commercial vehicles.

Many heavy vehicles now use ‘sub-frames’ of simple construction to which the engine and
gearbox are attached.

The sub-frame is supported on the mainframe and is fixed on it through some suitable rubber
connections to isolate the engine vibrations.

Due to development in spot welding and sheet pressing techniques, most of the vehicles have
integral construction. All the assembly units of the vehicles are attached to the body, which also
acts the frame.

It makes the vehicle compact, lightweight, and also its cost is reduced. Some intermediate
designs using a light chassis and a pressed steel body are also in use.

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The light chassis, in such designs, is strengthened by using platform made of a sheet of steel.
Apart from the four basic components described above, the automobile has the control systems
and auxiliaries.

The control systems are used to control the motion of an automobile and therefore are essential
in an automobile. These include;

i. The steering system, and

ii. Braking system or brakes.

i. Steering system.

The automobile, while moving, may be required to traverse a circular path. It has to be turned
through some angle if the path is not straight.

There may be other situations also when the road is turning towards left or right, and an
automobile is required to turn to left or right.

This turning of the automobile towards left or right or on the curved path is provided through
steering mechanism.

The steering system is required to be quite accurate as the automobile should turn accurately
along with the path.

ii. Braking system.

This causes a reduction in speed of the vehicle and brings it to rest when necessary. Bringing an
automobile to rest is as important as its movement.

Obviously, when we have reached our destination, we would like to stop; and therefore, the
vehicle should come to rest.

Also, there may be some kind of emergency and vehicle may be required to slow down or stop
on the way. At that time, also its motion is to be controlled.

This control on the motion is provided with the help of brakes.

5. The Auxiliaries.

These are the components of an automobile which may not be essential, but it can make the
driving more comfortable.

The fact is that with the passage of time, some auxiliaries become essential. A few years back,
the indicators—to indicate the turning vehicle—were not used. But now these have been made
mandatory by the government.

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Though air-conditioner is not essential and is just to provide comfort conditions, now it is
provided in every vehicle in developed countries and is being adopted by more and more people.

The study of automobile engineering involves going through an in-depth study of all the
components and parts of automobile.

These include engine, transmission system, control, and auxiliaries system.

The engine used in an automobile is an internal combustion engine. The transmission system
consists of a number of parts, the introduction of which has already been presented.

Suspension systems, wheels, and tires are also important components, parts of automobile. Study
of steering mechanism and brakes is also important as these form the control system in an
automobile.

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5. CONCLUSION

While doing this project we have studied various components of a automobile like
chassis , front wheels, rear wheels , steering linkages, steering column, braking system,
clutch, gear box etc. so it is very useful in automobile engineeringto study various parts
of automobile.

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6. REFERENCE
[1] International Journal of Automobile Engineering Research and Development 
(IJAuERD) is an open access, peer reviewed journal with HIGH IMPACT FACTOR (JCC) 

[2] A. J. Yanik, “The first 100 years of transportation safety: part 1,” in The Automobile: A
Century of Progress, pp. 121–132, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa, USA,
1997.

[3] “25 Years Progress of SAE,” A leaflet of the 25th Anniversary Celebration of the Society of
Automotive Engineers, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa, USA, May 1930.

[4] W. Kamm, Das Kraftfahrzeug, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1936.

[5] A. J. Yanik, “The first 100 years of transportation safety: part 2,” in The Automobile: A
Century of Progress, pp. 133–149, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa, USA,
1997.

[6] N. Ach, “Psychologie und technik bei bekampfung von auto- ¨ unfallen,” ¨ Industrielle
Psychotechnik, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 87–105, 1929.

[7] T. W. Forbes, “The normal automobile driver as a traffic problem,” The Journal of General
Psychology, vol. 20, pp. 471– 474, 1939.

[8] D. Meister, The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Mahwah, NJ, USA, 1999.

[9] H. W. Sinaiko, Selected Papers on Human Factors in the Design and Use of Control Systems,
Dover, Mineola, NY, USA, 2000.

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[10] A. Chapanis, W. R. Garner, and C. T. Morgan, Applied Experimental Psychology, John

Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 1949.

[11] National Research Council, Human Factors in Undersea Warfare, National Research
Council, Committee on Undersea Warfare, Panel on Psychology and Physiology,Washington,
DC, USA, 1949.

[12] P. G. Ronco, “Human factors engineering, bibliographic series volume 1 1940–1959

literature,” Technical Report AD 639806, Tufts University, Medford, Mass, USA, 1966.

[13] R. A. McFarland and H. W. Stoudt, “Human body size and passenger vehicle design,” SAE
Special Publication 142, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa, USA, 1955.

[14] J. Kulowski, “Orthopedic aspects of automobile crash injuries and deaths,” Journal of the
American Medical Association, vol. 163, no. 4, pp. 230–233, 1957.

[15] E. R. Dye, “Kinematics of the human body under crash conditions,” Clinical Orthopaedics,
vol. 8, pp. 305–309, 1956.

[16] “Manikins for use in defining vehicle seating accommodation,” SAE Recommended
Practice J826, 1962.

[17] “Motor vehicle driver’s eye range,” SAE Recommended Practice J941, 1965.

[18] D. Hammond and R. Roe, “Driver head and eye positions,” SAE Technical Paper 720200,
Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa, USA, 1972.

[19] J. F. Meldrum, “Automobile driver eye position,” SAE Technical Paper 650464, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa, USA, 1972.

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[20] “Passenger car rear vision,” SAE Recommended Practice J834, 1967.

[21] R. Roe and P. Kyropoulos, “The application of anthropometry to automotive design,” SAE
Technical Paper 70053, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa, USA, 1970.

[22] Occupant Crash Protection, “Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 208, 49
CFR 571.208,” Standard 208, 1959.

[23] E. Simonson, C. Baker, N. Burns, C. Keiper, O. H. Schmitt, and S. Stackhouse,

“Cardiovascular stress (electrocardiographic changes) produced by driving an automobile,”
American Heart Journal, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 125–135, 1968

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