Licence Category B1 and B2: Physics

Module 2
Licence Category
B1 and B2
Physics
2.1 Matter
For Training Purposes Only

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1-2 Module 2.1 Matter

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Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
• A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
• The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
Module 2.1 Matter 1-3

governed by the statement For Training Purposes Only
on page 2 of this chapter. ST Aerospace Ltd
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Table of Contents
Module 2.1 - Matter __________________________________________________________ 9

The Nature of Matter ______________________________________________________ 9
The Components of Atoms _________________________________________________ 9
Periodic Table of the Elements _____________________________________________ 11
Chemical Definitions _____________________________________________________ 13
The Electronic Structure of Atoms ___________________________________________ 17
Chemical Bonding _______________________________________________________ 23
States of Matter _________________________________________________________ 33

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Module 2.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of Singapore Airworthiness Requirements Part 66 -
Aircraft Maintenance Licensing:
SAR-66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference B1 B2
Matter 2.1 1 1
Nature of matter: the chemical elements,
structure of atoms, molecules
Chemical compounds
States: solid, liquid and gaseous
Changes between states

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Module 2.1 - Matter
The Nature of Matter

Scientists for a long time suspected that all substances were composed of small particles which
they called atoms. However, it wasn’t until the beginning of this century that the existence of
atoms was demonstrated to everyone’s satisfaction. The size of the atom was found to be so
small that a few hundred million, if placed side by side in a row, would form a line less than an
inch long.
All atoms are, crudely speaking, the same size and can be thought to consist of two main parts.
The outer part is composed of 1 or more orbits of electrons.
These orbits makes up most of the volume of the atom yet contributes practically nothing to its
substance. The other part, located at the centre, is extremely small compared to the atom as a
whole, yet essentially all of the real substance of the atom can be attributed to this small speck.
We call this speck the nucleus.
Further investigation revealed that the nucleus is actually composed of two kinds of particles of
roughly equal size and substance packed closely together. These nuclear particles are the
proton and neutron. When we refer to the amount of material or substance in an object, we are
really talking about the number of protons and neutrons in that object. Also, what we perceive
as the mass of an object is related directly to the number of protons and neutrons contained it.
The simplest atom is hydrogen which has a single proton for a nucleus. An atom of lead, on the
other hand, has 82 protons and 125 neutrons in its nucleus and so has 207 (125 + 82) times as
much material or substance as an atom of hydrogen.
The size of an atom bears no simple relation to the number of particles in its nucleus. A sodium
atom, for example, with 11 protons and 12 neutrons is approximately the same size as an atom
of mercury with 80 protons and 121 neutrons.
In general, we can say that the size of an atom is determined by its electron orbits, its
substance is determined by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
The Components of Atoms

Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we study in Chemistry. However
from experiments done in the late 19th and early 20th century it was deduced that atoms were
made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles (table 1.1)

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Particle Relative Electrical Comments
mass charge
Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus
Proton 1 +1 (positive) In the nucleus

1
Electron /1850 -1 (negative) Arranged in energy levels
or shells around the nucleus
Table 1.1: The sub-atomic components of atoms
Figure 1.1 gives some idea on the structure of an atom.
Figure 1.1: The structure of an atom

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Periodic Table of the Elements
Figure 1.2: The Periodic Table of the Elements
The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number
Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any Group
A Group is a vertical column of like elements e.g. Group IA, The Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K etc.),
Group VIIB, The Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I etc.) and Group VIII (or 0), The Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar
etc.). The Group number equals the number of electrons in the outer shell (e.g. chlorine's
electron arrangement is 2.8.7, the second element down, in Group 7).
A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties. The Period number equals
the number of shells (1-7).

