CHAPTER 1

SEEPAGE THROUGH DAMS

Flow though dams

 For earth dams and dikes, flow is not prevented, rather it is permitted and directed so as
not to create a stability problem
 If the velocity of the water flowing through the structure is too great, erosion and
instability of the downstream side will result
 To counter this effect, a toe drain or an underdrain blanket that consists of course
materials is placed

o Underground springs- localized underground flow that occurs though seams or a

stratum of pervious soil presents a potential seepage problem for the structure

Solution: provide some type of drainage conduits for the flow to pass around or through the
structure is frequently technically more desirable and less expensive than attempting to cut or
stop the flow.

Precaution: flow conduit is designed so that seepage forces do not affect the structure and that
soil erosion does not occur.

1
Internal erosion – a process whereby water is flowing toward a drain causes a seepage force that
is acting on soil particles. The migrations of soil result in the collapse of surrounding area.

Plotting of Phreatic Line for Seepage through Earth Dams

For construction of flow nets for seepage through earth dams, the phreatic line needs to be
established first. This is usually done by the method proposed by Casagrande (1937) and is
shown in
Figure1.1a. Note that aefb in Figure 1.1a is the actual phreatic line. The curve a’e f b’c’ is a
parabola with its focus at c; the phreatic line coincides with this parabola, but with some
deviations at the upstream and the downstream force. At a point a, the phreatic line starts at an
angle of 90° to the upstream face of the dam and aa’= 0.3Δ.

Figure 1.1 Determination of phreatic line for seepage through an earth dam

2
 Figure 1.2 Plot of Δl/(1+Δl) against downstream slope angle. (After A. Casagrande,
Seepage through Dams. Contribution to Soil Mechanics, 1925-1940, Boston Society
of Civil Engineering, Boston, 1937.)

The parabola a’efb’c’ can be constructed as follows:

1. Let the distance cc’ be equal to p. Now referring to Figure 1.1b, AC = AD based on the
properties of a parabola), Ac = √𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 , and AD = 2p + x, thus
√𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 = 20 + x (1.1)
At x = d, z =H, substituting these conditions into equation (1.1) and rearranging, we
obtain
1
p = 2 (√d2 + H 2 − d) (1.2)
Since d and H are known, the value of p can be calculated.

2. From equation (1.1),

x 2 + z 2 = 4p2 + x 2 + 4px
z2 −4p2
x= (1.3)
4p

With p known, the values of x for various values of z can be calculated from equation
(1.3) and the parabola can be constructed.

3. To complete the phreatic line, the portion ae has to be approximated and drawn by hand.
When β < 30°, the value of l can be calculated from equation (1.4) as

d d2 H2
l= − √cos2 β − sin2 β (1.4)
cosβ

Note that in Figure 1.1a. Once point has been located, the curve can be approximately
drawn by hand.
Note that l = bc in Figure 1.1a. Once point b has been located, the curve f b can be
approximately drawn by hand.

3
Example 1: An earth dam section in shown in figure 1.3. Plot the phreatic line for seepage. For
the earth dam section, 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑧 .

Solution
1
𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1.5) = 33.69°

∆ = 70 cot 45 = 70ft

𝑎𝑎′ = 0.3∆ = 0.3(70) = 21ft

d = 80cot33.69 + 15 + 10cot45 + 21 = 120+15+10+21 =166ft

From equation 1.2

1 1
p = 2 (√𝑑 2 + 𝐻 2 − 𝑑) = 2 (√1662 + 702 − 166) = 7.08ft

Using equation 1.3, we can now determine the coordinates of several points of the
parabola 𝑎′ 𝑒𝑓𝑏 ′ 𝑐 ′ :

z, ft x from equation, ft

70 166

65 142.1

60 120.04

55 99.73

50 81.2

45 64.42

Using the values of x and corresponding z calculated in the above table, the basic
parabola has been plotted in Figure 1.3.

4
 Figure 1.3

We calculate l as follows. The equation of the line cb’ can be given by z = xtanβ and the
𝑧2 −4𝑝2
equation of the parabola equation (1.3) is 𝑥 = . The coordinates of point b’ can be
4𝑝
determined by solving the above two equations:
𝑧 2 −4𝑝2 (xtanβ)2 −4𝑝2
𝑥= =
4𝑝 4𝑝

or 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 β − 4px − 4𝑝2 = 0

Hence

𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 33.69 − 4(7.08)x − 4(7.08)2 = 0

0.44𝑥 2 − 28.32x − 200.5 = 0

The solution of the above equation gives x = 70.22ft

𝑐𝑏 ′ = √70.222 + (70.22 tan 33.69)2 = 84.39 ft = l+Δl

From figure 1.2, for 𝛽 = 33.69°,

Δ𝑙
= 0.366
𝑙+Δ𝑙

Δ𝑙 = 0.366(84.39) = 30.9𝑓𝑡

𝑙 = ( 𝑙 + Δ𝑙 )– Δ𝑙

𝑐𝑏 = 𝑙 = 84.39– 30.9 = 53.49ft

The curve portions ae and fb can now be approximate drawn by hand which completes
the phreatic line aefb figure 1.3

5
 Detecting Internal Erosion Prize Challenge.mp4 (Command Line)

Slide_Failure_at_Dam.mp4 (Command Line)

References:

http://nptel..ac.in//courses/1051041322/Module2/lecture10.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BNFQ1EJX4h0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1j0_CyXoV8

6
 CHAPTER 2

EARTH FILTER DESIGN

Simplified filter criteria: A dam filter example

Filter:

 Control what goes through to the core material

 Prevent erosion of the core
 Dissipate pore pressure

Layer of protection against water hitting or transporting sediment to the dam

7
 Simplified filter criteria

 Piping criterion: (D85B represents the particles size that must be retained; D15f
represents average pore size, filter to trap particles larger than about 0.1D15f
D15f < 5D85B
 Permeability criterion:
D15f > 5D15B
 Gradation control:
D50f <25D50B

Piping criterion:

D15f < 5D85B

D15 < 5(3) =15mm

Permeability criterion:
D15f > 5D15B
D15f > 5(0.025) =0.125mm

Gradation control:

D50f <25D50B
D50f <25(0.3) = 7.5mm

8
 Simplified_Filter_Criteria__A_Dam_Filter_Example.mp4 (Command Line)

Reference:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yGEeYAb4Olw

9
 CHAPTER 3

STABILITY OF SLOPES

Slope - refers to any earth mass, natural or man-made, whose surface forms an angle with
the horizontal.

Unrestrained slope - An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle with the
horizontal.

Five major categories of slope failures

1. Fall. This is the detachment of soil and/or rock fragments that fall down a slope
(Figure 3.1). Figure 3.2 shows a fall in which a large amount of soil mass has slid down a
slope.

2. Topple. This is a forward rotation of soil and/or rock mass about an axis below the
center of gravity of mass being displaced (Figure 3.3).

3. Slide. This is the downward movement of a soil mass occurring on a surface of rupture
(Figure 3.4).

4. Spread. This is a form of slide (Figure 3.5) by translation. It occurs by “sudden

movement of water-bearing seams of sands or silts overlain by clays or loaded by fills”.

5. Flow. This is a downward movement of soil mass similar to a viscous fluid (Figure
3.6).

Figure 3.1 “Fall” type of landslide

10
 Figure 3.2 Soil and rock “fall” in a slope (Courtesy of E.C. Shin, University of Inchon,
South Korea)

Figure 3.3 Slope failure by “toppling”

11
Figure 3.4 Slope failure by “sliding”

Figure 3.5 Slope failure by lateral “spreading”

12
Figure 3.6 Slope failure by “flowing”

Two major types of slide:

Rotation slides – are associated with natural slopes and constructed embankments of
homogeneous materials possessing cohesion; the failure surface is curve, with the failed
characteristically slumped in the area of the original slope.

Translation slides – are associated with slopes of layered materials where the
mechanism of slippage occurs along a weak plane or zone that possesses a downward dip
and in cohesionless soil slopes where a change in conditions (such as seepage) occurs.

Nature slope (thought glacial movements, weather, erosion, deposit build up and
sedimentation)
-Hills and mountains
-River banks
-Coastal formation

Manmade slope
-Embankments
-Earth Dam
-Levees

INFINITE SLOPES - is given to earth masses of constant inclinations of unlimited

extent and uniform conditions at any given depth below the surface.

13
Cohesive Material- No Seepage
Figure 3.7a shows the forces acting on an element from a slope of infinite extent.
No seepage is assumed, and the material above the slip plane is assumed homogeneous
and cohesive. The slip plane is parallel to the surface of the slope. A Unit

Figure 3.7 Forces on element of infinite slope.

