Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Licence Category B1 and B2: Physics
Licence Category B1 and B2: Physics
Licence Category
B1 and B2
Physics
2.3 Thermodynamics
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
ST Aerospace Ltd.
LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
• The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of Singapore Airworthiness Requirements Part 66 -
Aircraft Maintenance Licensing:
SAR-66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference B1 B2
Thermodynamics 2.3 2 2
(a)
Temperature: thermometers and temperature
scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin; Heat
definition
(b) 2 2
Heat capacity, specific heat
Heat transfer: convection, radiation and
conduction;
Volumetric expansion
First and second law of thermodynamics
Gases: ideal gases laws; specific heat at
constant volume and constant pressure, work
done by expanding gas
Isothermal, adiabatic expansion and
compression, engine cycles, constant volume
and constant pressure, refrigerators and heat
pumps
Latent heats of fusion and evaporation, thermal
energy, heat of combustion
Temperature
Temperature Scales
Our common notion of hot and cold has its precise expression in the concept of temperature. As
objects are heated their molecules move faster. In a solid the molecules vibrate more rapidly. In
liquids and gases the molecules move all over in the container at a faster rate of speed. These
variations in speed of the molecules cause objects to expand when they are heated.
This expansion can be used to construct instruments called thermometers. The ordinary
mercury thermometer uses the expansion of a volume of mercury contained in a bulb to indicate
temperature.
A number of temperature scales are currently in use. The Fahrenheit scale is the one we have
used most extensively. On this scale the freezing point of water is 32° and its boiling point is
212°. The metric scale is the Celsius or centigrade scale. On this scale the freezing point of
water is zero and the boiling point is 100°.
In theory, if we cool any substance enough, we can cause all molecular motion to cease. We
call this lowest possible temperature “absolute zero”. Ordinary gases like air would be rock solid
at this temperature. Low temperature physicists have never been able to reach this extremely
low temperature in their laboratories. However, they have come close—down to a fraction of a
centigrade degree. Absolute zero is a limiting temperature which can never be reached. Two
other temperature scales are used by engineers and experimental scientists. In both of these
scales the zero of the scale is placed at absolute zero, the coldest possible temperature. These
scales are the metric Kelvin scale and the English Rankin scale.
There are formulas that enable us to change from a centigrade reading to a Fahrenheit reading
and vice versa. These formulas are:
5 9
C= (F - 32) and F= C + 32
9 5
Note that there are parentheses in the first formula but not in the second formula. Be careful!
There are also formulas that change from a centigrade reading to a Kelvin reading and from a
Fahrenheit reading to a Rankin reading. These formulas are very important to us at this time
since we will have to use absolute temperatures in the gas laws.
Notes:
• Kelvin has no o sign in-front of the K.
• The accurate conversion factor for 0C to K is +273.15
10. On some large commercial turbojet engines, the temperature at the front end of
the combustion section is approximately 400°C. What is this temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale?
11. As air enters the combustion chamber of a turbojet fuel is added and the
temperature is raised to about 3,500°F in the hotte st part of the flame. What is this
temperature on the Centigrade scale?
1. 68°F
2. 5°F
3. 30°C
4. -20°C
5. 560°R
6. -10°F
7. 373 K
8. 110°C
9. 15°C
10. 752°F
11. 1,930°C
Boyle’s Law
A cylinder containing gas is fitted with a light piston. This cylinder contains a certain mass of gas
and therefore a certain number of molecules of gas. The gas has a definite absolute
temperature. This temperature is a measure of the average speed of the gas molecules in the
sample. Some of the molecules are moving faster and some are moving slower. The average
speed determines the temperature.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant and the volume of the gas sample is decreased,
the molecules, still moving with the same average speed, are “squashed” into a smaller space
(see figure 3.2).
The result is that the sides of the container experience more collisions per unit time. This results
in an increase in the absolute pressure the molecules exert on the walls of the container.
P1V1 = P2V2
A cylinder fitted with a piston contains gas at a pressure of 35.5 lbs./in2 as indicated by a
gauge mounted to the outside of the cylinder. The atmospheric pressure is 14.5 lbs./in2 if the
piston is forced down reducing the volume in the cylinder to one fourth of its original volume
while holding the temperature of the gas constant, determine the new reading on the pressure
gauge.
P1 = 50 ibs./in2
V2 = ¼ V 1
P1V1 = P2V2
We still must express this new pressure as a gauge pressure since the problem asked for the
new reading on the pressure gauge. Our final answer is:
Charles’ Law
Toward the end of the 18th century, investigations carried out by French physicists, Jacques
Alexandre Charles and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac led to the discovery of a relation between the
volume and absolute temperature of gases under conditions of constant pressure.
Let us again consider a sample of gas containing a definite number of molecules. We stipulate
that the pressure on this sample of gas will remain constant. If the pressure is to remain
constant, an increase in absolute temperature must be accompanied by a corresponding
increase in volume (see figure 3.3).
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
EXAMPLE:
A quantity of air occupies a volume of one cubic foot on a day when the temperature is 15°F.
What will be the volume of this quantity of air when the temperature increases to 85°F, and
the pressure stays the same?
1 ft 3 V2
=
475 R 545 o R
o
Note that we have changed the temperatures from degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Rankin,
because we must express the temperatures in absolute units. Cross multiplying, we obtain:
1 ft 3 × 545 o R
V2 = = 1 .15 ft 3
475 o R
Failure to convert to absolute temperatures will always lead to incorrect answers when
working with the gas laws!
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
EXAMPLE:
The tyre of a bicycle is filled with air to a gauge pressure of 50.0 lbs./in. at 58°F. What is the
gauge pressure in the tyre on a day when the temperature rises to 86°F? Assume that the
volume of the tyre does not change and the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lbs.fin.2
64 .7 lbs / in 2 P2
o
=
518 R 546 o R
Solving for P2, we obtain P2 = 68.2 ibs./in2. Finally, the new gauge pressure is obtained by
subtracting the atmospheric pressure from P2.