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Chemical Definitions
Elements
Pure substances, made up of atoms with the same number of protons.
Note that an element:
• consists of only one kind of atom,

• cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical
means, and
• can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).
Mixtures
Mixtures are of pure substances. Mixtures have the properties of the different substances that
make it up. Mixtures melt at a range of temperatures and are easy to separate.
Note that a mixture:
• consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,

• can be separated into its components by physical means, and
• often retains many of the properties of its components.
Compounds
Pure substances made up more than 1 element which have been joined together by a chemical
reaction therefore the atoms are difficult to separate. The properties of a compound are different
from the atoms that make it up. Splitting of a compound is called chemical analysis.
Note that a compound:
• consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,

• can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means (but not
by physical means),
• has properties that are different from its component elements, and
• always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.
Atomic Number
The atomic number (also known as the proton number) is the number of protons found in the
nucleus of an atom. It is traditionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely
identifies a chemical element. In an atom of neutral charge, atomic number is equal to the
number of electrons.
Mass Number
The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the number of
protons and neutrons (also defined as a less commonly known term, nucleons) in an atomic
nucleus. The mass number is unique for each isotope of an element and is written either after
the element name or as a superscript to the left of an element's symbol. For example,

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carbon-12 (12C) has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope symbol would also have the
atomic number (Z) as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass
number, thus:
12
6 C
The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number of neutrons
(N) in a given nucleus: N=A−Z.
For example: Carbon-14 is created from Nitrogen-14 with seven protons (p) and seven neutrons
via a cosmic ray interaction which transmutes 1 proton into 1 neutron. Thus the atomic number
decreases by 1 (Z: 7→6) and the mass number remains the same (A = 14), however the
number of neutrons increases by 1 (n: 7→8).
Before: Nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n)

After: Carbon-14 (6p, 8n).
Molecules
A pure substance which results when two or more atoms of a single element share electrons,
for example O2. It can also more loosely refer to a compound, which is a combination of two or
more atoms of two or more different elements, for example H2O.
Atoms combine to form more complex structures which we call molecules. Like building blocks,
these molecules organize to form all of the materials, solid, liquid and gas, which we encounter
in our daily lives. Solids and liquids are materials in which the molecules attract one another so
strongly that their relative motion is severely restricted. In a gas, the freedom of motion of the
molecules is only slightly influenced by their mutual attraction. This is why gases fill the entire
space to which they are confined, They spread out unconstrained until they encounter the walls
of their container.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. This gives each
isotope of the element a different mass or nucleon number but being the same element they
have the same atomic or proton number. There are small physical differences between the
isotopes e.g. the heavier isotope has a greater density and boiling point. However, because
they have the same number of protons they have the same electronic structure and are
identical chemically. Examples are illustrated below. Do not assume the word isotope means
it is radioactive, this depends on the stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms might be
referred to as radioisotopes.

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, and are the three isotopes of hydrogen. They are called hydrogen,
deuterium, and tritium respectively. How do we distinguish between them? They each have
one single proton (Z = 1), but differ in the number of their neutrons. Hydrogen has no neutron,
deuterium has one, and tritium has two neutrons. The isotopes of hydrogen have, respectively,
mass numbers of one, two, and three. Hydrogen-1 is the most common, there is a trace of
hydrogen-2 naturally but hydrogen-3 is very unstable and is used in atomic fusion weapons.
and are the two isotopes of helium with mass numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2
neutrons respectively but both have 2 protons. Helium-3 is formed in the Sun by the initial
nuclear fusion process. Helium-4 is also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive
alpha decay of an unstable nucleus. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, it picks up two
electrons and becomes the atoms of the gas helium.
and are the two isotopes of sodium with mass numbers of 23 and 24, with
12 and 13 neutrons respectively but both have 11 protons. Sodium-23 is quite stable e.g. in
common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium-24 is a radio-isotope and is a gamma emitter
used in medicine as a radioactive tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system.
Ionization
When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process of electron exchange, it is said
to be ionised. For ionisation to take place, there must be a transfer of energy which results in a
change in the internal energy of the atom. An atom having more than its normal amount of
electrons acquires a negative charge, and is called a negative ion (or ‘anion’). The atom that
gives up some of its normal electrons is left with less negative charges than positive charges
and is called a positive ion (or ‘cation’). Thus, ionisation is the process by which an atom loses
or gains electrons.
• Cation - A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals typically form cations.

