Deepak wagle(DW)

Department of Chemistry
INTEL Institute, Baghbazaar
Hydrogen, Oxygen and
Water
Hydrogen
 Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table and is
the lightest gas known. It is a typical non-metal and
exists as a diatomic molecule (H2) called dihydrogen in
order to distinguish it from atomic hydrogen. It was
discovered by an English scientist Henry Cavendish in
1766 who prepared the gas by treating iron with dilute
sulphuric acid. He called it inflammable air because of
its combustible nature. Later in 1783, Antoine Lavoisier
named it as hydrogen because it burns in air or oxygen
to form water. (In Greek, hydro – water and gene –
producer i.e. water producing).
 Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table:

Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table. Its atomic

number is 1 and electronic configuration is 1s1. It has one proton
and one electron. In periodic table, hydrogen has been placed at
the top of the alkali metals in group 1 though it is not the member
of the group. However, the position of hydrogen in periodic table is
debatable because it resembles both, the alkali metals and
halogens. Although hydrogen resembles both alkali metals and
halogen, it differs from both in certain respects
Resemblance with alkali metals:
Hydrogen resembles with the alkali metals in the
following characteristics.
1) Electronic configuration: Hydrogen, like alkali metals,
has one electron in its valence shell. For example,
Element H Li Na K
Atomic number 1 3 11 19
Electronic 1s1 [He]2s1 [Ne]3s1 [Ar]4s1
configuration
2) Electropositive character: Like alkali metals, hydrogen is
electropositive since it can lose one electron readily to
form hydrogen ion.
H  → H
+ + e–

Na  → Na
+ + e–

H+ ion has a very small size since it has one proton and
no electron in the extra nuclear portion. It, therefore, does
not exist independently whereas alkali metal ions can do
so. H+ ion generally gets associated with other species.
For example, in water it normally exists as hydronium ion
(H3O+) in combination with a molecule of water.
3) Valency and oxidation state: Both hydrogen and alkali
metals show +1 oxidation state in their compounds, eg.
HCl, NaCl, KCl etc.
4) Affinity with electronegative elements: As both
hydrogen and alkali metals are electropositive in nature,
they combine with electronegative elements to form
compounds. For example, they combine with halogen,
oxygen and sulphur to form halides, oxides and
sulphides respectively.
Na2O, NaCl, Na2S, H2O, HCl, H2S
5) Reducing nature: Hydrogen, like alkali metals, acts as a
strong reducing agent.
B2O3 +6K → 2B + 3K2O
∆

Fe3O4 +4H2 → 3Fe + 4H2O

∆

6) Liberation at cathode: When the fused alkali metal

halides are electrolyzed, metal ions are deposited at the
cathode. Similarly, hydrogen is liberated at cathode when
the aqueous solution of hydrogen halides is subjected to
electrolysis.
2NaCl (molten) Electrolys
  is
→ 2Na (at cathode) + Cl2
2HCl (aqueous) Electrolys
  is
→ H2 (at cathode) + Cl2
Differences from alkali metals

Hydrogen differs from the alkali metals in the

following characteristics.
1) Alkali metals are typical metals while hydrogen is a
non-metal.
2) Hydrogen is diatomic (H2) while the alkali metals are
monoatomic in nature (Li, Na, K etc)
3) Ionization energy (IE) of hydrogen (1312 kJ mol-1) is
very high as compared to alkali metals. (IE of Li is 520 kJ
mol-1; IE of Na is 495 kJ mol-1)
4) Compounds of hydrogen are mainly covalent (eg.
HCl, H2O etc.) while those of alkali metals are ionic (eg.
NaCl, KF etc).
 Resemblance with halogens:
Hydrogen also resembles with halogens in following
characteristics.
1) Electronic configuration: Both hydrogen and halogens
require one electron to have nearest noble gas
configuration.
H+e 
1s1
→ H– [Electronic configuration same as that
of He]
1s2

F + e-
1s22s22p5

→
1s22s22p6
F– [Electronic configuration same as that
of Ne]