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
Note that this equation gives us the three gas laws that we have studied.
If the temperature of the gas remains constant, we can cancel the temperatures in the
denominators and obtain:
If the pressure remains constant, we can cancel the pressures in the numerators and obtain:
V1 V2
= Charles’ Law
T1 T2
If the volume remains constant, we can cancel the volumes in the numerators and obtain:
P1 P2
= Gay-Lussac’s Law
T1 T2
EXAMPLE:
A tank of helium gas has a gauge pressure of 50.2 lbs/in2 and a temperature of 45°F. A piston
decreases the volume of the gas to 68% of its original volume and the temperature drops to
10°F. What is the new gauge pressure? Assume normal atmospheric pressure.
We must change both temperatures to absolute units. We must change the original gauge
pressure to absolute pressure. We remember that when the final pressure is obtained it will be
in absolute units. We also note that V2 = 0.68 V1.
P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
PV = mRT
mRT
P=
V
m
ρ=
V
The most important application of this formula enables us to obtain the density of any particular
kind of gas if we know its absolute pressure and absolute temperature.
Note: When comparing the density of one type of gas to another, we need to use equal
temperatures and pressures for each gas (since, as the above equation shows, density
changes with pressure and temperature changes). The temperature and pressure we use for
this is known as Standard Temperature and Pressure. These are 0oC and 1 atmosphere
(273.15 K and 760 mmHg).
EXAMPLE:
Find the density of air if the temperature is 80°F and the absolute pressure is 2,150 lbs./ft2
P 2150 lbs / ft 2
ρ= =
RT (1710 ft.lbs / slug o R )(540 o R )
= 0.00233 slug/ft3
CDP
Compression Ratio =
CIP
P2
Compression Ratio =
P1
where the 1’s refer to the inlet pressure and the 2’s to the discharge pressure.
If however, the temperature of the air is increased too much in the compression process the
volume of a quantity of air entering the combustion chamber will not be reduced significantly
and the compressor efficiency will be low.
EXAMPLE:
A quantity of air occupying 1 cu.ft. at pressure of 14.7 PSIA and a temperature of 59°F enters
the compressor of a turbojet engine having a compression ratio of 12.5:1 and is discharged at
a temperature of 2,000°F. With what volume will thi s quantity of air enter the combustion
chamber?
P1 V1 P2 V2
= for V2 yields
T1 T2
P1V1T2 T 1
V2 = = V1 2
T1P2 T P /
1 2 1 P
2000 + 460 1
V2 = (1 ft 3 )
59 + 460 12 .5
V2 = 0.379 ft.3
EXAMPLE:
With what volume would the quantity of air of the previous problem enter the combustion
chamber if the discharge temperature of the compressor were 750°F instead of 2,000°F?
750 + 460 1
V2 = (1 ft 3 )
59 + 460 12 .5
V2 = 0.187 ft.3
We see that the volume of the original cubic foot of air is less (0.187 ft.3) when the
temperature is 750°F than it is (0.379 ft. 3) when the temperature is 2,000°F.
1. A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The absolute pressure of
the gas is 240 kPa when the volume is 0.15 m3. What will the volume be when the
absolute pressure of the gas is changed to 80 kPa while the temperature is held
constant?
2. A quantity of gas is contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The gauge pressure of the
gas in the cylinder is 335 lbs/in2 when the volume occupied by the gas is 72in3 What is
the gauge pressure when the volume is decreased to 60 in3? Assume atmospheric
pressure to be 15 lbs/in2, and assume that the temperature is held constant.
4. A volume of 1.35 m3 of air at 17°C is heated to 427°C while its pressu re is held constant.
What is the volume of the gas at this elevated temperature.
6. The air pressure and density at a point on the wing of a Boeing 747 flying at altitude are
70 kPa, and 0.9 kg/m3 respectively. What is the temperature at this point on the wing in
degrees Centigrade?
7. The Goodyear non-rigid airship, the Mayflower, has a volume of 4000 m3 and is filled with
helium to an absolute pressure of 100 kPa. The temperature is 27°C. Find the density
and total mass of the helium in the ship.
8. At an altitude of 8,000 ft. the absolute temperature of air is 500°R and the absolute
pressure is 1600 lbs/ft2. What is the density of air at this altitude?
10. A quantity of air occupying 0.9 ft3 at a pressure of 15 PSIA and a temperature of 40°F
enters the compressor of a turbojet engine having a compression ratio of 13:1 and is
discharged at a temperature of 1,540°F. With what v olume will this quantity of air enter
the combustion chamber?
1. 0.45m3
2. 405 lb./in2
3. 1.86 atmosphere
4. 3.26 m3
5. 0.007 slug/ft3
6. - 2°C
9. 0.01 slug/ft3
We’re going to return to the idea of how temperature is related to molecular motion later, but
first let’s look at what happens to materials when they change temperature. Let’s say that
you’ve got a jar lid that’s stuck and you want to get it off. How can you do this? One common
way is by running the jar under hot water so that the jar lid expands and can come off the jar.
Thinking back to our model of solids, if temperature is a measure of how fast things are moving,
when a solid heats up, the molecules vibrate about their normal positions. At higher
temperature, they vibrate more and the material actually grows in size. When a material is
cooled, the molecules don’t move as much and the material shrinks.
If we look at a long strip of metal, with length Lo, we might want to find out what its change in
length is under certain conditions. This is important, for instance, in building roads that must
undergo temperature extremes. Experimentally, we find that the change in length is directly
related to the change in temperature and to the initial length of the bar. The dependence on the
initial length of the bar comes about because there are that many more molecules moving, so
the change in length will be greater than that of a shorter bar.