• Anion - An anion is a negatively charged ion. Non-metals typically form anions.

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The Electronic Structure of Atoms
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus and with increasing
distance from the nucleus. The shells are lettered from the innermost shell outwards from K to
Q. There are rules about the maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell.
• The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons

• The 2nd shell (L) has a maximum of 8 electrons
• The 3rd shell (M) has a maximum of 18 electrons
• The 4th shell (N) has a maximum of 32 electrons
Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the mathematical formulations
predicted by Neils Bohr. He suggested that electrons are distributed in orbits and the number of
electrons held in the orbit depends on the number of the orbit. The orbits are counted outwards
from the nucleus. Higher the orbit number, farther are the electrons in that orbit from the
nucleus. If the orbit number is “n”, then the maximum electrons held in the orbit is given as 2n2.
The first orbit has n=1, and will hold maximum of 2 electrons, the second orbit has n=2 and is
capable of holding a total of 8 electrons; similarly the third orbit will be able to contain 18
electrons and so on.
Electrons within an atom have definite energies.

The electrons closest to the nucleus (n=1) are most
tightly bound; the reason is because of stronger
electrostatic attraction with the nucleus. Electrons in
the highest orbit are least tightly bound. Electrons in
the same orbit have same energies. The electron
orbits are also called as electron energy levels or
shells. Electronic shells are known as K shell, L
shell, M shell, N shell corresponding to orbit number
n=1,2,3 and 4 respectively. Higher number orbits
are assigned shell names in alphabetical order after Figure 1.3: The atomic structure of
N. Helium and Neon

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Figure 1.4: Electron shell (orbit) designation
Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of electrons in a

neutral atom), shorthand electron arrangement
On Period 1
Figure 1.5: Electron arrangement of Hydrogen

and Helium
On Period 2

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Figure 1.6: Electron arrangement of Lithium,
Carbon and Neon
On Period 3
Figure 1.7: Electron arrangement of Sodium,

Chlorine and Argon
On Period 4
Figure 1.8: Electron arrangement of Potassium

and Calcium
Valency
Hydrogen is the simplest element. It has one electron. Its outer shell only holds two electrons.
other atoms combine with it. Table 1.2 lists the
Let us use Hydrogen as a standard to see how other
simplest compound of selected elements with Hydrogen.
Valency can be simply defined as the number of Hydrogen atoms that an element can combine
with. In the above table, Helium, Neon and Argon have a valency of 0. They do not normally
form compounds.
Lithium, Sodium and Potassium have a valency of 1 because they combine with one Hydrogen
atom. Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium all have a valency of 2: they combine with two
Hydrogen atoms. Note that the valences of all these atoms are equal to the number of outer
electrons that these elements have.
Boron and Aluminium combine with three Hydrogen atoms - their valences are 3 - and they
have three outer electrons.

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Carbon and Silicon combine with four Hydrogen atoms. The valency of these elements is 4. It
will come as no surprise that they both have four outer electrons. Any element with 4 electrons
in its outer shell is known as a semiconductor
Outer
Atom Symbol Compound
Shell
Helium He Full None
Lithium Li 1 LiH
Beryllium Be 2 BeH2
Boron B 3 BH3
Carbon C 4 CH4
Nitrogen N 5 NH3
Oxygen O 6 H2O
Fluorine F 7 HF
Neon Ne Full None
Sodium Na 1 NaH
Magnesium Mg 2 MgH2
Aluminium Al 3 AlH3
Silicon Si 4 SiH4
Phosphorus P 5 PH3
Sulphur S 6 H2S
Chlorine Cl 7 HCl
Argon Ar Full None
Potassium K 1 KH
Calcium Ca 2 CaH2
Table 1.2: Electrons in outer shells of some
common elements
What about Nitrogen and Phosphorus? They have five outer electrons. But they normally only
combine with three Hydrogen atoms. Their valences are 3. Note that 3 is 5 less that 8. These
atoms are three electrons short of a full shell.
Please note that both Nitrogen and Phosphorus can also have a valency of 5. Some atoms are
capable of having more than one valency. That will confuse the issue so we will talk of normal
valency.