2) Ionization energy: The ionization energy of hydrogen

and halogens are comparable. For example,
Element H F Cl Br I
IE (kJ mol- 1312 1680 1255 1143 1009
1)
. 3) Electronegative character: Hydrogen and halogen atoms can form monovalent anions by
accepting an electron.
H+e 
→ H–
Cl + e → Cl–
4) Diatomic nature: In molecular form, hydrogen as well as halogens is diatomic in nature, e.g. H2,
F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
5) Oxidation state: Hydrogen, like halogens, exhibits the oxidation state of -1 in compound with
metals.
NaH, NaCl, NaBr
6) Liberation at anode: Hydrogen is liberated at the anode when fused alkali metal hydrides such
as lithium or sodium hydrides are electrolyzed just in the same way as halogens are liberated at
anode when alkali metal halides are electrolyzed.
Electrolys is
2NaH (molten)  → 2Na(l) + H2(g)(at anode)
Electrolys is
2NaCl (molten)  → 2Na(l) + Cl2(g)(at anode)
7) Non-metallic nature: Like halogens, hydrogen is non-metallic in nature.
8) Nature of compounds: Like halogens, hydrogen forms covalent
compounds with non-metals such as carbon, silicon, germanium etc.
CH4, SiH4, GeH4 – Covalent compounds of H
CCl4, SiCl4, GeCl4 – Covalent compounds of Cl
Due to similar nature, hydrogen and halogen atoms can be mutually
replaced quite easily in their compounds.
CH4 + Cl2  → CH3Cl + HCl
Chloromethane

CH3Cl + H2 
→ CH4 + HCl
Methane
Differences from halogen :
Hydrogen also differs from halogens in the following
characteristics.
1) Halogens readily form halide ions (X-) but hydrogen has
less tendency to take up electron to form hydride ion (H-
). Hydrogen forms hydride ion only in compounds with
alkali and alkaline earth metals.
2) In molecular form, the H-atoms do not have any
unshared electron pair while halogen atoms have three
such pairs. For example,
H – H Cl – Cl

3) The oxides of halogen are acidic (Cl2O7) while that of

hydrogen are neutral (H2O).
Thus, it is clear that hydrogen is unique in its behavior
because it resembles alkali metals as well as halogens.
Therefore, it is difficult to assign any definite position to it
in periodic table.
 Preparation of Hydrogen

The main sources for the preparation of dihydrogen (or simply hydrogen) are water, alkalis and acids.
1) Preparation from water
From water, hydrogen can be prepared by any of the following methods.
a) By the action of water on metals
Metals which lie above hydrogen in the electrochemical series react with water to produce
hydrogen. However, metals differ in their reactivity towards water.
i) Very active metals like sodium, potassium, calcium etc. react with water at room temperature to
give hydrogen.
2 Na + 2H2O 
→ 2NaOH + H2
2 K + 2H2O 
→ 2KOH + H2
Ca + 2H2O  → Ca(OH) 2 + H2
The reaction is highly vigorous and also exothermic. As a result, hydrogen gas evolved catches
fire. In order to control or slow down the reaction, these metals are reacted as their amalgams.
ii) Metals like zinc, magnesium and aluminium react with water upon heating to evolve hydrogen.
Zn + H2 O → ∆
ZnO + H2
Mg + H2 O → ∆
MgO + H2
Al + 3H2O → ∆
Al2O3 + 3H2
iii) Iron and nickel which are comparatively less reactive evolve hydrogen when reacted with steam.
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
Red hot Steam Ferroso-ferricoxide
(Magnetic oxide of iron)
b) By the action of water on metal hydrides
Some metal hydrides like LiH, NaH, CaH2 react with water at room temperature to evolve
hydrogen.
NaH + H2O 
→ NaOH + H2
CaH2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + 2H2
c) By the electrolysis of water
Hydrogen can be prepared by the electrolysis of water containing a small amount of acid or
base by using platinum electrodes. During electrolysis, hydrogen is collected at cathode and
oxygen at anode.
H2O H+ + OH- (Ionization)
At Cathode (Reduction) At Anode (Oxidation)
H+ + e 
→ H 4OH- 
→ 4OH + 4e
H +H 
→ H2 4OH 
→ 2H2O + O2
Small amount of acid or base is used during the electrolysis of water because water is a poor
conductor of electricity.
2) Preparation from alkalies