Thickness of the element is assumed in the direction normal to the page. Forces F1 and F2
are assumed equal and opposite, and are therefore ignored in the analysis. Thus, the
relevant forces acting on the slip plane as shown in fig. 3.1b. By summing forces in the
perpendicular and parallel directions to the slope, respectively, we obtain the resulting
normal and shear stresses as indicated in Eqs. (3-1) and (3-2). Hence,
𝑁 𝛾𝑏𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖
σ= =
𝑏/ cos 𝑖 𝑏/ cos 𝑖

σ = 𝛾𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑖 (3-1)

and
𝑆 𝛾𝑏𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
τ= =
𝑏/ cos 𝑖 𝑏/ cos 𝑖

τ = 𝛾𝐻sin 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 (3-2)

14
The effective unit resistance developed by the soil could be expressed by Eq. (3-3), where
the parameters cd and ∅d are the developed cohesion and friction angle, respectively. They
are equal to or less than the effective cohesion and effective friction angles 𝑐̅ and ∅̅,
respectively. Thus,

𝑠 = 𝑐𝑑 + 𝜎 tan ∅d (3-3)

Equating Eqs. (3-2) and (3-3), one obtain the critical depth for the clay stratum as
expressed by

𝐶𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑖
H= (tan 𝑖−𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑑 ) (3-4)
𝛾

Let us assume that line ABC in fig. 3.8 represents limiting resistance conditions (Mohr
strength envelope) that may be developed within a soil mass on a sliding plane.

Figure 3.8 Mohr’s envelope ABC representing limiting resistance condition developed.

Thus, for a normal stress OF, the shear strength that can be developed in the soil is FB;
this is larger than the shear stress FD, potentially developed on the inclined plane. Hence,
no sliding occurs under such stress conditions. Impending sliding would occur, however,
when the normal stress is OE and the corresponding shear stress is CE; obviously the
actuating stress at that point equals the shear strength of the soil. Correspondingly, depth
H, for which the shear stress on the slip plane equals the shear strength of the soil, is
commonly referred to as the critical depth. In other words, at this depth we have
impending shear failure. At any depth greater than the critical depth, siding would
theoretically occur. The safety factor F can be obtained from Eqs. (3-2) and (3-3), that is,
F=s/𝜏, or

15
 𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
F= + (3-5)
𝛾𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 tan 𝑖

Cohesive soil – seepage and water table at surface

Figure 3.9 depicts a case where the soil is assumed cohesive, and where seepage coupled
with a water table at the surface of the ground is assumed. The pore pressure at a depth H
equals 𝛾wH𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 i. The effective pressure is (𝛾 − 𝛾 w)H𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 i. thus, the corresponding
normal an shear stresses are given by Eqs. (3-6) and (3-7), respectively:

𝜎̅ = 𝛾𝑏 H𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 (3-6)

𝜏= 𝛾Hsin 𝑖 cos 𝑖 (3-7)

The developed shear strength can be written as

s = cd + 𝛾𝑏 H𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 tan ∅d (3-8)

thus, from Eqs. (3-7) and (3-8) we have

cos 𝑖
cd + 𝛾𝑏 H𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 tan ∅d = 𝛾Hsin 𝑖 cos 𝑖 ( cos 𝑖 ) (3-9)

or
𝐶𝑑
H= (3-10)
𝛾 tan 𝑖 − 𝛾𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑑

16
Figure 3.9 (a) slope consisting of cohesive soil with seepage, water table at surface. (b)
Normal and shear stresses on inclined plane.

The safety factor is

𝐶𝑑 𝛾𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅d
F= +( ) (3-11)
𝛾𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 𝛾 tan 𝑖

Cohesionless Soil – Seepage and Water Table at Surface

Equation (g) may be utilized with the value of cd = 0. Hence, we obtain the critical slope i
for this condition, as expressed by Eq. 3-12:

𝛾𝑏 H𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 tan ∅d − 𝛾Htan 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 =0

H 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 (𝛾btan ∅d − 𝛾tan𝑖) = 0

or

𝛾𝑏 tan ∅d − 𝛾tan 𝑖 = 0
From which

𝛾𝑏
i = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) tan ∅𝑑 (3-12)
𝛾

1
(Usually 𝛾b is about 2 𝛾, thus i ≈ ∅d/2 – see example 3.2.) The factor of safety is

𝛾𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
F=(
𝛾
) ( tan 𝑖𝑑) (3-13)

Cohesion soil – dry conditions

For this case Eqs. (3-1) and (3-2) apply; Eq. (3-3) would be altered to reflect a value of
𝑐𝑑 = 0. Thus, equating the expression for shear stress to that for shear strength, the
summation of forces parallel to the slope gives Eq. 3-14

𝛾Hsin 𝑖 cos 𝑖 − 𝛾H𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 tan ∅𝑑 = 0

or

tan 𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 − tan ∅𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 = 0

and

i=∅𝑑 (3-14)

17
(As expected, the angles of inclination i is equal to ∅d, the maximum angle that could be
developed by the granular dry soil.)

The factor of safety isp

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑑
F= (3-15)
tan 𝑖

Example 3.1

Given. A relatively cohesive soil at a constant infinite slope (fig. 3.4). Assume negligible
seepage and negligible pore pressure. 𝛾 = 18.0 KN/𝑚3 , c = 36 KN/𝑚2 ; ∅ = 14°; H = 3m;
i = 22°.
(a) The maximum shear stress 𝜏 developed.
(b) The maximum shear strength, assuming 𝑐𝑑 =36 KN/𝑚2 and ∅d = 14°.
(c) The critical height Hc for 𝑐𝑑 = c; ∅d = ∅.
(d) The factor of safety with respect to cohesion.
(e) The factor of safety against sliding

Procedure
(a) From eq. (3-7)
𝜏 = 𝛾𝐻sin 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖
𝜏 = (18)(3)(𝑠𝑖𝑛22°)(𝑐𝑜𝑠22°)
𝜏 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟔 𝑲𝑵/𝒎𝟐 or 0.39kips/𝒇𝒕𝟐

(b) From eq. (3-8)

𝑠 = 𝑐𝑑 + 𝜎 tan ∅𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑 + 𝛾H𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 tan∅𝑑
𝑠 = 36 + (18) (3)( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 22°) (tan 14°)

18
 𝐬 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟓𝟕 𝑲𝑵/𝒎𝟐 or 0.99kips/𝒇𝒕𝟐

(c) From eq. 3-10,

𝑐𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑖
H= (tan 𝑖−𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑑 )
𝛾
36 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (22°)
H= ( )
18 tan 22°−𝑡𝑎𝑛14°
H = 14.68 𝒎 or 47.5ft

(d) Cd = 𝛾𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖 (tan 𝑖 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅d)

Assuming ∅d =14°, the maximum developed cohesion is

𝑐𝑑 = (18)(3)(𝑐𝑜𝑠2 22°) (tan 22° − 𝑡𝑎𝑛14 °) = 7.18 KN/𝑚2

𝑐 36
F= =
𝑐𝑑 7.18

F = 5.0

(e) From eq. 3-11

𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
F= +
𝛾𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 tan 𝑖

36 𝑡𝑎𝑛14°
F= +
(18)(3)(𝑠𝑖𝑛22°) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 22°) tan 22°

𝐅 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟑

Example 3.2
Given; An infinite slope; seepage and water table at surface; and 𝛾 = 18 KN//𝑚3 ;
∅𝑑 =30°.
Find; The critical - slope angle.

Procedure
(a) From eq. (3-12)
𝛾𝑏
i = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) tan ∅𝑑
𝛾
𝛾b = 18-9.82 = 8.18 KN/𝑚3 ;
8.18
i = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) tan 30°
18
i = 14.7°

19
Analysis of Finite Slopes with Plane Failure Surfaces (Culmann’s Method)

Culmann’s analysis - is based on the assumption that the failure of a slope occurs along
a plane when the average shearing stress tending to cause the slip is more than the shear
strength of the soil.
Critical plane - is the one that has a minimum ratio of the average shearing stress that
tends to cause failure to the shear strength of soil.