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Now to Oxygen and Sulphur. Both have six outer electrons. Six is two short of a full shell. Their
normal valences are 2 and they combine with two atoms of Hydrogen. Water is H2O.
Finally, Fluorine and Chlorine - seven outer electrons. This is one short of a full shell. They both
combine with a single Hydrogen atom and their normal valences are 1.
As a side note, Chlorine can also have valences of 3, 5 and 7. The reasons are well beyond the
scope of these notes.
The rules above can be summarised as follows:
The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number of outer electrons if that number is
four or less. Otherwise, the valency is equal to 8 minus the number of outer electrons.
The atoms with full electron shells (Helium, Neon, Argon) are chemically inert forming few
compounds. The atoms don't even interact with each other very much. These elements are
gases with very low boiling points.
The atoms with a single outer electron or a single missing electron are all highly reactive.
Sodium is more reactive than Magnesium. Chlorine is more reactive than Oxygen. Generally
speaking, the closer an atom is to having a full electron shell, the more reactive it is. Atoms with
one outer electron are more reactive than those with two outer electrons, etc. Atoms that are
one electron short of a full shell are more reactive than those that are two short.
Atoms with only a few electrons in its outer shell are good electrical conductors. Atoms with 8,
or close to 8 electrons in its outer shell are poor conductors (or good insulators). This is why
atoms with 4 electrons in its outer shell are semi-conductors.
When a semiconductor (such as silicon or germanium) atom bonds with another similar atom, it
does so covalently. Each atom shares one electron with 4 neighbour atoms. Thus all its
electrons are used up in what becomes a solid lattice of semiconductor atoms. The solid
material has therefore no free electrons (and no holes for electrons to fit into).
The following names are given to ions of the specific number of electron bindings (valence):
• 1 electron binding - monovalent

• 2 electron binding - divalent
• 3 electron binding - trivalent
• 4 electron binding - tetravalent
• 5 electron binding - pentavalent
• 6 electron binding - hexavalent