Metals like zinc, tin, aluminium, beryllium react with strong alkalies like NaOH (caustic soda) and
KOH (caustic potash) to evolve hydrogen.
Zn + 2NaOH 
→ Na2ZnO2 + H2
Sodium zincate

Sn + 2NaOH 
→ Na2SnO2 + H2
Sodium stannite

Sn + 2NaOH + H2O 
→ Na2SnO3 + 2H2
Sodium stannate

Be + 2NaOH →
∆
2Na2BeO2 + H2
Sodium beryllate
3) Preparation from acids
Metals like zinc, magnesium, iron etc. which lie above hydrogen in
the electrochemical series, react with dilute mineral acid (HCl,
H2SO4) to form hydrogen.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Dilute nitric acid (HNO3) is normally not used since it is a
powerful oxidizing agent. It oxidizes hydrogen evolved in the
reaction to H2O. Similarly, sodium and potassium are not used
with mineral acid to prepare hydrogen gas since these metals
are very reactive so the reactions are extremely violent.
4Zn + dil. 10HNO3 → 4Zn(NO3)2 + N2O + 5H2O
Laboratory preparation of hydrogen

In the laboratory, hydrogen is prepared by the action

of dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid on
granulated zinc.
Zn + dil. H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Industrial preparation of hydrogen
On industrial scale, hydrogen can be prepared by any of the following methods.
a) By the electrolysis of water
This is the best method of preparation of hydrogen gas where electricity is cheap. Hydrogen
obtained by this method is quite pure. This method has already been discussed in preparation of
hydrogen from water.
b) From water gas
On industrial scale, hydrogen can be prepared from water gas. The water gas is the mixture of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. But these days, it is known as synthesis gas or syn gas. Water
gas can be prepared by any of the following methods.
i) By the action of steam on coke: The mixture of CO and H2 i.e. water gas is formed by passing
steam over red hot coke at 1000 °C in the presence of Ni catalyst.
o
C + H2O 1000
NiC
→ CO + H2
Coke Steam Water gas

The process of producing water gas from coal or coke is called coal gasification
Reaction with unsaturated hydrocarbons
When hydrogen gas is passed through unsaturated hydrocarbons in presence of
finely divided Ni, Pt or Pd at 200OC, they are converted into saturated hydrocarbon.

HC ≡ CH (g) + 2H2 (g) Ni400

o
 C
→ H3C – CH3 (g)
This reaction is called catalytic hydrogenation.
Similarly, when hydrogen gas is passed through vegetable oils (soyabean oil,
groundnut oil, cotton seed oil etc.) under the pressure of 8 - 10 atm at temperature of
about 200 °C over finely divided nickel, the vegetable oils change to solid fats known
as Vanaspati Ghee.
Actually, oils are unsaturated due to the presence of C = C bond. On hydrogenation, the
bond changes into C−C bond and as a result unsaturated oils changes to saturated
form.
This process is called hydrogenation or hardening of oils.

Vegetable oil + H2 8 Solid fat

o
Ni/200 C
 →
– 10 atm
Isotopes of hydrogen
Isotopes are the different forms of the same element which have the same atomic number but
different mass number.
Hydrogen has three isotopes viz. protium, deuterium and tritium. Their atomic number is 1 and
mass numbers are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. They have one proton in the nucleus and one electron
in the only shell (K-shell). They differ in the number of neutrons. The relative abundance of three
isotopes in nature is in the ratio of 1: 1.56 × 10–2 : 1 × 10–18
The three isotopes of hydrogen are shown below with a brief description of each.
a) Protium: It is ordinary hydrogen and is the most abundant isotope of hydrogen. It has one proton
and no neutron in the nucleus. It is represented as H.
b) Deuterium: It is heavy hydrogen and is obtained by the electrolysis of heavy water (D2O). Its
nucleus has one proton and one neutron. It is represented as D.
c) Tritium: It is the rarest isotope of hydrogen. It is extremely unstable because of its radioactive
nature. Its nucleus has one proton and two neutrons. It is represented by T. It is prepared
artificially by the bombardment of nitrogen or an isotope of lithium with neutrons.
14
7 N
+ 10 n 
→ 12
6 C
+ 13 H (or T)
6
3 Li
+ 10 n →
 4
2 He
+ 13 H (or T)