But let’s think back to the jar. When you heat the lid, you’re also heating the glass, too. Doesn’t
the glass also expand? The answer is that it does, but it expands less than the material from
which the lid is made. This means that we somehow have to account for the fact that different
materials expand or contract by different amounts under the same temperature change.
Let’s try to arrange these materials on a scale. The way we account for the different rates of
different materials in out equation is via the coefficient of linear expansion, α. α has units of
/°C (pronounced ‘per degree Celsius’) .
We define alpha (α), the coefficient of linear expansion. Tables of values of alpha for various
substances are found in handbooks of physics.
∆L = α Lo ∆T
In this formula,
Area Expansion
Two-dimensional solid bodies also experience thermal area expansion. The formula is as
follows:
∆A = 2α Ao ∆T
In this formula,
∆ V = 3 α Vo ∆ T
In this formula:
∆V = β Vo ∆T
Generally, liquids expand more than solids, and gases much more than liquids, for any given
change in temperature. This is because the molecules of liquids are not tied to each other and
have more room and freedom to vibrate than do the molecules or atoms in solids. The
molecules of gases of course, are completely free to move, and thus will move much more
vigorously when heated than either solids or liquids
EXAMPLE:
A steel rail of length 140 ft. Is laid down when the temperature is 20°F. What is the increase in
length of this rail when the temperature is 95°F?
∆L = α Lo ∆T
∆L = (11 x 10-6/oF) (140 ft.) (75 oF)
∆L = 0.116 ft.
EXAMPLE:
An aluminium tank has volume 35 ft.3 What is the increase in volume of this tank when the
temperature increases from 30°F to 90°F?
It should be noted that a solid block of a substance increases in volume as the body is heated.
Also, a container has a bigger volume as the temperature of the container increases.
∆V = 3α Vo ∆T
∆V = 3 (13 x 10-6/oF) (35 ft.3) (60 oF)
∆V = 0.0819 ft.3
The manager of an airport accepts delivery of 1,000 gallons of avgas on a cool evening when
the temperature is 35°F. This avgas completely fill s a 1,000 gallon aluminium tank. A warm
front moves in the next morning and the temperature rises to 95°F. How much avgas will
overflow?
∆V = β Vo ∆T
∆V = (0.58 x 1 0-3/oF) (1,000 gal.) (60 oF)
∆V = 34.8 gal.
∆V = β Vo ∆T
∆V = 3(13 x 10-6/oF) (1,000 gal.) (60 oF)
∆V = 2.3 gal.
The new volume of the avgas is 1,034.8 gal. and the new volume of the tank is 1,002.3 gal.
We note that 32.5 gallons of avgas will overflow!
EXAMPLE:
A motorist puts 20.1 gallons of petrol in his gas tank on a hot summer day when the
temperature is 95°F. He uses 0.1 gal. in driving ho me. The temperature falls to 45°F that
evening after a cool front has moved into the area. How many gallons are in his tank the next
morning when he leaves for work?
∆V = β Vo ∆T
∆V = (0.58 x 10-6/oF) (20 gal.) (50 oF)
∆V = 0.58 gal.
There are 19.42 gallons of petrol in his tank the next morning!
1. A 90 ft. aluminium rail is put in place on a hot summer day when the temperature is 85°F.
What is the decrease in length of this rail when the temperature is 35 °F?
2. A 150 ft. steel rail is put in place when the temperature is 35°F. What is the increase in
length of this rail when the temperature is 95°F?
3. A concrete bridge is laid down in sections with some space between sections to allow for
expansion. The length of one section is 250 ft. The lowest recorded temperature in the
area is - 45 °F and the highest recorded temperatu re is 115 °F. How much space should
the builders leave between each section?
4. The volume of an aluminium tank is 200 gallons on a day when the temperature is 30 °F.
It is completely filled with gasoline from a supply truck. The temperature rises to 70°F
when a warm front moves in. How many gallons of gasoline overflow?
1. 0.0585 ft
2. 0.099 ft.
3. 0.20 ft
4. 3.7 gallons
Heat is a measure of the total energy of molecular motion. The more molecules that are moving,
the greater is the heat energy. Let us compare a teaspoon of water at 100°F with a cup of water
at 50°F. The molecules of water in the teaspoon are moving faster than the molecules of water
in the cup. However, since we have so many more molecules in the cup, the heat energy in the
cup is greater than the heat energy in the teaspoon. If the teaspoon of water is placed on a
large block of ice and the cup of water is also placed on this block of ice, the cup of water at
50°F would melt more ice than the teaspoon of water at 100°F.
There are definite units for measuring heat energy. The units are the Btu (British thermal unit)
and the metric units, the large Calorie (written with a capital “C”) and the small calorie.
1 British thermal unit (Btu) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water 1°F
1 calorie = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water
1°C
1 Celsius Heat Unit (CHU) = the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water 1°C
(Note: The CHU is a mix of English and Metric units and is rarely used).
When we talk about the heat content of fuel (which must be burned to be released) –
commonly called the heat of combustion, we talk about Calories per lb. of fuel, or Btu per lb. of
fuel, or Joules per kg of fuel. Since 1 Btu = 252 calories, and 1 calorie = 4.186 Joules, there are
1055 Joules in 1 Btu. And since 1 lb. = 2.2 kg, 1 Btu/lb. = 2326 J/kg.
We note that the Calorie is the famous dietary Calorie. The body stores excess food as fat and
we measure the Calories in a certain foodstuff by burning these foodstuffs and measuring the
heat produced!
In the solution of heat problems, we will limit our discussion to the English system, since this is
the system that is most often encountered in our society.
In this equation:
In this equation:
It is important to note that this equation deals with substances that are not changing their states
of matter. Another equation will deal with heat added or lost as a body changes from one state
(solid, liquid, or gas) to another.