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Atomic Element Electrons per Shell Atomic Element Electrons per Shell
No. No.
K L M N O P Q K L M N 0 P Q
1 Hydrogen i 53 iodine 2 8 18 8 7
2 Helium 2 54 Xenon 2 8 18 18 8
3 Lithium 2 1 55 Caesium 2 8 18 8 8 1
4 Beryllium 2 2 56 Barium 2 8 18 8 8 2
5 Boron 2 3 57 Lanthanum 2 8 18 8 9 2
6 Carbon 2 4 58 Cerium 2 8 18 19 9 2
7 Nitrogen 2 5 59 Praseodymium 2 8 18 20 9 2
8 Oxygen 2 6 60 Neodymium 2 8 18 21 9 2
9 Fluorine 2 7 61 Promethium 2 8 18 22 9 2
10 Neon 2 8 62 Samarium 2 8 18 23 9 2
11 Sodium 2 8 1 63 Europium 2 8 18 24 9 2
12 Magnesium 2 8 2 64 Gadolinium 2 8 18 25 9 2
13 Aluminium 2 8 3 65 Terbium 2 8 18 26 9 2
14 Silicon 2 8 4 66 Dysprosium 2 8 18 27 9 2
15 Phosphorus 2 8 5 67 Holmium 2 8 18 28 9 2
16 Sulphur 2 8 6 68 Erbium 2 8 18 29 9 2
17 Chlorine 2 8 7 69 Thulium 2 8 18 30 9 2
18 Argon 2 8 8 70 Ytterbium 2 8 18 31 9 2
19 Potassium 2 8 8 1 71 Lutetium 2 8 18 32 9 2
20 Calcium 2 8 8 2 72 Halnium 2 8 18 32 10 2
21 Scandium 2 8 9 2 73 Tantalum 2 8 18 32 11 2
22 Titanium 2 8 10 2 74 Tungsten 2 8 18 32 12 2
23 Vanadium 2 8 11 2 75 Rhenium 2 8 18 32 13 2
24 Chromium 2 8 13 1 76 Osmium 2 8 18 32 14 2
25 Manganese 2 8 13 2 77 iridium 2 8 8 32 15 2
26 iron 2 8 14 2 78 Platinum 2 8 8 32 16 2
27 Cobalt 2 8 15 2 79 Gold 2 8 8 32 18 1
28 Nickel 2 8 16 2 80 Mercury 2 8 8 32 18 2
29 Copper 2 8 18 1 81 Thallium 2 8 8 32 18 3
30 Zinc 2 8 18 2 82 Lead 2 8 8 32 18 4
31 Gallium 2 8 18 3 83 Bismuth 2 8 8 32 18 5
32 Germanium 2 8 18 4 84 Polonium 2 8 8 32 18 6
33 Arsenic 2 8 18 5 85 Asatine 2 8 8 32 18 7
34 Selenium 2 8 18 6 86 Radon 2 8 8 32 18 8
35 Bromine 2 8 18 7 87 Francium 2 8 8 32 18 8 1
36 Krypton 2 8 18 8 88 Radium 2 8 8 32 18 8 2
37 Rubidium 2 8 18 8 1 89 Actinium 2 8 18 32 18 9 2
38 Strontium 2 8 18 8 2 90 Thorium 2 8 18 32 19 9 2
39 Yttrium 2 8 18 9 2 91 Proactinium 2 8 18 32 20 9 2
40 Zirconium 2 8 18 10 2 92 Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2
41 Niobium 2 8 18 12 93 Neptunium 2 8 18 32 22 9 2
42 Molybdenum 2 8 18 13 94 Plutonium 2 8 18 32 23 9 2
43 Technetium 2 8 18 14 95 Americium 2 8 18 32 24 9 2
44 Ruthenium 2 8 18 15 96 Curium 2 8 8 32 25 9 2
45 Rhodium 2 8 18 16 97 Berkelium 2 8 8 32 26 9 2
46 Palladium 2 8 18 18 98 Californium 2 8 8 32 27 9 2
47 Silver 2 8 18 18 1 99 Einsteinium 2 8 8 32 28 9 2
48 Cadmium 2 8 18 18 2 100 Fermium 2 8 8 32 29 9 2
49 indium 2 8 18 18 3 101 Mendelevium 2 8 18 32 30 9 2
50 Tin 2 8 18 18 4 102 Nobelium 2 8 18 32 31 9 2
51 Antimony 2 8 18 18 5 103 Lawrencium 2 8 18 32 32 9 2
52 Tellurium 2 8 18 18 6
Table 1.3: Electrons per shell

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Chemical Bonding
Adhesion and Cohesion

'cohesion' is the intermolecular force between liquid particle types (for example, it is what makes
water molecules stick together, or ‘cohere’, to make a rain drop). 'Adhesion' is the
intermolecular force between dissimilar atoms (for example, it is what makes the rain drops
‘adhere’ to a washing line). These types of bonding are temporary. Atomic bonding refers to
the permanent bonding between atoms which holds all materials together.
Noble Gases
Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in the air around us as
single atoms. These are the Noble Gases and have very stable electron arrangements e.g.
2, 2.8 and 2.8.8 and are shown in the diagrams below.
argon (18) 2.8.8

Figure 1.9: (Atomic Number) and electron
arrangement
Covalent and Ionic Bonding

All other atoms therefore, bond to become electronically more stable, that is to become like
Noble Gases in electron arrangement. Atoms can do this in two ways …
COVALENT BONDING - sharing electrons to form molecules with covalent bonds, the
bond is usually formed between two non-metallic elements in a molecule.
or
IONIC BONDING - By one atom transferring electrons to another atom. The atom losing
electrons forms a positive ion and is usually a metal. The atom gaining electrons forms
a negative ion and is usually a non-metallic element.
The types of bonding and the resulting properties of the elements or compounds are described
in detail below. In all the electronic diagrams ONLY the outer electrons are shown.