1P 1P 1P
1n 2n

1 2 3
1 H 1 H or D 1
H or T

Protium Deuterium Tritium

Figure 10.2 Isotopes of hydrogen

 Physical properties of isotopes of hydrogen

Properties Protium Deuterium Tritium

Symbol H D T
Atomic number 1 1 1
Mass number 1 2 3
Atomic mass(amu) 1.007825 2.014102 3.016049
Relative abundance 99.985 0.0156 10-15
Stability stable stable radioactive
Freezing point (°C) -259 -254.3 -252.4
Boiling point (°C) -252.6 -249.3 248.0
Heat of dissociation at 435.9 443.4 446.9
25 °C (kJmol-1)
Atomic hydrogen
The hydrogen obtained by the dissociation of hydrogen molecules is called atomic hydrogen.
It is generally prepared by passing the hydrogen gas at atmospheric pressure through an electric
arc that maintains the temperature around 4000 – 4500 °C, struck between two tungsten rods. The
hydrogen molecules absorb energy as they pass through the electric arc and get dissociated into
hydrogen atoms.
H2(g) Electric
  arc
→ 2H(g) : ∆H = 435.90 kJ mol-1
Nascent hydrogen
Nascent hydrogen is the newly born hydrogen. The hydrogen
which is prepared by the chemical reaction is called nascent hydrogen.
Nascent hydrogen is more reactive and powerful reducing agent than
the molecular hydrogen
Atomic hydrogen, being very energetic and reactive, combines
with different substances at ordinary temperature.
a) If ordinary hydrogen is passed through acidified KMnO4 solution, the pink colour of the solution
is not discharged. But if zinc pieces are added to the same solution, the colour of the acidified
KMnO4 solution is discharged due to the reduction of KMnO4 by nascent hydrogen produced
due to the reaction between zinc pieces and acid.
KMnO4 + H2SO4 + H2 
→ No reaction
Zn + H2SO4 
→ ZnSO4 + 2[H] (nascent hydrogen]
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 10[H] 
→ K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O
b) The yellowish brown color of ferric chloride, which could not be discharged by passing molecular
hydrogen, can be discharged by nascent hydrogen produced on adding pieces of zinc and dilute
sulphuric acid to the reaction mixture.
FeCl3 + H2 
→ no reaction
Zn + H2SO4 
→ ZnSO4 + 2[H]
2FeCl3 + 2[H] 
→ 2FeCl2 + 2HCl
c) The orange color of acidified potassium dichromate remains same on passing molecular hydrogen
but its color changes to green on adding pieces of zinc.
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + H2 
→ no reaction
Zn + H2SO4 
→ ZnSO4 + 2[H]
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4+ 6[H] 
→ K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O
Ortho and para hydrogen
Existence of element more than one form in same physical state having similar chemical properties
but different physical properties are called allotropes.
A molecule of hydrogen contains two atoms. Each atom contains one electron and one proton
which are spinning. The spins of two electrons in hydrogen molecule are always antiparallel. But
the spins of the two protons (i.e. two nuclei) can be either parallel or antiparallel. Depending on
the direction of the spin of the nuclei, hydrogen molecule is of two types.
The hydrogen molecules in which the spins of both the nuclei are in same direction (parallel
nuclear spins) are called ortho hydrogen.
The hydrogen molecules in which the spins of both the nuclei are in the opposite direction
(antiparallel nuclear spins) are called para hydrogen.