Figure 3.10 shows a slope of height H. The slope rises at an angle b with the horizontal.
AC is a trial failure plane. If we consider a unit length perpendicular to the section of the
slope, we find that the weight of the wedge ABC is equal to
1
𝑤 = 2 (𝐻)(𝐵𝐶̅̅̅̅ )(1)(𝛾) = 1H(Hcot ∅ -Hcot𝛽)𝛾
2

1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)
𝑤 = 𝛾𝐻2 ( ) (3-16)
2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

Figure 3.10 Finite slope analysis - Culmann’s method

The normal and tangential components of W with respect to the plane AC are as follows.
1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)
Na = normal component = W cos 𝜃 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)cos 𝜃 (3-17)

1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)
Ta = normal component = W cos 𝜃 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)sin 𝜃 (3-18)

The average effective normal stress and the average shear stress on the plane AC are,
respectively,
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑎
𝜎= =
(𝐴𝐶)(1) ( 𝐻 )
sin 𝜃

20
 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)
= 𝛾𝐻 2 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 (3-19)
2
and
𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑎
𝜏= =
(𝐴𝐶)(1) ( 𝐻 )
sin 𝜃
1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)
= 𝛾𝐻 2 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃) sin2 𝜃 (3-20)
2

The average resistive shearing stress developed along the plane AC also may be
expressed as
𝜏 = 𝑐𝑑 ′+ 𝜎’tan ∅′𝑑
1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)
= 𝑐𝑑 ′+ 𝛾𝐻 ( )cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 tan ∅′𝑑 (3-21)
2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

Now, from Eqs. (3-19) and (3-20),

1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃) 2 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)
𝛾𝐻 2 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃) sin 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑑 ′+ 2 𝛾𝐻 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 tan ∅′𝑑 (3-22)
2
or
1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽−𝜃)(sin 𝜃−cos 𝜃tan ∅′𝑑 )
𝑐𝑑 ′ = 𝛾𝐻 2 ( ) (3-23)
2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽

The expression in Eq. (3-23) is derived for the trial failure plane AC. In an effort to
determine the critical failure plane, we must use the principle of maxima and minima (for
a given value of ∅’𝑑 to find the angle 𝜃 where the developed cohesion would be
maximum. Thus, the first derivative of cd‘ with respect to 𝜃 is set equal to zero, or
𝜕𝑐𝑑 ‘
=0 (3-24)
𝜕∅′𝑑

Because g, H, and b are constants in Eq. (3-23), we have

𝜕
(𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛽 − 𝜃)(sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃tan ∅′𝑑 )) = 0 (3-25)
𝜕𝜃

Solving Eq. (3-25) gives the critical value of 𝜃 , or

𝛽+∅′𝑑
𝜃cr = (3-26)
2

Substitution of the value of 𝜃 = 𝜃cr into Eq. (3-23) yields

1 1−cos( 𝛽−∅′ )
𝑐𝑑 ′ = 𝛾𝐻 ( 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′ 𝑑 ) (3-27)
4 𝑑

The preceding equation also can be written as

𝑐𝑑 ′ 1−cos( 𝛽−∅′𝑑 )
=m= (3-28)
𝛾𝐻 4 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′𝑑

where m = stability number

21
The maximum height of the slope for which critical equilibrium occurs can be obtained
by substituting c’=cd’ and ∅′ = ∅′d into Eq. (3-27). Thus,
4𝑐′ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′
Hcr =
𝛾
(1−cos( 𝛽−∅′𝑑 ) (3-29)
𝑑

Example 3.3
A cut is to be made in a soil having 𝛾 = 16.5 kN/m3, c’= 28.75 kN/m2, and ∅’=15°.
The side of the cut slope will make an angle of 45° with the horizontal. What should be
the depth of the cut slope that will have a factor of safety (FS) of 3?

Solution
Given: ∅’= 15°; c’= 28.75 kN/m2. If Fs = 3, then Fc’ and F∅’ should both be equal to 3.

𝑐′
Fc’=
𝑐𝑑 ’
or
𝑐′ 𝑐′ 28.75
𝑐𝑑 ’ = = = = 9.58 kN/m2
Fc’ Fs’ 3
Similarly,
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅’ 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅’
F∅’ = ; Fs =
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′d 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′d
𝑡𝑎𝑛15
3=
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′d
𝑡𝑎𝑛15
∅′𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
3
∅′𝒅 =5.1°

Substituting the preceding values of and in Eq. (3-27),

4𝑐′ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅′

H=
𝛾
(1−cos( 𝛽−∅′𝑑 )
𝑑

4(9.58) 𝑆𝑖𝑛45° 𝑐𝑜𝑠5.1°

H=
𝛾
(1−cos( 45°−5.1°))
H =7.03m

22
 Sliced method
 This method can be used for soil in different shearing resistance along the failure plane
 Proposed by fellenius, bishop, janbu, etc.
 Assumed circular failure plane

Regulation of slides
 Sliced performed vertical direction
 The width of the slice does not have the same measurement
 One slice must have one type of soil in the failure surface
 The width of the slice must be such that the curve (failure plane) can be
considered a straight line
 The total weight of soil in slice in a slice is the soil wedge itself, including water
and external load

Firstly it is assumed that the side forces T and E may be neglected and secondly, that the
normal force N, may be determined simply by resolving the weight W of the slice in a
direction normal to the arc, at the mid-point of the slice

N=Wcos 𝑎

Where 𝑎 is the angle of inclination of the potential failure arc to the horizontal at the mid-
point of the slice

The driving force is Wsin 𝑎

Formulas
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∑ 𝑅.𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
 FS = =∑
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑅.𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎
∑( 𝑐 ′ 𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎+𝑊 cos 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅)
 FS = ∑ 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎
 If submerged. N=𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 − 𝑢𝑙
 Where: 𝑙 = 𝑏 sec 𝑎
∑( 𝑐 ′ 𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎+(𝑊 cos 𝑎−𝑢 𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎 )𝑡𝑎𝑛∅)
 FS= ∑ 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎

Example 3.4

Using the fellenius method, calculate the factor safety against sliding for the slope and
trial failure surface shown in the sketch.

Given:
Layer A Layer B
𝛾 = 100𝑝𝑐𝑓 𝛾 = 120𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝑐 ′ = 350𝑝𝑠𝑓 𝑐′ = 0
∅ = 18° ∅ = 34°
23
 26𝑓𝑡(14𝑓𝑡)
𝑊𝑎 = ( ) (110𝑝𝑐𝑓)
2
𝑾𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟏 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

𝑊𝑏 = (26ft)(27ft)(110pcf)

27𝑓𝑡 𝑥 19𝑓𝑡
+( )(120pcf)
2

𝑾𝒃 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒌/𝐟𝐭

24
 26ft+6ft
WC = ( ) (26ft)(110pcf)
2

19ft+24ft
+( ) (26ft)(120pcf)
2

𝑾𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟖 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

6ft+6ft
Wd = ( ) (110pcf)
2

6ft+26ft
+( ) (19ft)(120pcf)
2

5ftx26ft
+ ( 2 ) (120pcf)
𝐖𝐝 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟑𝐤/𝐟𝐭

∑( 𝑐 ′ 𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎+𝑊 cos 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅)

FS = ∑ 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎
10.44+164.25
FS = = 1.99
86.58

25
Bishop method
- also known as simplified bishop method
- includes interslice normal forces
- neglects interslice shear forces
- satisfies only moment equilibrium

Example 3.5 Calculate the factor of safety against sliding using the simplified bishop
method.

Given:
Layer A Layer B
𝛾 = 100𝑝𝑐𝑓 𝛾 = 120𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝑐 ′ = 350𝑝𝑠𝑓 𝑐′ = 0
∅ = 18° ∅ = 34°
FS= 2

26
Solution:
tan ∅ tan 18
For layer A, = = 0.16
𝐹𝑆 2

tan ∅ tan 34
For layer B, = =0.34
𝐹𝑆 2

1
∑ [𝑐 ′ 𝑏+(𝑊−𝑢𝑏)𝑡𝑎𝑛∅]
𝑚𝑎
FS =
∑ 𝑊 sin 𝑎

230.1
FS = = 2.66
86.58

27
References:

https://www.slideshare.net/baljka311/method-ofslices
Braja M. Das, khaled Sobhan-Principle of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th SI edition
Geotechnical Engineering Soil Mechanics by John N. Cernica
Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundation: Basic Geotechnics by David F. McCarthy

28
 CHAPTER 4

OVERVIEW OF GEOSYNTHETICS. DESCRIPTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS,

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETICS, POLYMERS, GEOSYNTHETICS TEST

Definition and Purpose

Geosynthetic - is defined as a planar product manufactured from a polymeric material

that is used with soil, rock, or other geotechnical-related material as an integral part of a
civil engineering project, structure, or system.

Geosynthetic
 Geotextiles
 Geogrids
 Geonets
 Geomembrane
 Geocomposites
 Geoweb
 Geocell
 Geofoam

Geotextiles Geogrids

Geonets Geomembrane

29
 Geoweb @ GeoCELL

Geofoam

Geosynthetic Applications

1.Filtration: Geosynthetics can be used as filters to prevent soils from migrating into the
adjacent material, such as drainage aggregate, while allowing water to flow through the
system (e.g., the use of geotextile in trench drains, silt fence, etc.).

30
2. Drainage: Geotextiles or geocomposites can be used as drainage, or conduit, by
allowing water to drain from or through low-permeability soils.