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Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of bond
usually formed between two non-metallic elements. The molecules might be that of an element
i.e. one type of atom only OR from different elements chemically combined to form a compound.
The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction between the two positive
nuclei of the two atoms of the bond, and the electrons between them.
One single covalent bond is a sharing of 1 pair of electrons, two pairs of shared electrons
between the same two atoms gives a double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share 3
pairs of electrons and give a triple bond.
The Bonding in Small Covalent Molecules

The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and examples of their formation are shown
below. The electrons are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which atom the electrons come
from, though all electrons are the same.
same. The diagrams may only show the outer electron
arrangements for atoms that use two or more electron shells. Examples of simple covalent
molecules are …
Example 1 - 2 hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the element hydrogen H2
and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo helium

structure of 2 outer electrons around each atom.
Example 2 - 2 chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element chlorine Cl2
and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo

neon or argon structure of 8 outer electrons around each atom.

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Example 3 - 1 atom of hydrogen (1) combines with 1 atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the
molecule of the compound hydrogen chloride HCl
and combine to form where hydrogen is electronically like helium

and chlorine like neon or argon.
Example 4 - 2 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule
of the compound we call water H2O
and and combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are

electronically like helium and the oxygen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule can
be shown as with two hydrogen - oxygen single covalent bonds.
Example 5 - 3 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of nitrogen (2.5)

(2.5) to form the
molecule of the compound we call ammonia NH3
three of and one combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms

are electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The molecule
can be shown as with three nitrogen - hydrogen single covalent bonds.

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Example 6 - 4 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of carbon (2.4) to form the molecule
of the compound we call methane CH4
four of and one of combine to form so that the hydrogen

atoms are electronically like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon. The
molecule can be shown as with four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds.
bonds. Below are three examples 7-

All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent bonds.
9, where there is a double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms have stable Noble Gas
outer electron arrangements around each atom.
Example 7 - Two atoms of oxygen (2.6) combine to form the molecules of the element oxygen
O2.
The molecule has one double covalent bond .
Example 8 One atom of carbon (2.4) combines with two atoms of oxygen (2.6) to form carbon
dioxide CO2.
The molecule can be shown as with two carbon = oxygen double covalent
bonds.

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Example 9 - Two atoms of carbon (2.4) combine with four atoms of hydrogen
hydrogen (1) to form
ethane C2H4.
The molecule can be shown as with one carbon = carbon double bond and
four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds.
The Properties of Small Covalent Molecules

The electrical forces of attraction between atoms in a molecule are strong and most molecules
do not change on heating. However the forces between molecules are weak and easily
weakened further on heating. Consequently small covalent molecules have low melting and
boiling points. They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no free
electrons or ions in any state to carry electric charge. Most small molecules will dissolve in a
solvent to form a solution.
Large Covalent Molecules and their their Properties

It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent
structure. This produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent
bond network. This illustrated by carbon in the form of diamond.
Carbon can form four single bonds to four other atoms etc. etc.
This type of structure is thermally very stable and they have high
points. They are usually poor conductors
melting and boiling points.
of electricity because the electrons are not usually free to move
as they can in metallic structures. Also because of the strength
of the bonding in the structure they are often very hard and will
not dissolve in solvents like water.
Figure 1.10: A plane of Carbon

atoms from a diamond crystal

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Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions.
Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal. The overall
charge on the ion is positive due to excess positive
positive nuclear charge (protons do NOT change in
chemical reactions).
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic
element. The overall charge on the ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess,
of negative electrons.
The examples below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2 or 3, with a non-metal
from Group 6 or Group 7 (The Halogens)
Example 1 - A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. sodium + chlorine ⇒ sodium

chloride NaCl or ionic formula Na+Cl-
in terms of electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer electron to a chlorine atom
forming a single positive sodium ion and a single negative chloride ion. The atoms have
become stable ions, because electronically, sodium becomes likelike neon and chlorine like argon.
Na (2.8.1) + Cl (2.8.7) ⇒ Na+ (2.8) Cl- (2.8.8)
ONE combines with ONE to form