Figure: Ortho and para hydrogen

These two types of hydrogen are called nuclear spin isomers. Ordinary hydrogen contains
75% ortho and 25% of para forms at room temperature. However, the ratio of ortho and para
hydrogen varies with temperature
 oxygen
Oxygen was independently discovered by Carl Scheele in 1773 by heating
mercuric oxide and Joseph Pristley in 1774 by the action of sun rays on
mercuric oxide but J. Priestley is often given priority because his work was
published first. However, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine
Lavoisier who incorrectly believed that oxygen was necessary to form all
acids. (In Greek, -oxys means acid and -genes means producer i.e. acid
producer).
Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen
and helium, and the most abundant element by mass in the earth's crust,
making up almost half of the crust's mass. It constitutes nearly 21% of earth's
atmosphere by volume. Almost all oxygen in the atmosphere is believed to
be due to the photosynthesis taking place in green plants in the presence of
sunlight.
xH2O + xCO2 Sunlight
 → (CH2O)x + xO2
Photosynthesis Carbohydrate
 Laboratory preparation of oxygen

a) By thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate

In laboratory, oxygen is prepared by heating a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese
dioxide in the ratio of 4 : 1 in a hard glass tube to about 240 OC.
2KClO3 240
 ºC
→ 2KCl + 3O2
MnO2

By the action of water on sodium peroxide

Oxygen can be prepared by the action of water on sodium peroxide.
2Na2O2(s) + 2H2O (l) → NaOH (aq) + O2(g)
The oxygen gas produced is collected by downward displacement of water.
 Oxides
Oxides are the binary compounds of oxygen with other elements.
1) Classification on the basis of acid base characteristics
On the basis of acid base characteristics, the oxides may be classified into following four types.
a) Acidic oxides: The oxides formed by combining non-metals with oxygen are called acidic oxides.
Non-metals such as carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, chlorine, phosphorous etc. generally form acidic
oxides. These oxides combine with water and produce acids.
For example
→ H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
CO2 + H2O 
SO2 + H2O 
→ H2SO3 (Sulphurous acid)
→ H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
SO3 + H2O 
P4O10 + 6 H2O 
→ 2H3PO4 (Phosphoric acid)
b) Basic oxides: Normal oxides formed between metal and oxygen are called basic oxides. If soluble
in water, they react with water and produce hydroxide (or alkalies)
For example
Na2O + H2O 
→ 2NaOH
MgO + H2O  → Mg(OH)2
These oxides react with acid to form salt and water.
Na2O + HCl 
→ NaCl + H2O
MgO + H2SO4 
→ MgSO4 + H2O
Fe2O3 + H2SO4 
→ Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
c) Amphoteric oxides: Those oxides which possess dual properties of both acid and base are called
amphoteric oxides. Generally, elements like aluminium, zinc, tin, lead etc which are on the border
line between metals and non-metals form amphoteric oxides. For example, aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) reacts with both acid and alkali.
Al2O3 + 6HCl 
→ 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
Basic
Al2O3 + 2NaOH 
→ 2NaAlO2 + H2O
Acidic

Other examples of amphoteric oxides are SiO2, ZnO etc.