3. Separation: Geosynthetics can be used as a separator to separate the two dissimilar

materials and prevent them from mixing, such as the use of geotextile between fine-
grained subgrade and granular base course below a roadway.

31
4. Reinforcement: Geogrids or geotextiles can be used as reinforcement to increase
shear strength of soils, thereby providing a more competent structural material. Examples
of this application include the use of geogrid to reinforce a steep slope, or to strengthen a
base course in a pavement system.

5. Erosion control: Geosynthetics can be used to minimize the movement of soil

particles due to flow of water. An example of this application is geotextile used between
riprap and the stream bank to minimize erosion of soil below the riprap.

32
6. Barrier and Containment: involves use of an impervious geosynthetics for situations
where structures require waterproofing membrane, or to function as a no-leak ground
lining for liquid and solid waste disposal sites and the top capping seal. Ex Sanitary
landfill.

7. Protection: relates to including a protective geosynthetic for strength and resistance to

surrounding conditions as part of a geocomposite in a situation where the material used to
provide a major function is vulnerable to conditions present in the surrounding
environment.

33
Polymers – refer to the products obtained by the joining of two or more like molecules to
form a more complex molecule whose physical properties are different.

Use: In construction assemblies that are in contact with the ground or included in earthfill
to enhance the performance of the construction.

Basic Component Materials: (manufactured by petrochemicals and plastic industry)

a. Polyesters- a synthetic, man-made polymer, which, as a specific material, is

most commonly referred to as a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
It is made by mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.

b. Polypropylene- A thermoplastic “addition polymer” made from the

combination of propylene monomers. It is used in a variety of applications to
include packaging for consumer products, plastic parts for various industries
including the automotive industry, special devices like living hinges, and
textiles.

c. Polyethylene- a member of the important family of polyolefin resins. It is the

most widely used plastic in the world, being made into products ranging from
clear food wrap and shopping bags to detergent bottles and automobile fuel tanks.

d. Nylon- a polymer; a plastic with super-long, heavy molecules built up of short,

endlessly repeating sections of atoms, just like a heavy metal chain is made of
ever-repeating links.

34
e. Polyvinylchloride - A thermoplastic produced by chlorination of polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) resin and has greater high-temperature resistance.

f. Fiberglass- a group of products made from individual glass fibers combined

into a variety of forms. Glass fibers can be divided into two major groups
according to their geometry: continuous fibers used in yarns and textiles, and the
discontinuous (short) fibers used as batts, blankets, or boards for insulation and
filtration.

g. Rubber- the natural gum rubber produced from the sap of the Hevea tree
(latex). However it is more commonly used by our customers to describe any
material with “rubber-like” elastomer properties.

35
3 Classifications of Polymer

1. Natural Polymers. Polymers found in nature, mostly in plants and animal sources, are
called natural polymers. A few examples are:

a. Polysaccharides. Starch and cellulose are very common examples of

polysaccharides. They are the polymers of glucose. Starch is a chief food reserve
of plants while cellulose is chief structural material of plants.

b. Proteins. These are the polymers of α-amino acids. They are building blocks of
animal cells. They constitute indispensable part of our food. Wool, natural silk,
leather, etc., are proteins.

c. Nucleic Acids. These are the polymers of various nucleotides. RNA and DNA
are common examples.

d. Natural Rubber. Substance obtained from latex is a polymer of 2-methyl buta-

I, 3-diene (isoprene).

2. Semi-Synthetic Polymers. These are mostly derived from naturally occurring

polymers by carrying out chemical modifications. (Ex .Cellulose diacetate, Acetic
anhydride, Cellulose diacetate)

3. Synthetic Polymers. The polymers which are prepared in the laboratory are referred to
as synthetic polymers or man-made polymers. (Ex. Polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene,
polystyrene, polysulfone)

Advantages of Geosynthetics
 Relatively low cost for many applications
 Ease and convenience for many applications
 Quick and effective protection against erosion problems
 Design methodologies are available for many uses
 Wide variety of geosynthetic products are available to meet specific needs
 May be removed and reused if economically feasible

36
Limitations
 Effectiveness may be reduced drastically if the geosynthetic is not properly selected,
designed, or installed.
 Many geosynthetics are sensitive to light degradation and must be protected prior to
installation.
 Geosynthetics that are not degradable should not be used where their presence or
appearance is aesthetically unacceptable.

Maintenance and Inspection

 Periodic inspection and maintenance will be required based on post-construction site
conditions.
 Make any repairs necessary to ensure the measure is operating properly.
 If geosynthetic is damaged or missing, repairs or replacements shall be made
immediately to restore full protection.
 Geosynthetics used for temporary erosion control may be removed and reused, if this
can be done without leaving the area susceptible to erosion.

Geosynthetic Tests

 Mass- a measure of the amount of matter in an object

37
 Thickness- the distance between opposite sides of something

 Tensile strength- the resistance of a material to breaking under tension.

 Elongation- Measure of the ductility of a material as determined by a tension test, it

is the increase in the gauge-length of a test specimen after fracture divided by its
original gauge-length.

38
 Trapezoid tear- test that produces tension along a reasonably defined course such
that the tear propagates across the width of the specimen.

 Grab tensile- a tensile test where the central part of the specimen's width is tested in
the grips, establishing the “effective strength” of the fabric.

 Puncture (CBR)- a small hole in a tire resulting in an escape of air.

 Dart (drop cone)- also referred to as Falling Dart Impact Test or Free
Falling Dart Method, is a conventional method to evaluate the impact strength or the
toughness of a polymer film.

Reference:
http://www.geolaboratory.com/index-testing/
http://apps.itd.idaho.gov/apps/env/BMP/PDF%20Files%20for%20BMP/Chapter%20
5/PC-8%20%20Geosynthetics.pdf

39
 CHAPTER 5

GEOTEXTILE, SEPARATION, UNPAVED ROADWAY REINFORCEMENT

Geotextile – is typically defined as any permeable textile material usually used in civil
engineering construction projects (such as highway or dam building) that stabilizes loose
soil and prevents erosion.

Types of Geotextile

1. Woven Geotextiles
-These were the first to be developed from the synthetic fiber
-As their name implies, they are manufactured by adopting techniques which are
similar to weaving usual clothing textile

40
2. Non-Woven Geotextiles
– Can be manufactured from either short staple fiber or continuous filament yarn.
– The fibers can be bonded together by adopting thermal, chemical or mechanical
techniques.

3. Knitted Geotextiles – it is formed by using the knitting techniques in conjunction with

some other method of geosynthetic manufacture, such as weaving.

41
Functions of Geotextile

1. Drainage (transmissivity)
- This refers to the ability of thick non-woven geotextile whose three- dimensional
structure provides an avenue for flow of water though the plane of the geotextile.
- Here the geotextile promotes a lateral flow thereby dissipating the kinetic energy
of the capillary rise of the ground water.

Applications and Advantages of using Geotextile in drainage:

a. Drains with Typar and French drains

o Well-graded aggregate substituted by cheaper, coarse aggregate.

o Easy to install, very uniform.
o French drains without pipe.

b. Vertical drains

o Allows up to 10 times faster settlement of soil under static load.

o Faster removal of water in saturated compressible soils.
o More economical than conventional vertical sand drains.

c. Agricultural and pipe drains

o Corrugated pipe wrapped with Typar can be put into subsoil with or
without digging a trench.
o Drainage surface of corrugated pipe is increased up to 90 times.
o Influence zone of wrapped drain is higher.
o Drain spacing can be increased.
o Stiffness of Typar prevents fabric from entering the pipe corrugations.

42
 d. Blanket drains in roads, in sports fields

o Optimal drainage system.

o In sport fields, the thickness of cover soil can be reduced and the filtration
and anti-contamination. Effects avoid clogging of drainage blanket by soil
particles carried by rainwater.

e. Road and civil engineering drainage, side drains

o Optimal drainage system Automated installation equipment.

2. Erosion control
- Geotextiles can be used with riprap along steam banks, lake shores, and other
bodies of water to keep finer soils beneath the riprap from eroding.

3. Filtration
- In filtration, fabrics can be either woven or non-woven, to permit the passage of
water while retaining soil particles.
- Porosity and permeability are the major properties of geotextiles which involves
in filtration action.
- The application helps the replacement of graded aggregate filters by a geotextile
warping.

43
4. Separation
- Is the basic use of geotextiles and is widely practiced in road works and railway
construction.
- Geotextiles will prevent two soil layers of different particles size from mixing
with each other, yet allowing free movement of water. This will increase the
bearing capacity of the construction and provides long term stability foundation
layers.

5. Reinforcement
- Reinforcement provided by geotextile or geogrid allow embankments and roads to
be built over very weak soil and allow for steeper embankment to be built.