Since there are two equations, (depending on whether you are using English or Metric units)
there are also two sets of Specific Heat Capacity constants.
Table 3.5 shows various specific heats of substances in English and Metric units.
Metals
Aluminium 912 0.212
Antimony 214 0.051
Copper 389 0.093
Gold 130 0.031
Iron 460 0.110
Lead 130 0.031
Mercury 138 0.033
Nickel 452 0.108
Platinum 134 0.032
Silver 234 0.056
Tin 230 0.055
Zinc 393 0.094
Solids
Asbestos 84 0.20
Ashes 84 0.20
Asphalt 80 0.19
Brick 92 0.22
Carbon 71 0.17
Coal 1310 0.314
Coke 850 0.203
Concrete 1130 0.27
Cork 2030 0.485
Glass 840 0.20
Granite 750 0.18
Graphite 710 0.17
Ice 2110 0.504
Wood 2300 - 2700 0.55 - 0.65
Table 3.5: Specific Heat Capacities of some
common substances
CP
γ=
CV
For example:
CP
Therefore γ air =
= 1.4
CV
Also CP – Cv = R (the ideal gas constant we saw in Chapter 4).
Since both R and γ are always positive values, and greater than 1, CP is always greater than
Cv.
EXAMPLE:
How much heat must be supplied to raise the temperature of a 32 lb. aluminium fitting from
60°F to 90°F?
Q = wC∆T (imperial)
Btu
Q = 0.212 o
(32 lbs.)(30 F)
lb.ft.
Q = 204 Btu.
EXAMPLE:
How much heat is given up as 100 lbs. of sea water cools from 90°F to 50°F?
Q = wC∆T (imperial)
Btu
Q = 0.93 o
(100 lbs.)(40 F)
lb.ft.
Q = 3720 Btu.
On each side of this equation there is a wC∆T term. In writing an expression for ∆T, we always
express this change as the larger temperature minus the smaller temperature.
EXAMPLE:
If 5,000 lbs. of sea water at 100°F are mixed with 7,000 lbs. of ordinary water at 40°F, what is
the final temperature of the mixture?
We note that, if the final temperature is T, the temperature 100° is more than T and the
temperature 40° is less than T. Therefore the tempe rature change of the sea water is (100 -
T) and the temperature change of the ordinary water is (T - 40).
In setting up the wC∆T left and right members of the above equation, we will not include the
units. However we will note that the weights must be in lbs. and the temperature changes in
Fahrenheit degrees.
745,000 = 11,650 T
T = 63.9 oF
If we measure the temperature of the substance which is initially solid as we heat it we produce
a graph like Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5:
3.5: Temperature change with time. Phase
changes are indicated by flat regions where heat
energy used to overcome attractive forces between
molecules
Starting a point A, the substance is in its solid phase, heating it brings the temperature up to its
melting point but the material is still a solid at point B. As it is heated further, the energy from the
heat source goes into breaking the bonds holding the atoms in place. This takes place from B to
C. At point C all of the solid phase has been transformed into the liquid phase. Once again, as
energy is added the energy goes into the kinetic energy of the particles raising the temperature,
(C to D). At point D the temperature has reached its boiling point but it is still in the liquid phase.
From points D to E thermal energy is overcoming the bonds and the particles have enough
kinetic energy to escape from the liquid. The substance is entering the gas phase. Beyond E,
further heating under pressure can raise the temperature still further is how a pressure cooker
works.
Note the temperature stays constant during the state changes of melting and boiling.
The principle of latent heat (especially of vaporization) is what is behind the operation of the
fridge and air conditioning system, water injection of gas turbine engines, and the cooling effect
you feel when you perspire.
That principle is that if you make a fluid vaporize, it extracts heat (latent heat) to cause it to
vaporize, but the fluid does not change temperature.
Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation
The energy required to change the phase of a substance is known as a latent heat. The word
latent means hidden. When the phase change is from solid to liquid we must use the latent heat
of fusion, and when the phase change is from liquid to a gas, we must use the latent heat of
vaporisation.
Q= m L
where m is the mass of the substance and L is the specific latent heat of fusion or vaporisation
which measures the heat energy to change 1 kg of a solid into a liquid.
Some values of Specific Latent Heats of Fusion and Vaporisation are shown in table 3.6.
Specific
Specific Freezing latent heat Boiling
Substance latent heat of Temperature of Temperature
fusion kJ/kg °C vaporisation °C
kJ/kg
Water 334 0 2258 100
Ethanol 109 -114 838 78
Chloroform 74 -64 254 62
Mercury 11 -39 294 357
Sulphur 54 115 1406 445
Hydrogen 60 -259 449 -253
Oxygen 14 -219 213 -183
Nitrogen 25 -210 199 -196
Table 3.6: Latent heats, freezing points and boiling points of some common
substances
Module 2.3 Thermodynamics 3-43
Use and/or disclosure is
governed by the statement For Training Purposes Only
on page 2 of this chapter. ST Aerospace Ltd
© Copyright 2012
Further Discussion on Latent Heat
Each time water changes physical state, energy is involved.
In the vapour state, the water molecules are very energetic. The molecules are not bonded with
each other, but move around as single molecules. Water vapour is invisible to us, but we can
feel its effect to some extent, and water vapour in the atmosphere is a very important factor in
weather and climate.
In the liquid state, the individual molecules have less energy, and some bonds form, break, then
re-form. At the surface of liquid water, molecules are continually moving back and forth from the
liquid state to the vapour state. At a given temperature, there will be an equilibrium
equilibrium between the
number of molecules leaving the liquid, and the number of molecules returning.
How do you make water evaporate? Here is a bowl of water. Make the
water evaporate. Go ahead.