d) Neutral oxides: Those oxides which show neither acidic nor basic properties are called neutral
oxides. These oxides neither form salt with acid nor with base, e.g. CO, N2O, NO, H2O etc.
2) Classification on the basis of oxygen content or the oxidation state of the oxygen in oxides.
Depending upon the oxygen content or oxidation state of oxygen, oxides are also classified in
following types.
a) Normal oxides: These oxides contain oxygen atoms in the same proportion as permitted by the
normal oxidation state. i.e. -2. For example, Na2O, MgO, CO2 etc. However in oxygen difluoride,
oxidation state of oxygen is +2.
b) Polyoxides: These oxides contain oxygen atom more than permitted by the normal valency. Thus,
these oxides have oxygen atom with oxidation state different than -2. These are further classified
into peroxides, dioxides and superoxides.
2-
i) Peroxides: These oxides contain peroxide ion (O2 ) having oxidation number of oxygen as -1.
They have peroxide linkage, i.e. - O - O - linkage. For example, H2O2, Na2O2, BaO2, etc.
The metal peroxides give hydrogen peroxide on heating with dil. acid. For example,
Na2O2 + H2SO4 
→ Na2SO4 + H2O2
BaO2 + H2SO4 
→ BaSO4 + H2O2
ii) Dioxides: These oxides appear same as peroxides but are different from them in the sense that
they do not contain peroxide linkage and two oxygen atoms are linked directly to metal atom by
double bond. eg. PbO2, MnO2 etc. These oxides do not form hydrogen peroxide with dilute acids.
Dioxides on reaction with conc. HCl yield Cl2 and on reacting with conc. H2SO4 yield O2. Eg.
PbO2 + 4HCl 
→ PbCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
2PbO2 + 2H2SO4 
→ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O + O2
iii) Superoxides: These oxides contain superoxide ion (O2–) having oxidation number of oxygen as -
1/2. eg. KO2, RbO2, CsO2 etc.
c) Suboxides: They contain less oxygen than permitted by normal valency. eg. N2O, C3O2 etc.
d) Mixed oxides or compound oxides: These are the metal oxides in which two oxides of the same
metal in different oxidation states are mixed with each other. eg. red lead Pb3O4 (2PbO2 + PbO),
ferrosoferric oxide Fe3O4 (FeO + Fe2O3) etc.
 Water
Volumetric composition of water
The volumetric composition of water has been established analytically by the electrolysis of
acidulated water using voltameter called Hoffmann's Voltameter.
When acidulated water is electrolyzed in between two platinum electrodes, hydrogen gas is
collected at the cathode and oxygen gas is collected at the anode. The volume of hydrogen gas is
found to be double that of oxygen gas. Thus, it is confirmed that water is composed of hydrogen
and oxygen in the ratio 2:1 by volume.

Structure of Water

Figure : Hoffmann’s voltameter

Figure :Structure of water in gas phase

 Solvent property of water
Water is most the abundant solvent which exists in liquid state over a wide range of
temperature (0-100 ºC). It has a tendency to dissolve many inorganic as well as organic
substances than any other solvent. Further, the ionizing power or dissolving power of a solvent
depends on its dielectric constant value. Water has high dielectric constant value (82) so it has
high ionizing or dissolving power

Ionic compounds like NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, MgCl2 etc dissolve in water since their hydration energy is
greater than lattice energy but ionic compounds like AgCl, BaSO4, CaCO3 etc, in which the
hydration energy is less than lattice energy, do not dissolve in water.

When polar covalent compounds like sugar, alcohol etc. are kept in water, they interact
strongly with water molecules through the formation of intemolecular hydrogen bonding.
It means the polar covalent compounds undergo dipole dipole interaction with water
molecules and get dissolved in water
 Hard and Soft Water
Water has a great tendency to dissolve many substances. So, natural water contains several dissolved
salts which affect its behavior towards soap. Depending on its behavior towards soap, water may be
classified as soft water and hard water.
1) Soft water: Water which produces lather with soap readily is called soft water. For example, rain
water, distilled water etc.
2) Hard water: Water which does not produce lather with soap readily is called hard water. For
example, sea water, well water, river water, lake water etc.
Cause of hardness of water
Hardness of water is due to the presence of soluble bicarbonates, chlorides
and sulphates of calcium and magnesium which react with soap to form
insoluble precipitate. Soaps are the sodium salts of fatty acids like sodium
stearate [C17H35COONa], sodium palmitate [C17H31COONa] etc. When soap
is added to hard water, the Ca++ and Mg++ ions react with soap to form
calcium and magnesium salts which are insoluble in water.
Ca++ + 2C17H35COONa  → (C17H35COO)2 Ca ↓ + 2Na+
Sodium stearate Calcium stearate