44
Applications and Advantages of using Geotextile in reinforcement:

a. Steep slopes

o Allows construction of steeper slopes.

o Savings in required land surface and fill material.

b. Retaining walls

o Most economical retaining wall system.

o Accommodates settlements better than traditional methods.

c. Waterworks, erosion control of earth dam slopes, river and lake embankments

o Replaces a conventional well-graded filter between soil to be protected and

gabion, rip-rap or concrete slabs revetments.
o Special care to anchor Typar at top and toe of the slope.
o For rip-rap revetment, install a layer of finer aggregate (5 to 10 cm) to protect
Typar against puncturing and to ensure good fabric-to-soil contact for
filtration.

d. Erosion control of sea embankments, ocean and bay shores

o Big rip-rap must be installed on a bed of small sized aggregate to protect

Typar against puncturing and to dissipate water forces. A single layer of fabric
held in place by big rip-rap cannot resist the tons of pressure of breaking
waves without this support.
o The bed of aggregate (5 to 10 cm) ensures a good fabric-to-soil contact for
efficient filtration.

e. Breakwater and jetties on soft soil sea bed

o Separation layer of Typar prevents rip-rap from sinking into soft soil.
o Typar must be protected by a layer of smaller-sized stones.

f. Land reclamation with hydraulic fill

o Separation and filtration layer of Typar avoids piping of hydraulic fill.

o Avoids use of expensive and difficult-to-install filter lay.

g. Embankments on compressible soil

o Avoids contamination of filter layer by subsoil and/or fill.

o Allows uniform settlement.

45
 Geotextile end uses and functions (examples)
End use/application Function
Roads (paved and Separation of subgrade and stone base
unpaved) Reinforcement: over soft soils
Airfields Separation of subgrade and stone base
Reinforcement: over soft soils and lateral containment
Railways Separation of subgrade and ballast
Reinforcement: over soft soils
Drainage beneath ballast
Embankments/steep Reinforcement and stabilisation of embankment soil
slopes Separation of embankment and foundation soil
Retaining walls Drainage behind walls
Reinforcement of constructed walls
Sports fields Separation of dissimilar materials
Earth and rock Separation of various zones
dams Reinforcement of the dam components
Chimney drain or drainage gallery
Erosion control Stabilisation of slopes by encouraging growth of vegetation and
reducing
water runoff speed Stabilisation of slopes by encouraging
growth of vegetation and reducing
water runoff speed
River banks Protection and stabilisation

GEOTEXTILE TEST

Reference Test Property Description of Test

Number
ASTM D1777 Thickness A specimen is placed on the base of a
thickness gage and a weighted presser
foot is lowered. The displacement
between the base and the presser foot
is measured as the thickness of the
specimen.
ASTM D3776 Mass per unit area The mass of a specimen of known
dimension is measured. Mass per unit
area is calculated.

ASTM D3786 bursting strength A sample is clamped over an

46
 expandable diaphragm which is then
expanded by fluid pressure until the
specimen is ruptured. The difference
between the total pressure required to
rupture the specimen and the pressure
required to inflate the diaphragm is
reported as the bursting strength.
ASTM D3787 bursting strength A sample is clamped between
grooved, circular plates of the ball
burst attachment secured to the pulling
jaw of the constant-rate-of-traverse
testing machine. A force is exerted
against the specimen by a polished,
hardened steel ball that is attached to
the pendulum-actuating clamp of the
machine until rupture occurs.
ASTM D4355 Degradation in breaking Five geotextile specimens in machine
strength and five in cross-machine direction are
exposed in a Xenon arc device for
each of the following times: 0, 150,
300 and 500 hours. Exposure consists
of 120 minute cycles as follows: 90
minutes of light only at 65 °C
uninsulated black panel temperature
and 50% relative humidity followed
by 30 minutes of light plus water
spray. After each exposure period is
complete, specimens are exposed to a
strip tensile test. The average breaking
strength in each direction is compared
to that of the original control
specimens. The percent strength
retained is plotted to produce a
degradation curve
ASTM D4491 Permittivity, Permittivity is determined by either a
Permeability constant or falling head test. Constant
Head Test—A head of 50 mm (2 in.)
of water is maintained on the
specimen throughout the duration of
the test. The quantity of flow is
measured versus time. The constant
head test is used when the flow rate of
water through the geotextile is so large
that it is difficult to obtain readings of
head change versus time in the falling
head test. Falling Head Test—A

47
 column of water is allowed to flow
through the geotextile and readings of
head changes versus time are taken.
The flow rate of water through the
geotextile must be slow enough to
obtain accurate readings

ASTM D4533 trapezoidal tearing An outline of an isosceles trapezoid is

strength marked on a rectangular specimen and
cut. A small tear is introduced on one
side of the specimen. The nonparallel
sides of the trapezoid marked on the
specimen are clamped in parallel jaws
of a tensile testing machine. The
separation of the jaws is initiated and
increased so the tear propagates across
the specimen. The force is measured
throughout the test.
ASTM D4595 tensile strength, An 8" wide specimen is gripped across
elongation, tensile its entire width in the clamps of a
modulus constant rate of extension (CRE) type
tensile testing machine operated at a
prescribed rate of extension applying a
longitudinal force to the specimen
until the specimen ruptures. Tensile
strength, elongation, initial and secant
modulus, and breaking toughness of
the test specimen can be calculated
from machine scales, dials, recording
charts, or an interfaced computer.
ASTM D4632 grab strength, elongation A continually increasing load is
applied longitudinally to the specimen
and the test is carried to rupture.
Values for the breaking load and
elongation of the test specimen are
obtained from machine scales or dials,
autographic recording charts, or
interfaced computers.

48
GEOTEXTILE INSTALLATION PROCEDURE:

Step 1: Prepare the installation area.

Step 2: Smooth and level the subgrade.

Step 3: Place the geotextile in the prepared installation area.

Step 4: Overlap adjacent rolls as specified for your site. If no instructions exist, fabric should
be overlapped at a minimum or 12-18 inches.

Sewing or Overlapping-

Soil CBR> 3 -Minimum overlap of 0.3 to 0.45 m

Soil CBR 1-3 -Minimum overlap of 0.6-1

Soil CBR< 0.5 - Must be sewn

Step 5: Secure the fabric with staples, pins, soil or other suitable materials.

Step 6: Loosely place fill directly on the geotextile in 8" to 12" lifts. For very weak
subgrades, 18" or thicker may be required.

Geotextiles Advantages

 Increased strength when compared with woven geotextiles that utilize the exact same
yarn. Because of this it is easier to lay the material on site and handling becomes
simpler. Labour costs and transportation costs are reduced.
 Tear strength is exceptionally high. If necessary, increased strength can be built right
into the weft. If not, you can always go for the regular geotextiles that are available at
a lower price tag.
 Strain can be taken on right after loading because of the straight incorporation system
of the geotextile.
 Additional fabric can be incorporated in order to form composite geotextile.

Disadvantages
 Properly installed matting provides excellent erosion control but do so at relatively
high cost.
 Geotextiles and mats may delay seed germination, due to reduction in soil
temperature.
 Plastic sheeting is easily vandalized, easily torn, photodegradable, and must be
disposed of at a landfill.
 Plastic result in 100% runoff, which may cause serious erosion problems in the areas
receiving the increased flow.

49
VIDEO OF INSTALLATION

Geotextile_Fabric_Laying_Process.mp4 (Command Line)

Reference:

https://www.erosionpollution.com/geotextile-installation.html
https://lerablog.org/business/industry/what-are-the-advantages-of-using-geotextiles/
https://www.geocomp.com/GeoTesting/Lab_Services_Geosynthetics_Geotextile
http://www.indiantextilejournal.com/articles/FAdetails.asp?id=5752
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWhoMhLmmGM

50
 CHAPTER 6

GEOGRIDS. REINFORCED WALLS

Geogrids - are flexible, synthetic meshes which are manufactured specifically for slope
stabilization and earth retention.

Origin of Geogrids and its Manufacture

The geosynthetic materials, geogrids, are polymeric products which are formed by means of
intersecting grids.

51
3 Methods of Manufacturing of Geogrid:

1. By Extruding - This manufacturing method of geogrids involves extrusion of a flat sheet

of plastic into the desired configuration. The plastic material used may be high-density
polypropylene or high-density polyethylene.

2. By Knitting or Weaving -In this method of Geogrid manufacture, single yarns of

polyester or polypropylene material undergo either knitting or weaving to form flexible
junctions forming apertures. These materials are recommended to have high tenacity, to give
the Geogrid the final desired property.

52
3: By Welding and Extrusion -This is recently developed a method by Secugrid
manufactures. The method involves the extrusion of flat polyester or polypropylene ribs by
passing them through rollers as shown in the figure below.