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Example 2 - A Group 2 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. magnesium + chlorine ⇒
magnesium chloride MgCl2 or ionic formula Mg2+(Cl-)2
In terms of electron arrangement, the magnesium donates its two outer electrons to two chlorine
atoms forming a double positive magnesium ion and two single negative chloride ions. The
atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, magnesium becomes like neon and
chlorine like argon.
Mg (2.8.2) + 2Cl (2.8.7) ⇒ Mg2+ (2.8) 2Cl- (2.8.8)
ONE combines with TWO to form see *
(* NOTE you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples a number subscript
has been used, as in ordinary chemical formula)
Example 3 - A Group 3 metal + a Group 7 non-metal e.g. aluminium + fluorine ⇒ aluminium

fluoride AlF3 or ionic formula Al3+(F-)3
In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its three outer electrons to three
fluorine atoms forming a triple positive aluminium ion and three single negative fluoride ions.
The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, aluminium becomes like neon and
also fluorine.
Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.8.7) ⇒ Al3+ (2.8) 3F- (2.8)
ONE combines with THREE to form

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Example 4 - A Group 1 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. potassium + oxygen ⇒ potassium
oxide K2O or ionic formula (K+)2O2-
In terms of electron arrangement, the two potassium atoms donates their outer electrons to one
oxygen atom. This results in two single positive potassium ions to one double negative oxide
ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like)
2K (2.8.8.1) + O (2.6) ⇒ 2K+ (2.8.8) O2- (2.8)
TWO combine with ONE to form
Example 5 - A Group 2 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. calcium + oxygen ⇒ calcium oxide
CaO or ionic formula Ca2+O2-
In terms of electron arrangement, one calcium atom donates its two outer electrons to one
oxygen atom. This results in a double positive calcium ion to one double negative oxide ion. All
the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like)
Ca (2.8.8.2) + O (2.6) ⇒ Ca2+ (2.8.8) O2- (2.8)
ONE combines with ONE to form

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Example 6 - A Group 3 metal + a Group 6 non-metal e.g. aluminium + oxygen ⇒ aluminium
oxide Al2O3 or ionic formula (Al3+)2(O2-)3
In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms donate their three outer electrons to
three oxygen atoms. This results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double negative
oxide ions. All the ions have the stable electronic structure of neon 2.8
2Al (2.8.3) + 3O (2.6) ⇒ 2Al3+ (2.8) 3O2- (2.8)
TWO combines with THREE to form
The properties of Ionic Compounds
• The ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an

orderly way in a giant ionic lattice shown in the
diagram on the left. The ionic bond is the
strong electrical attraction between the
positive and negative ions next to each other in
the lattice. Salts and metal oxides are typical
ionic compounds.
• This strong bonding force makes the structure
hard (if brittle) and have high melting and
boiling points. Unlike covalent molecules, ALL
ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
• Many ionic compounds are soluble in water,
Figure 1.11: Sodium Chloride
but not all.
lattice structure
• The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the ions are not free to move
to carry an electric current. However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in
water, the liquid will now conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free.

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Bonding in Metals
The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions, NOT atoms. The outer electrons (-) from the
original metal atoms are free to move around between the positive metal ions formed (+). These
free or 'delocalised' electrons are the 'electronic glue' holding the particles together. There is a
strong electrical force of attraction between these mobile electrons and the 'immobile'
positive metal ions - this is the metallic bond.
Figure 1.12: ‘Electron cloud’ formation of Ionic (or Metallic) Bonding
• This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high melting
and boiling points.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry the
charge of an electric current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied across a
piece of metal.
• Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to the free moving electrons.
Non-metallic solids conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms,
knocking against cooler less strongly vibrating atoms to pass the particle kinetic energy
on. In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic energy electrons move around
freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently to 'cooler' atoms.
• Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily tarnished
by corrosive oxidation in air and water.