Mg++ + 2C17 H35COONa 

→ (C17H35COO)2 Mg ↓ + 2Na+
Magnesium stearate

Thus, no lather is produced till all the Ca++ and Mg++ ions are precipitated
which results in wastage of soap.
Types of hardness of water
Hardness of water is of two types.
1) Temporary hardness: Temporary hardness of water is due to the presence of
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It is called temporary because it can
be easily removed by boiling the water for sometimes. It is also called
carbonate hardness.
2) Permanent hardness: Permanent hardness of water is due to the presence of
chloride and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. It is called permanent
because it cannot be easily removed by boiling the water. It is also called non-
carbonate hardness.
Removal of hardness of water
Removal of hardness of water is also called softening of water as by this
process hard water is converted into soft water.
1) Removal of temporary hardness: Temporary hardness of water can be
removed by following methods.
a) By boiling
b) Clark's method(by using slaked lime)
2) Removal of permanent hardness: Permanent hardness of water can be
removed by following methods.
a) By washing soda method:
b) Ion exchange method
c) Inorganic cation exchanger (Permutit method)
 Heavy Water:
The sample of water which contain the deuterium isotope of hydrogen is called heavy water. The
oxide of protium is called ordinary water whereas the oxide of deuterium is called heavy water. Thus,
chemically heavy water is deuterium oxide. It was discovered by Urey in 1932. He prepared it by
prolonged electrolysis of water & molecular formula is D2O. It has been estimated that about 29,000
litre of water must be electrolysed to get 1 litre of heavy water which is 99% pure. Thus, ordinary
water contains only a small proportion (about 1 part in 5000) of D2O.
o
Some physical constants of H2O and D2O at 25 C
Constant Ordinary Heavy water
water (H2O) (D2O)
Molecular mass 18.0151 20.0276
Maximum density (gcm-3) 1.0000 1.1059
Melting point (°C) 0 3.82
Boiling point (°C) 100 101.42
Uses of heavy water:

1. Heavy water is used as a tracer compound to study the mechanism of many chemical reactions.
2. It is used as moderator in nuclear reactor because it slows down the fast moving neutrons and
therefore helps in controlling the nuclear fission process.
3. It is used as one of the references in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
4. It is the source of deuterium gas (heavy hydrogen) which is obtained by its electrolysis.
Multiple choice question:
Q.1.Hydrogen gas can be prepared by the reaction of cold water with
a)Mg b) Na c)Fe d)Zn

Q.2.In the preparation of vanaspati ghee, the chemical reaction

involving in presence of catalyst called
a)Reduction b)oxidation c)hydrogenation d)dehydrogenation

Q.3.The oxidation states exhibited by hydrogen in its compounds is

a)-1 b) +1 c)+1 or -1 d) 0

Q.4.The molecular formula of water gas is

a)CO+H2+N2 b)CO+ H2 c) CO+ N2 d) C)+H2O
Q.5.Ortho and Para hydrogen are
a)Molecular form b)nuclear form c)allotropes d) all of them

Q.6.The most reactive form of hydrogen is

a)Atomic b) nascent c) ordinary d) adsorbed

Q.7.Oxygen is prepared by heating

a)Ammonium dichromate b)potassium chlorate c)bleaching powder d)sodium
peroxide

Q.8.The number of electron that are present in oxygen molecule is

a)16 b) 12 c)14 d)8
Q.9.Which of the following is an example of acidic oxide
a)CO2 b) Na2O C)CaO d)ZnO

Q.10.Which of the following is an example of amphoteric oxide

a)ZnO b) Al2O3 c) SnO2 d)all of the them

Q.11.The shape of the water molecule is

a)Triangular b)linear c)pyramidal d)V- shape

Q.12.Alcohol is soluble in water because alcohol form ……………….. with

water.
a)Hydrogen bond b)ionic bond c)covalent bond d)coordinate covalent
bond
Q.13.Which of the following remove the temporary hardness of water?
a)Slaked lime b)plaster of paris c)Epsom d)hydrolith

Q.14.Hardness of water is due to the presence of

a)Ca++ and K+ b)Mg++ and K+ c) Ca++ and Mg++ d)Ba++ and Zn++

Q.15.parmenent hardness of water isremoved by

a)Boiling b) adding lime c)chlorination d)permutit method
Answer
 1.b
 2.c
 3.c
 4.b
 5.c
 6.a
 7.b
 8.a
 9.a
 10.d
 11.d
 12.a
 13.a
 14.c
 15.d