3 Types of Geogrid

1. Biaxial Geogrids -Biaxial Geogrids improve the structural integrity of roadways by

confining and distributing load forces. Geogrids provide support for the construction of
access roads, highways and applications on weak subgrades that previously required
expensive over-excavating and replacing. Geogrids are also used for road construction on
stable subgrades to reduce aggregate thickness requirements and/or extend roadway
performance life.

2. Uniaxial Geogrids - In grade separation applications, Uniaxial Geogrids are used to help
soils stand at virtually any desired angle; from 0 to 90 degrees. Geogrids can be combined
with a wide variety of facing elements in retaining wall and slope applications to produce the
desired structural or aesthetic conditions for any project.

3. TriAxGeogrids - TriAx is a revolutionary new geogrid product from Tensar. The

triangular structure of TriAxgeogrid, coupled with the increased rib thickness and junction
efficiency, greatly improves aggregate interlock and confinement – leading to optimal
structural performance of the mechanically stabilized layer.

53
-Research indicates that TriAxgeogrid can reduce aggregate base/sub-base requirements by
25% to 50%

Functions of Geogrid

1. Geogrid stabilize soil mass.

2. Creates a composite soil mass of increased strength
3. Geogrid is to soil what reinforcing steel is to concrete
4. Much higher loads can be carried by the soil structure

Applications of Geogrid

1. Retaining Walls

2. Steepened Slopes

54
 3. Embankment Over Soft Soils

4. Veneer Stability in Landfills

5. Void Bridging
6. Pavement Reinforcement

Geogrid Test

Reference Test Property Description of Test

Number

ASTM D1238 Melt Index Pieces of plastic are placed into an

extrusion plastometer and the rate of
flow of the melted plastic is
measured
ASTM D1505 Density Density is determined based on
observing the level to which a test
specimen sinks in a liquid column
exhibiting a density gradient, in
comparison with standards of a
known density

55
ASTM D1603 Percent Carbon Plastic material is weighed and
Black Content placed in a Nitrogen purged tube
furnace for 15 minutes. Change in
weight is calculated as % Carbon
black.
ASTM D4218 Percent Carbon Black polyethylene compound
Black Content contained in a disposable aluminum
weighing dish is pyrolyzed in a
muffle furnace for a short period.
During the pyrolysis of the polymer,
the air in the muffle furnace becomes
oxygen-deficient to prevent the
combustion of the residual carbon
black. After cooling and weighing
for residual carbon black, the dish
and contents may be reinserted into
the muffle furnace to determine ash
content and the results used to
determine true carbon black content.
ASTM D5321 Interface Shear, Shear resistance between a
Cohesion, Friction geosynthetic and a soil, or a
Angle geosynthetic and another
geosynthetic is measured. The
geosynthetic and other material is
placed within a large-scale direct
shear box with an applied normal
load on top. The normal loads used
(typically at least three) normally
represent design conditions. A shear
force is applied to the apparatus such
that one section of the box is moved
in relation to the other. The shear
force is recorded with respect to
displacement. The peak and post-
peak shear stresses are plotted
against the applied normal stresses.
The test data are presented by a best
fit straight line whose slope is the
coefficient of friction between the
two materials where the shearing
occurred. The y-intercept of the
straight line is the adhesion.

ASTM D6637 Rib Tensile Strength The geogrid specimen (Method A:

single rib or Method B: with at least

56
 three junctions) is clamped in a
tensile machine and pulled to failure
while recording displacement and
strength. Average rib tensile strength
and elongation reported.
ASTM D6706 Pull-out Resistance A geosynthetic material is placed
between two layers of soil. A normal
load is applied to the setup. The
geosynthetic is clamped on one end
and pulled out of the soil. The force
required to pull the geosynthetic is
recorded. Pull-out resistance is
calculated by dividing the maximum
load by the specimen width. A plot
of maximum pullout resistance
versus applied normal stress is
produced when multiple tests are
performed at multiple normal loads.

The procedure involved in geogrid construction

1. Laying the geogrids over levelled soil sub-base as reinforcement

57
2. Placing aggregate over the geogrid layer

3. Final compacted and rolled

Advantages of Geogrids in Construction

 Ease of Construction: the Geogrid can be installed in any weather conditions. This
makes it more demanding.
 Land Optimization: This method of Geogrid installation in soils makes an unsuitable
area suitable for preparing it to meet desired properties for construction. Geogrid thus
helps in proper land utilization.
 Geogrid promotes soil stabilization
 A higher strength soil mass is obtained
 Higher load bearing capacity
 It is a good remedy to retain soil from erosion
 No requirement of mortar. The material is implemented dry.
 No difficulty in material availability

58
  Geogrids are flexible in nature. They are known for their versatility..
 Materials are tested based on standard codes and regulations.

Reinforced Soil Walls – Concept

Positive Interlock-As retaining wall heights increase, our exclusive “Rock-Lock”

connection, combined with the weight of the wall blocks, provides the best block-to-grid
interlock of any system on the market.

External Stability -External stability exists when the entire act as a coherent structure to
satisfy standard gravity wall analysis.

Internal Stability - Internal stability is the ability of the reinforcement combined with the
internal strength of the soil to hold the soil mass together and work as a single unit

Internal Compound Stability-Slip plane that runs through the retained and reinforced soil
and wall facing.

Internal Compound

59
Video of Geogrid

Zigma_-_GeoGrid_Installation.mp4 (Command Line)

Reference:
https://theconstructor.org/building/geogrids-types-functions-applications-advantages/15190/
http://www.allanblock.com/retaining-walls/reinforced-wall-engineering.aspx
https://www.geocomp.com/GeoTesting/Lab_Services_Geosynthetics_Geogrid
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2013/09/geogrid-vs-geotextile-functions-and.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d8RqxTBcvI8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IMhIFF0BPe0

60
 CHAPTER 7

GEONETS

Geonets- can be widely used I many aspects of rock project which have chemical stability,
excellent weather ability, resistance to corrosive and higher tensile strength and duration.

Geonets
 Geonets are also planar products
 Consists of ribs in two directions
 Apertures are of diamond shape
 Ribs in the two directions are at different planes
 Thickness of geonet is larger than that of geogrids
 Geonets are also referred to as geospacers

3 Types of Geonets

1. Biplanar geonet–these are the original and most common types and consist of two set of
intersecting ribs at difference angle and spacing.

2. Triplanar geonet – These have parallel central ribs with smaller sets of ribs above and
beneath mainly for geometric stability.

3. Other geonets –These newer geonet structures have either box shaped channels or
protruding columns from an underlying stability.

61
Functions of Geonets

DRAINAGE - Geosynthetic allows water to pass along its plane.

TRANSMISSIVITY- It occurs along the plane of geosynthetics

Application of Geonet

 Water drainage behind retaining walls

 Water drainage beneath sport fields
 Water drainage of frost-susceptible soils
 Water drainage beneath building foundations
 Water drainage of plaza decks
 Leachate drainage of landfill side slopes
 Leachate drainage above landfill liners
 Surface water drainage within landfill caps
 As a drainage blanket beneath a surcharge fill

62
Geonet Properties and Test Methods

Reference Number Test Property Description of Test

ASTM D5199 nominal thickness The nominal thickness of geosynthetics

is determined by observing the
perpendicular distance that a movable
plane is displaced from a parallel
surface by the geotextile or
geomembrane material while under a
specified pressure (2 kPa for geotextiles
and 20 kPa for geomembranes for 5s).
ASTM D1603 percent carbon black Plastic material is weighed and placed
content in a Nitrogen purged tube furnace for
15 minutes. Change in weight is
calculated as % Carbon black.
ASTM D1621 compressive strength A sample of geonet is placed in a
compression device and loaded until
peak strength is recorded.
ASTM D4218 percent carbon black Black polyethylene compound
content contained in a disposable aluminium
weighing dish is pyrolyzed in a muffle
furnace for a short period. During the
pyrolysis of the polymer, the air in the
muffle furnace becomes oxygen-
deficient to prevent the combustion of
the residual carbon black. After cooling
and weighing for residual carbon black,
the dish and contents may be reinserted
into the muffle furnace to determine ash
content and the results used to
determine true carbon black content.
ASTM D5321 Interface shear, cohesion, Shear resistance between a geosynthetic
friction angle and a soil, or a geosynthetic and
another geosynthetic is measured. The
geosynthetic and other material are
placed within a large-scale direct shear
box with an applied normal load on top.
The normal loads used (typically at
least three) normally represent design
conditions. A shear force is applied to
the apparatus such that one section of
the box is moved in relation to the
other. The shear force is recorded with
respect to displacement. The peak and
post-peak shear stresses are plotted

63
 against the applied normal stresses. The
test data are presented by a best fit
straight line whose slope is the
coefficient of friction between the two
materials where the shearing occurred.
The y-intercept of the straight line is
the adhesion.
ASTM D7179 breaking force A geonet specimen is gripped in a
tensile machine (full-width) and pulled
until the specimen fails. The maximum
breaking force is recorded and reported.
ASTM D1505 Density Density is determined based on
observing the level to which a test
specimen sinks in a liquid column
exhibiting a density gradient, in
comparison with standards of a known
density.