How did you make the water evaporate? Probably you added heat. You
might have put it out in the sun, or possibly put it over a fire. To make
water evaporate, you put energy into it. The individual molecules in the water absorb that
energy, and get so energetic that they break the hydrogen bonds connecting them to other
water molecules. They become molecules of water vapour. Evaporation is the change of state
from liquid to vapour. In the process of evaporation, the molecule absorbs energy. This energy
is latent heat. Latent means hidden, so latent heat is "hidden" in the water molecule--we can't
feel it, but it is there. Wherever that individual molecule of water vapour goes, it takes that
latent heat with it. To get the molecule of water vapour to become liquid again, we have to take
the energy away, that is, we have to cool it down so that it condenses (condensation is the
change from the vapour state to the liquid state). When water condenses,
it releases latent heat.
Now, how do you make ice melt? Here is a block of ice, water in the solid
state. Make it melt. Go ahead.
Again, you probably melted the ice by adding energy. The additional
energy was absorbed by the individual molecules of water, which became
so energetic that they broke some of the hydrogen bonds holding the ice crystal together, and
became liquid (that is, the ice melted). This energy is also latent heat, and each molecule of the
liquid water is holding that latent heat. To change the liquid water back to ice, you have to take
that latent heat away, or in other words, cool the water.
Water could change directly from the frozen state to the vapour state without passing through
the liquid state first. This process is called sublimation. Water can also change from the
vapour state to the frozen state without passing through the liquid state. This is usually called
deposition, and is what you see when frost forms on grass or windows
windows on a cold night.
(Sometimes the term sublimation is used when water changes state in either direction, that is,
from solid to vapour, or vapour to solid).
How much heat does it take to get water to change state? if the water is at a temperature of
100 degrees C (that is, the boiling point, or 212 degrees F) it takes an additional 540 calories of
heat to convert one gram of water from the liquid state to the vapour state. When the vapour
converts to the liquid state, 540 calories of energy will be released per gram of water. If you are
converting solid water (ice) to liquid water at 0 degrees C, it will
will require about 80 calories of
heat to melt one gram of ice, and the 80 calories will be released when the liquid water is frozen
to the solid state.
Water does not have to be at the boiling point to evaporate. if you don't believe this, set a pan
of water out in the sun and watch it slowly disappear. The sun's heat is not boiling the water,
but it is evaporating it. in a given amount of water at a given temperature, some molecules of
water will have more energy than others, so some molecules will be able to evaporate, while
others remain in the liquid state. The lower the temperature of the water, the more energy is
required for evaporation. if the water is liquid at a temperature of 0 degrees C, the latent heat of
vaporization is 597 cal/g, compared to 540 cal/g at 100 degrees C. in between, at 50 degrees
C, an input of 569 cal/g would be required for evaporation.
It will take a total of about 720 calories per gram to sublimate water, that is change it directly
from ice at 0 degrees C, to vapour at 100 degrees C: this includes 80 calories from latent heat
of fusion (melting) + 100 calories to raise the temperature of the water 100 degrees C + 540
calories to make the liquid water evaporate (latent heat of vaporization). Similarly, about 720
Radiation: Electromagnetic waves that directly transport ENERGY through space. Sunlight is a
form of radiation that is radiated through space to our planet at the speed of light without the aid
of fluids or solids. The energy travels through nothingness! Just think of it! The sun transfers
heat through 93 million miles of space. Because there are no solids (like a huge spoon)
touching the sun and our planet, conduction is not responsible for bringing heat to Earth. Since
there are no fluids (like air and water) in space, convection is not responsible for transferring the
heat. Thus, radiation brings heat to our planet.
Q kA∆T
=
t L
EXAMPLE:
An outside wall of a house has total cross-sectional area of 2,000 ft.2 The thickness of the
fibreboard insulation is 3 inches. The inside temperature is 70°F and the outside
temperature is 20°F. What is the heat loss per hour through this outside wall?
Q kA∆T
=
t L
Q
= 14,000 Btu / hr
t
1. How much heat must be supplied to raise the temperature of 67 lbs. of ethyl alcohol
from 32°F to 76 oF?
2. How much heat is given up as 780 lbs. of steel cool from 90°F to 45°F?
3. If 1 lb. of vodka (alcohol) at 90°F is mixed wit h 0.2 lb. of water at 40°F what is the final
temperature?
4. If 3 lbs. of hot water at 200 °F are poured into a 1.5 lbs. aluminium container at 40 °F,
what is the final temperature?
5. A house has an outside wall area of 3,000 ft2 These walls are insulated with corkboard
4 in. thick. The inside temperature is 75°F and the outside temperature is 15°F. What is
the heat loss per hour through these outside walls?
1. 2,064 Btu
2. 3,860 Btu
3. 79oF
4. 180oF
5. 13,500 Btu/hr
• Radiation
• Conduction
• Convection
The latter two are used extensively in the design of refrigeration equipment. If you place two
objects together so that they remain touching, and one is hot and one is cold, heat will flow from
the hot object into the cold object. This is called conduction. This is an easy concept to grasp
and is rather like gravitational potential, where a ball will try to roll down an inclined plane. If you
were to fan a hot plate of food it would cool somewhat. Some of the heat from the food would be
carried away by the air molecules. When heat is transferred by a substance in the gaseous
state the process is called convection. And if you kicked a glowing hot ember away from a
bonfire, and you watched it glowing dimmer and dimmer, it is cooling itself by radiating heat
away. Note that an object doesn’t have to be glowing in order to radiate heat, all things use
combinations of these methods to come to equilibrium with their surroundings. So you can see
that in order to refrigerate something, we must find a way to expose our object to something that
is colder than itself and nature will take over from there. We are getting closer to talking about
the actual mechanics of a refrigerating system, but there are some other important concepts to
discuss first.
The States of Matter
To raise the temperature of 1 LB of water from 40 degrees to 41 degrees would take 1 BTU. To
raise the temperature of 1 LB of water from 177 degrees to 178 degrees would also take 1 BTU.