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States of Matter
Solids - A solid object is characterized by its resistance to deformation and changes of volume.
At the microscopic scale, a solid has these properties:

• The atoms or molecules that comprise the solid are packed closely together.
• These constituent elements have fixed positions in space relative to each other. This
accounts for the solid's rigidity. In mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a
unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a unit cell, a
set of atoms arranged in a particular way; which is periodically repeated in three
dimensions on a lattice. The spacing between unit cells in various directions is called its
lattice parameters.
• If sufficient force is applied, its lattice atomic structure can be disrupted, causing
permanent deformation.
Because any solid has some thermal energy, its atoms vibrate. However, this movement is very
small, and cannot be observed or felt under ordinary conditions.
Liquids - A liquid's shape is confined to, but not determined by, the container it fills. That is to
say, liquid particles (normally molecules or clusters of molecules) are free to move within the
volume, but they form a discrete surface that may not necessarily be the same as the vessel.
The same cannot be said about a gas; it can also be considered a fluid, but it must conform to
the shape of the container entirely.
Gases – Gases consist of freely moving atoms or molecules without a definite shape and
without a definite volume. Compared to the solid and liquid states of matter a gas has lower
density and a lower viscosity. The volume of a gas will change with changes in temperature or
pressure, as described by the ideal gas law. A gas also has the characteristic that it will diffuse
readily, spreading apart in order to uniformly fill the space of any container.
Plasma - A plasma is typically an ionized gas. Plasma is considered to be a distinct state of

matter, apart from gases, because of its unique properties. ‘Ionized’ refers to presence of one or
more free electrons, which are not bound to an atom or molecule. The free electric charges
make the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields.
Plasma typically takes the form of neutral gas-like clouds (e.g. stars) or charged ion beams, but
may also include dust and grains (called dusty plasmas). They are typically formed by heating
and ionizing a gas, stripping electrons away from atoms, thereby enabling the positive and
negative charges to move more freely.
Changes between States

Solids can melt and become liquids, and liquids can boil to become gases. Likewise, gases can
condense to become liquids, and liquids can freeze to become solids. Sometimes solids can
become gases without ever becoming liquids. This is called subliming.

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Module 2

For Training Purposes Only

1-2 Module 2.1 Matter

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Module 2.1 Matter 1-3

1-4 Module 2.1 Matter

Module 2.1 - Matter __________________________________________________________ 9

Module 2.1 Matter 1-5

1-6 Module 2.1 Matter

Module 2.1 Matter 1-7

1-8 Module 2.1 Matter

The Nature of Matter

The Components of Atoms

Module 2.1 Matter 1-9

Neutron 1 0 (zero) In the nucleus

Proton 1 +1 (positive) In the nucleus

Table 1.1: The sub-atomic components of atoms

Figure 1.1 gives some idea on the structure of an atom.

Figure 1.1: The structure of an atom

1-10 Module 2.1 Matter

Figure 1.2: The Periodic Table of the Elements

The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number

Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any Group

Module 2.1 Matter 1-11

1-12 Module 2.1 Matter

Note that an element:

• consists of only one kind of atom,

Note that a mixture:

• consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled,

Note that a compound:

• consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together,

Module 2.1 Matter 1-13

Before: Nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n)

1-14 Module 2.1 Matter

• Cation - A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals typically form cations.

Module 2.1 Matter 1-15

1-16 Module 2.1 Matter

• The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons

Electrons within an atom have definite energies.

Module 2.1 Matter 1-17

Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of electrons in a

Figure 1.5: Electron arrangement of Hydrogen

1-18 Module 2.1 Matter

Figure 1.7: Electron arrangement of Sodium,

Figure 1.8: Electron arrangement of Potassium

Module 2.1 Matter 1-19

1-20 Module 2.1 Matter

The rules above can be summarised as follows:

• 1 electron binding - monovalent

Module 2.1 Matter 1-21

Table 1.3: Electrons per shell

1-22 Module 2.1 Matter

Adhesion and Cohesion

argon (18) 2.8.8

Covalent and Ionic Bonding

Module 2.1 Matter 1-23

The Bonding in Small Covalent Molecules

and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo helium

and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo

1-24 Module 2.1 Matter

and combine to form where hydrogen is electronically like helium

and and combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are

be shown as with two hydrogen - oxygen single covalent bonds.