Installation of Geonet
1. Preparation of the supporting ground
2. Lateral trenches
3. Installation of drainage pipe
4. Lateral overlaps
5. Contiguous overlaps

Video Geonet

PE_Plastic_Rigid_Flat_Net_and_Geonet_Machine.mp4 (Command Line)

PE_Geonet_making_machine.mp4 (Command Line)

Reference:
Geosynthetics.com.on
https://www.geocomp.com/GeoTesting/Lab_Services_Geosynthetics_Geonet
http://www.climaxindia.com/geonets.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_s0c87fA70
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mn7hmbYbrCI

64
 CHAPTER 8

GEOMEMBRANES. LIQUID CONTAINMENT (POND) LINERS.

SOLID MATERIAL (LANDFILL) LINERS.

Geomembrane – is considered a very low permeability (low leakage rate) liner made out of
synthetic (man-made) material. (Flexible membrane liners FML’s)

Manufacturing

Once the specific type of geomembrane formulation that is specified has been thoroughly
mixed it is then manufactured into a continuous sheet. The two major processes used for
manufacturing of the various types of sheets of geomembranes are variations of either

 Extrusion (e.g., for HDPE, VLDPE, and LLDPE)

 Calendering (e.g., for PVC and PP)

Extrude Geomembrane
Manufactured by melting polymer resin or chips and forcing the molten polymer
through a die using a screw- extruder.

Calendering Geomembrane
Formed by working and flattening a molten viscous formulation between counter
rotating rollers.

1. Blending, compounding, mixing and/or masticating

Blending, compounding, mixing and/or masticating of the various components are
conventionally done on a weight, percentage basis. However, each geomembrane's
processing is somewhat unique in its equipment and procedures.

2. Regrind, reworked or trim reprocessed material

"Regrind", "reworked" or "trim" is all terms which can be defined as finished
geomembrane sheet material which has been cut from edges or ends of rolls, or is off-
specification from a surface blemish, thickness or other property point of view.

65
Types of Geomembrane:

1. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) - high density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembranes

are made from polyethylene resin, carbon black and additives.

a) Resin-The polyethylene resin used for HDPE geomembranes is prepared by low

pressure polymerization of ethylene as the principal monomer, the resin is usually
supplied to the manufacturer or formulator in an opaque pellet form.

b) Carbon Black- is added into an HDPE geomembrane formulation for general

stabilization purposes, particularly for ultraviolet light stabilization. It is sometimes
added in a powder form at the geomembrane manufacturing facility during
processing, or it is added as a reformulated concentrate in pellet form.

c) Additives- are introduced into an HDPE geomembrane formulation for the purposes
of oxidation prevention, long-term durability and as a lubricant and/or processing aid
during manufacturing.

2. Very Low Density Polyethylene (VLDPE)-are made from polyethylene resin, carbon
black and additives. There are similarities between VLDPE and linear low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) they have similar polymerization mechanisms although the catalyst
technology is different.

a) Resin- The polyethylene resin used for VLDPE geomembranes is a linear polymer of
ethylene with other alpha-olefins. As with HDPE, the resin is generally supplied to
the manufacturer in the form of pellets.

66
 b) Carbon black - is added to VLDPE geomembrane formulations for general
stabilization purposes, particularly for ultraviolet light stabilization. It is added either
in a powder form at the geomembrane manufacturing facility during processing, or it
is added as a reformulated concentrate in pellet form.

c) Additives - are introduced into a VLDPE formulation for the purposes of anti-
oxidation, Long-term durability and as a lubricant and/or processing aid during
manufacturing.

3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)-the polyvinyl chloride resin used for PVC geomembrane is
made by cracking ethylene dichloride into a vinyl chloride monomer. It is then polymerized
to make a PVC resin. The PVC resin (in the form of a white powder) is then compounded
with other components to form a PVC compound.

a) Plasticizers - are added to PVC formulations to impart flexibility, improve handling

and modify physical and mechanical properties.

b) Filler - used in a PVC formulation is a relatively small component, and is generally

not identified. Calcium carbonate, in powder form, has been used but other options
also exist.

c) Additives - Other additives for the purpose of ease of manufacturing, coloring and
stabilization are also added to the formulation. They are generally not identified.

Advantages of PVC Geomembranes

 Ease of holding or shaping

 Durability under all environmental conditions
 Good mechanical strength and toughness
 Very good tear strength and elongation
 Excellent resistance to abrasion
 Good barrier to moisture
 Excellent UV resistant

67
Application of Geomembrane

68
69
Geomembrane Test

Reference Property test Description of test

number
ASTM D1004 Tear strength Test specimens are pulled with a
tensile machine to determine the
strength of material with an initial
notch
ASTM D1204 Dimensional Specimens are cut and dimensionally
stability measured then subject to heating for
a specific period of time. After
heating, specimens are dimensionally
measured again and compared to
initial measurements.

70
ASTM D1238 Melt index Pieces of plastic are placed into an
extrusion plastometer and the rate of
flow of the melted plastic is
measured.

ASTM D1505 Density Density is determined based on

observing the level to which a test
specimen sinks in a liquid column
exhibiting a density gradient, in
comparison with standards of a
known density
ASTM D1593 Thickness By determining specific gravity and
measuring width and height,
thickness of plastic is calculated.
ASTM D1603 Percent carbon Plastic material is weighed and
black content placed in a Nitrogen purged tube
furnace for 15 minutes. Change in
weight is calculated as % Carbon
black
ASTM D3015 Carbon black Specimens are melted within glass
dispersion plates on a hot plate and viewed
through a microscope. Carbon black
dispersion rating is obtained by
comparing microscope field of view
with standard fields of view on basis
of size and frequency of
agglomerates
ASTM D4833 Puncture A test specimen is clamped without
resistance tension between circular plates of a
ring clamp attached secured in a
tensile testing machine. A force is
exerted against the center of the
unsupported portion of the test
specimen by a solid steel rod
attached to the load indicator until
rupture of the specimen occurs. The
maximum force recorded is the value
of puncture resistance of the
specimen.
ASTM D4885 Wide-width A relatively wide specimen is
tensile strength gripped across its entire width in the
clamps of a constant rate of extension
type tensile testing machine operated
at a prescribed rate of extension,
applying a uniaxial load to the

71
 specimen until the specimen ruptures.
Tensile strength, elongation, initial
and secant modulus and breaking
toughness of the test specimen can be
calculated from machine scales,
dials, recording charts or an
interfaced computer.
ASTM D5199 Nominal The nominal thickness of
thickness geomembrane is determined by
measuring the perpendicular distance
that a movable plane is displaced
from a parallel surface by the
geomembrane while under a
specified pressure (20 kPa for 5s).
ASTM D5321 Interface shear, Shear resistance between a
cohesion, friction geosynthetic and a soil, or a
angle geosynthetic and another
geosynthetic is measured. The
geosynthetic and other material is
placed within a large-scale direct
shear box with an applied normal
load on top. The normal loads used
(typically at least three) normally
represent design conditions. A shear
force is applied to the apparatus such
that one section of the box is moved
in relation to the other. The shear
force is recorded with respect to
displacement. The peak and post-
peak shear stresses are plotted against
the applied normal stresses. The test
data are presented by a best fit
straight line whose slope is the
coefficient of friction between the
two materials where the shearing
occurred. The y-intercept of the
straight line is the adhesion.

72
Lining Installation

1. Site Considerations - Whenever possible, site selection should avoid areas where flooding
or ground water pressure can occur. The lining "bottom" should be well above the water
table. If the site selected is in an area where organics are in the soil, or if gases can be
generated by chemical reaction, the design must allow for venting.

2. Surface Preparations- Surfaces should be level and free of all sharp rocks (all rock and
stone greater than .05 diameters), objects, vegetation and stubble. (Soil sterilization may be
necessary to kill roots and certain types of grasses.) The subgrade surface should provide a
unyielding foundation for the geomembrane with no sharp or abrupt changes or break in
grade. Proper compaction assures stability and support of the liner.

3. Controlling Groundwater- Groundwater should be taken into account and, if present, it

will need to be controlled both during and after construction. One method for controlling
groundwater is to develop a French drain system under the lining that allows the water to
flow laterally under the lining without floating the lining.