However, if you tried raising the temperature of water from 212 degrees to 213 degrees you
would not be able to do it. Water boils at 212 degrees and would prefer to change into a gas
rather than let you get it any hotter. Something of utmost importance occurs at the boiling point
of a substance. If you did a little experiment and added 1 BTU of heat at a time to 1 LB of water,
you would notice that the water temperature would increase by 1 degree each time. That is until
you reached 212 degrees. Then something changes.
changes. You would keep adding BTU's, but the
water would not get any hotter! it would change state into a gas and it would take 970 BTU's to
vaporize that pound of water. This is called the Latent Heat of Vaporization and in the case of
water it is 970 BTU's per pound.
So what! you say. When are you going to tell me how the refrigeration effect works? Well hang
in there, you have just learned about 3/4 of what you need to know to understand the process.
What keeps that beaker of water from boiling when it isis at room temperature? if you say it's
because it is not hot enough, sorry but you are wrong. The only thing that keeps it from boiling
is the pressure of the air molecules pressing down on the surface of the water. When you heat
that water to 212 degrees and then continue to add heat, what you are doing is supplying
sufficient energy to the water molecules to overcome the pressure of the air and allow them to
escape from the liquid state. If you took that beaker of water to outer space where there is no air
pressure the water would flash into a vapour. If you took that beaker of water to the top of Mt.
Everest where there is much less air pressure, you would find that much less heat would be
needed to boil the water. (it would boil at a lower temperature than
than 212 degrees). So water boils
at 212 degrees at normal atmospheric pressure. Lower the pressure and you lower the boiling
point. Therefore we should be able to place that beaker of water under a bell jar and have a
vacuum pump extract the air from within the bell jar and watch the water come to a boil even at
room temperature. This is indeed the case!
Chemical Engineers spent years experimenting before they came up with the perfect chemicals
for the job. They developed a family of hydroflourocarbon refrigerants which had extremely low
boiling points. These chemicals would boil at temperatures below 0 degrees Fahrenheit at
atmospheric pressure. So finally, we can begin to describe the mechanical refrigeration
process.
There are 4 main components in a mechanical refrigeration system. Any components beyond
these basic 4 are called accessories. The compressor is a vapour compression pump which
uses pistons or some other method to compress the refrigerant gas and send it on it's way to
the condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger which removes heat from the hot
compressed gas and allows it to condense into a liquid. The liquid refrigerant is then routed to
the metering device. This device restricts the flow by forcing the refrigerant to go through a
small hole which causes a pressure drop. And what did we say happens to a liquid when the
pressure drops? if you said it lowers the boiling point and makes it easier to evaporate, then you
are correct. And what happens when a liquid evaporates? Didn't we agree that the liquid will
absorb heat from the surrounding area? This is indeed
indeed the case and you now know how
refrigeration works. This component where the evaporation takes place is called the evaporator.
The refrigerant is then routed back to the compressor to complete the cycle. The refrigerant is
used over and over again absorbing heat from one area and relocating it to another. Remember
the definition of refrigeration? (The removal and relocation of heat.)
Boiling
Refrigerant Formula temperature Properties Applications
o
C
Penetrating odour,
soluble in water.
Ammonia NH3 -33 harmless in concentration Large industrial plants
up to 1/30%, non
flammable, explosive
Other chemicals could be used and have been used in the past. Methyl bromide is a refrigerant
but has almost completely been phased out for safety and environmental reasons. Carbon
dioxide (dry ice) has also been used as a refrigerant (infact at one time Carbon Dioxide and
Ammonia were the only two refrigerants in use) but is no longer used because other complex
formulas are much more efficient.
So is water a refrigerant?
Remember that a refrigerant, in order to cool the space, must evaporate at the temperature of
the space. Unless the room you are trying to cool, or the inside of your fridge, is 100oC or
more, water will not work as a refrigerant at normal atmospheric pressure. You would have to
reduce the pressure to almost nothing before water will boil at 0oC (0.089 PSI to be exact). This
is impractical. However, if you want to cool something which is very hot (i.e. over 100oC) like
the rods of a nuclear reactor, then pouring water on it will do the job. In turning to steam
(evaporating) the rods are cooled. This is how cooling towers work – water is poured onto the
hot object at the base of the cooling tower. The water turns to steam and rises (because water
vapour is lighter than air) and expands, which forces it to cool (Charles’ Law). The cooled
steam condenses into water which runs down the inside of the cooling tower and back onto the
hot object where the process repeats. So you have water, as a refrigerant, cooling an object in
much the same way as Freon or Ammonia cools the interior of your car, office or fridge.
But also, water can vaporise at temperatures below 100oC, thus missing out the boiling process.
Hence water which exudes from the pores of your skin when you are hot (sweat) evaporates,
and in changing state absorbs the heat from your skin, and cools you. Again water is a
refrigerant. However, to be efficient, it usually helps to have a breeze over the skin to help the
evaporation process.
Heat Pumps
A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from one location (the 'source') to another
location (the 'sink' or 'heat sink'), using work. Most heat pump technology moves heat from a
low temperature heat source to a higher temperature heat sink. Common examples are food
refrigerators and freezers and air conditioners and reversible-cycle heat pumps for providing
thermal comfort.
Heat pumps can be thought of as a heat engine which is operating in reverse. One common
type of heat pump works by exploiting the physical properties of an evaporating and condensing
a refrigerant. In heating, ventilation, and cooling (HVAC) applications, a heat pump normally
refers to a vapour-compression refrigeration device that includes a reversing valve and
optimized heat exchangers so that the direction of heat flow may be reversed. Most commonly,
heat pumps draw heat from the air or from the ground. Air-source heat pumps do not work well
when temperatures fall below around −5°C (23°F).
According to the second law of thermodynamics heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder
location to a hotter area; work is required to achieve this. Heat pumps differ in how they apply
this work to move heat, but they can essentially be thought of as heat engines operating in
reverse. A heat engine allows energy to flow from a hot 'source' to a cold heat 'sink', extracting a
Since the heat pump uses a certain amount of work to move the heat, the amount of energy
deposited at the hot side is greater than the energy taken from the cold side by an amount
equal to the work required. Conversely, for a heat engine, the amount of energy taken from the
hot side is greater than the amount of energy deposited in the cold heat sink since some of the
heat has been converted to work.
In such a system it is essential that the refrigerant reaches a sufficiently high temperature when
compressed, since the second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing from a cold
fluid to a hot heat sink. Similarly, the fluid must reach a sufficiently low temperature when
allowed to expand, or heat cannot flow from the cold region into into the fluid. In particular, the
pressure difference must be great enough for the fluid to condense at the hot side and still
evaporate in the lower pressure region at the cold side. The greater the temperature difference,
the greater the required pressure difference, and consequently more energy is needed to
compress the fluid. Thus as with all heat pumps, the energy efficiency (amount of heat moved
per unit of input work required) decreases with increasing temperature difference. Thus a
ground-source heat pump, which has a very small temperature differential, is relatively efficient.
(Figures of 75% and above are quoted.)
Boyle’s Law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other, providing temperature remains
constant (i.e. if you decrease the volume of a gas, its absolute pressure will increase by the
same proportion).
This is an ISOTHERMAL process (ISO means ‘equal’ and THERMAL means ‘temperature’)
Charles’ Law
Volume and temperature are directly proportional to each other, providing the pressure remains
constant (i.e. if you increase the absolute temperature of an unrestrained volume of gas, its
volume will increase by the same proportion).
Note that all three processes involve absolute pressures and temperatures, those pressures
which include atmospheric pressure, and temperatures measured in Kelvin or degrees Rankin.
An Adiabatic Process
Another definition to know is that of ADIABATIC. That is:
When a change in the volume and pressure of the contents of a system takes place
without exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings.
Although there is no flow of heat, the system temperature can change as heat energy can be
converted to mechanical work and vice versa.
It is easy to appreciate how Charles’ Law and Gay Lussac’s Law are NOT adiabatic processes,
since heat clearly must cross the boundary of the system (in both systems heat is added). It
makes no difference to the definition of adiabatic if the heat is added in the form of fuel, which is
subsequently ignited, or the gas is heated from an external heat source such as a flame.
A little more difficult to determine, is whether Boyle’s Law is an adiabatic process or not. It is
true that no heat is added whilst the gas is compressed, but the natural tendency is for the gas
to rise in temperature as it is compressed (as Charles law tells us). The key then, to performing
a compression under Boyles’s Law is to compress the gas so slowly, that any heat which builds
up leaks away before it has a chance to show itself in the form of a temperature rise. The fact
The definition of adiabatic does not differentiate between heat being added (as in Charles’ and
Gay Lussac’s Laws), conventionally considered positive, and heat removed (as in Boyle’s Law),
conventionally considered negative.
One example of a process which is adiabatic, is that of an air compressor. Inside the cylinder of
an air compressor, as the volume is rabidly reduced, the air is compressed so quickly, that any
rise in temperature does not result in any loss of heat through the cylinder walls – the air being
removed from the cylinder before the heat has a chance to escape. However, if you put your
hands on the air compressor that supplies the air-lines around your hangar, you will almost
certainly find it to be hot. The conclusion is then that an adiabatic process exists mainly in
theoretical terms only, and is very difficult to achieve in practice.
Thermodynamic Work
Most thermodynamic processes are carried out in order to do work - the combustion of fuel
inside your car engine, or inside an aero engine for example. But as we saw previously, to do
work, there must be some movement, and a force in the same direction as that movement.
This is the standard formula for Work done in a thermodynamic process (it is only applicable to
processes where the volume changes, if the volume does not change, no work is done). It
applies regardless of the direction of work, so if an external force is applied to the piston, the
volume of gas in the cylinder will reduce. The work required to reduce the volume is given by
the same formula.
Work = PV
It makes certain assumptions, for example, that the pressure remains constant as the gas
expands. In a piston engine, this is not the case, as the pressure rises to a peak as the gas is
burned, then reduces as the piston is displaced. It is however, a fair assumption to make, in the
case of a gas turbine engine, as the gas in the combustion chamber is burned, and expands at
constant pressure. Even in the case of the piston engine however, the above formula can still
be used in conjunction with some complex calculus (which is not part of the EASA Part-66
syllabus, and way beyond the scope of these notes).
When the temperature of a gas is increased, it will increase in volume (and provide work) or
increase in internal kinetic and potential (due to a rise in pressure) energies – that is, increase
Internal Energy, or more likely, a combination of both volume and internal energy changes.
Enthalpy
The combination of internal energy, and pressure and volume are the most likely things to
change whenever a gas is heated. Since this happens so often in thermodynamics, it is all
grouped together and given its own name and unit. It is called “Enthalpy” and given a symbol
H. It is simply the sum of the internal energy plus the pressure volume product.
Thus Enthalpy H = U + PV
Remember that PV is the work done when a gas expands when it is heated.
Infact, Enthalpy is the amount of energy in a gas which is capable of doing work.
You would be forgiven for thinking that all the heat energy (symbol Q) released on burning can
be transformed into work (Symbol W), thus:
However, now imagine that you walk around the car and put your hand over the exhaust. Two
things you will notice; one is that it is considerably hotter than it went into the engine, and two;
that it is considerably higher pressure than when it went into the engine. This is because not all
of the heat energy added to the gas can be turned into useful work, some of the heat energy
added to the gas will leave via the exhaust in the form of Internal Energy (symbol U). Our
formula is now:
Heat energy added to the system (Q) = Work done by the system (W) plus a change in
Internal Energy (U)
Q=W+U
This is the mathematical version of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics.
It is typical for chemistry texts to write the first law as ∆U = Q - W. It is the same law, of course -
the thermodynamic expression of the conservation of energy principle. It is just that W is defined
as the work done on the system instead of work done by the system. In the context of physics,
the common scenario is one of adding heat to a volume of gas and using the expansion of that
gas to do work, as in the pushing down of a piston in an internal combustion engine. In the
context of chemical reactions and process, it may be more common to deal with situations
where work is done on the system rather than by it.
Engine designers of course try to minimise the internal energy (U) rise which is wasted through
the exhaust, and maximise the Work output, thus making most efficient use of the chemical
energy locked away in the petrol. But as we will see in the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, an
engine of 100% thermal efficiency (where all the heat energy is transformed into work) is not
possible, theoretically as well as practically.
During the mid-eighteenth century, when the 1st law of thermodynamics was discovered, it was
thought possible that an engine could be produced which ran off the heat energy (internal
energy) in the exhaust of another engine. Indeed, it seemed possible theoretically to run an
engine off its own exhaust. This led to much research into such a machine, which would have
been the invention of perpetual motion. This same research led only to the conclusion that such
a machine, and with it, perpetual motion, was impossible, and a new law which described this
impossibility, the Second Law of Thermodynamics…
Physicists attempting to transform heat into work with full efficacy quickly learned that always
some heat would escape into the surrounding environment, eternally doomed to be wasted
energy (recall that energy can not be destroyed). Being obsolete, this energy can never be
converted into anything useful again.
One physicist noted for significant experiments in this field is the Frenchman, Sadi Carnot. His
ideal engine, so properly titled the 'Carnot Engine,' would theoretically have a work output equal
to that of its heat input (thus not losing any energy in the process). However, he fell into a
similar trap as in the first law, and failed to conduct his experiments as would naturally occur.
Realizing his error, he concluded (after further experimentation) that no device could completely
make the desired conversion, without losing at least some energy to the environment.
TL
efficiency = 1 -
TH
(the efficiency of a heat machine is equal to one minus the low operating temperature of the
machine in degrees Kelvin, divided by the high operating temperate of the machine in degrees
Kelvin). For a machine to attain 100% efficiency, temperatures of absolute zero would have to
be incorporated. Reaching absolute zero is later proved impossible by the Third Law of
Thermodynamics (which would surface in the late 19th century).
The irrevocable loss of some energy to the environment was associated with an increase of
disorder in that system. Scientists wishing to further penetrate the realm of chaos needed a
variable that could be used to calculate disorder. Thanks to mid-nineteenth century physicist,
R.J.E. Clausius, this Pandemonium could be measured in terms of a quantity named entropy1
(the variable S). Entropy acts as a function of the state of a system - where a high amount of
entropy translates to higher chaos within the system, and low entropy signals a highly ordered
state.
Like Carnot, Clausius worked out a general equation, his being devoted to the measurement of
entropy change over a period of time: (change)S = Q / T (the change in entropy is equal to the
amount of heat added to the system [by an invertible process] divided by the temperature in
degrees Kelvin). The beauty of this equation is that it can be used to compute the entropic
change of any exchange in nature, not solely limited to machines. This development brought
thermodynamics out of the industrial workplace, and opened the possibility for further studies
into the tendencies of natural order (and lack therefore of), eventually extending to the universe
as a whole.
Applying this knowledge to nature, physicists found that the total entropy change (change in S)
always increases for every naturally occurring event (within a closed system) that could be then
observed. Thus, they theorized, disorder must be continually augmenting evenly throughout the
universe. When you put ice into a hot cup of tea (aristocrats of the Victorian era were constantly
thinking of tea), heat will flow from the hot tea to the cold ice and melt the ice in the beloved
beverage. Then, once the energy in the cup is evenly distributed, the cooled tea would reach a
maximum state of entropy. This situation represents a standard increase in disorder, believed to
be perpetually occurring throughout the entire universe.
1 - Entropy – Specifically is a measure of randomness or disorder in a system. Darrell Ebbing, in the textbook
General Chemistry, very usefully suggests thinking of a deck of cards. A new pack fresh out of the box, arranged
by suit and in sequence from ace to king, can be said to be in its ordered state. Shuffle the cards and you put them
into a disordered state. Entropy is a way of measuring just how disordered that state is and of determining the
likelihood of particular outcomes with further shuffles. Of course, if you wish to have any observations published in
a respectable journal you will need also to understand additional concepts such as thermal non-uniformities, lattice
distances, and stoichometric relationships, but that’s the general idea.
The two laws have far reaching ramifications in physics and the real world. One such is that no
heat engine can ever be 100% efficient, unless the exhaust temperature (known as the ‘sink’
temperature) is absolute zero. Absolute zero is both theoretically and practically impossible to
achieve. Another ramification is the fact that no thermodynamics process can be reversed,
precisely due to the first law which states that not all the heat energy supplied can be turned
into work.
The closest one can come to a fully reversible process is forcing a flow through a constricted
pipe. Ideal means no boundary layer losses. As the flow moves through the constriction, the
The second law states that if the physical process is irreversible, the combined entropy of the
system and the environment must increase. The final entropy must be greater than the initial
entropy for an irreversible process:
Summary
Thermodynamics is the study of the inter-relation between heat, work and internal energy of a
system.
The British scientist and author C.P. Snow had an excellent way of remembering the three laws
(including the 3rd law):
1. You cannot win (that is, you cannot get something for nothing, because matter and
energy are conserved).
2. You cannot break even (you cannot return to the same energy state, because there is
always an increase in disorder; entropy always increases).
3. You cannot get out of the game (because absolute zero is unattainable).