4. Slopes - Side slopes should be no steeper than 3:1

73
5. Receipt of Liner & Materials

-Liner panels are fabricated into large sheets to minimize field seaming. These large
panels are first accordion folded, then rolled up on a core.
-It is recommended that the liners panels' protective covering not be removed until
installation and that any uncovered panels be stored out of direct sunlight.
-Panels are rolled on 6" cores and can be unloaded using a 10' section of schedule 80
pipe and handling straps.
-We also offer 12 mil tarps to cover and protect delivered liner rolls.

6. Anchor Trenches- To secure the edges of the lining in an earthen pit, an "anchor trench"
is dug. Anchor trenches are approx. two foot wide by two foot deep (2' x 2') and one foot
back from the crest of the berm (standard trench dimensions and depth vary according to
project design)
-Dirt removed should be raked out flat on the far side of the trench, away from the pit, to be
used to backfill after the liner edges are laid out in the anchor trench, while allowing the
panels to be unrolled along the berm.

74
7. Site Structures- Structures, piping, concrete, drains, and any associated work should be
completed prior to lining installation.

8. Liner Deployment - The roll is raised by a loader, forklift, or other lifting equipment, and
then unrolled in one direction, and unfolded in the other direction.

9. Panel Placement- Take time when unloading and placing rolls of lining to avoid damage.
Verify the location of a panel or sheet before unrolling and placement to avoid improper
alignment. Sandbags are required to keep the panels in place during installation, exposed or
covered. Care should be taken to avoid wrinkles in the seam areas and around mechanical
attachments.

75
It takes considerable manpower to deploy a liner. It is "pulled" but not stretched. Minor
wrinkles insure the liner is installed in a relaxed condition. A ballast system (sand bags) and
anchor trenches are used for all geomembrane installations.

10. Field Seaming- Fabricating panels at one of our climate controlled facilities into
essentially larger panels dramatically reduces the amount of field seaming a project requires.
The lining material itself determines the types of field seaming techniques used.
The most commonly used process is heat fusion welding, which can be done with hot air or
hot wedge.

76
11. Liner Attachments to Structure

12. Pipe Boots - A pipe boot is a method of sealing the liner system to necessary pipes that
penetrate the lining system. These can be fabricated in one of our facilities or on site during
field construction.

77
Video of Geomembrane

Geomembrane_installation.mp4 (Command Line)

geomembrane_installation_and_testing.mp4 (Command Line)

Geomembrane_Liner_Manufacturer,Geomembrane_Factory_and_suppliers.mp4 (Command Line)

References:

http://www.coloradolining.com/resources/installation-guide.html
https://www.geocomp.com/GeoTesting/Lab_Services_Geosynthetics_Geomembrane
http://www.geomembrane.in/advantages.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J9k98ChAisI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xtBvD11zb3k

78
 CHAPTER 9

GEOCOMPOSITE, GEOFOAM, GEOCELL/GEOWEB

Geocomposites are multi-layered combinations of geosynthetics. These combinations

provide benefits over individual layers by enhancing functions, increasing interface
friction angles and increasing the speed of installation. With careful design they can
provide drainage, protection, reinforcement, and filtration and barrier functions and
replace expensive and scarce mineral resources.

TYPES OF GEOMEMBRANE

1, Geotextile - Geonet Composites- Placed horizontally, they make excellent drains to

upwardly moving water in a capillary zone where frost heave or salt migration is a
problem. When the water enters the sandwich it travels horizontally within the geonet and
away from where damage can occur. Such geocomposites have also been used in
intercepting and conveying of leachate in landfills and for conducting vapour or water
beneath pond liners of various types.

2. Geotextile - Geomembrane Composites

In the reinforcement area, the geotextiles provides increased resistance to puncture, tear
propagation, and friction related to sliding, as well as providing tensile strength in and of
themselves. The geotextiles are of the nonwoven, needle-punched variety and are of
relatively heavy weight. In such cases they act as drainage media, since their in-plane
transmissivity feature can conduct water or leachate away from direct contact with the
geomembrane.

3. Geomembrane - Geogrid Composites

Since some types of gemembrances and geogrids can be made from the same material
(e.g., high-density polyethylene), they can be joined together (actually welded) to form an
impervious barrier with enhanced strength and friction capabilities.

79
4. Geotextile - Geogrid Composites
Those geotextiles with low modulus, low strength and / or high elongation at failure can
be greatly improved by forming a composite material with a geogrid, or even with a
woven fabric scrim.

Major Applications of Geocomposite

1.Geomembrane Protection

2.Gas Venting

3.Drainage

80
Geocomposite test

Reference Test Property Description of Test

Number

ASTM D1777 Thickness Specimen is placed on the base of a

thickness gage and a weighted presser foot
is lowered. The displacement between the
base and the presser foot is measured as
the thickness of the specimen.
ASTM D5321 Interface shear, cohesion, Shear resistance between a geosynthetic
friction angle and a soil, or a geosynthetic and another
geosynthetic is measured. The
geosynthetic and other material is placed
within a large-scale direct shear box with
an applied normal load on top. The normal
loads used (typically at least three)
normally represent design conditions. A
shear force is applied to the apparatus such
that one section of the box is moved in
relation to the other. The shear force is
recorded with respect to displacement. The
peak and post-peak shear stresses are
plotted against the applied normal stresses.
The test data are presented by a best fit
straight line whose slope is the coefficient
of friction between the two materials
where the shearing occurred. The y-
intercept of the straight line is the
adhesion.
ASTM D5567 Hydraulic conductivity This test method presents a procedure for
ratio performing permeability tests of
soil/geotextile systems. The technique
requires placement of the soil and
geotextile in a flexible-wall permeameter.
The soil/geotextile specimen is saturated
using de-aired water and back pressure
techniques. The specimen is consolidated
at the effective stress anticipated in the
proposed application. The sample is then
permeated with water. The hydraulic
conductivity of the soil/geotextile
specimen is measured and plotted as a
function of elapsed time and volume of
water passing through the sample. The
hydraulic conductivity may either increase
or decrease during the test, depending on
the behaviour of the geotextile filter. The

81
 test is terminated when a stabilized
hydraulic conductivity decreases below the
minimum value allowed by the drainage
design.
ASTM D413 Ply adhesion, peel Specimens are clamped in tensile test
strength, bond strength machine and pulled to at least 4 inches of
separation. Force is recorded during test
and averaged for result of adhesion.
ASTM D4716 Transmissivity, flow rate The flow rate per unit width is determined
by measuring the quantity of water that
passes through a test specimen in a
specific hydraulic gradient. The hydraulic
gradient(s) and specimen contact surfaces
are selected by the user either as an index
test or as a performance test to model a
given set of field parameters as closely as
possible. Measurements may be repeated
under increasing normal stresses selected
by the user. Hydraulic transmissivity
should be determined only for tests or for
specific regions of tests that exhibit a
linear flow rate per unit width versus
gradient relationship, that is, laminar flow.
ASTM D1505 Density Density is determined based on observing
the level to which a test specimen sinks in
a liquid column exhibiting a density
gradient, in comparison with standards of
a known density.

ASTM D1603 Percent carbon black Plastic material is weighed and placed in a
content Nitrogen purged tube furnace for 15
minutes. Change in weight is calculated as
% Carbon black.

ASTM D1621 Compressive strength A sample of geonet is placed in a

compression device and loaded until peak
strength is recorded.

82
Geofoam -is made of expanded polystyrene (EPS). It has been used in civil engineering as a light
weight fill under a road sub-grade, built over a low load bearing soil.

Application of geofoam:

1. Road construction over poor soils – Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam can be used to
replace compressible soils or in place of heavy fill materials to prevent unacceptable loading on
underlying soils and adjacent structures.

2. Road widening – eliminates the need for compaction and fill testing, reduces the construction
time and minimizes impact to the existing roadway and adjacent structures and/or buried utilities.

83
3. Bridge abutment – Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam imparts significantly reduced
lateral forces on abutment walls, foundations and other retaining structures, because the
transmitted lateral force is proportional to the weight of the backfill.

4. Bridge underfill – Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam’s light weight adds little additional
load to the underlying ground. EPS geofoam infill can help support the span and transfer the
traffic load safely to the foundation or underlying soil.

5. Culverts, pipelines & buried structures – for the placement of new fill over existing
underground structures that were not designed to support the increased loads. Rather than
removing or strengthening the existing underground structures, the new fill load can be reduced
to a tolerable level by using EPS geofoam instead of heavier traditional fills.

84
6. Compensating foundation– Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam can be used as a
compensating foundation to reduce the load on underlying compressible soils and minimize
building settlement along with potential bearing capacity problems.

7. Rail embankment– Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam can be used to construct railway
embankments that do not overload the existing soils. As a fill material, EPS geofoam is strong
enough to support railway loads.

8. Landscaping & vegetative green roofs– Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam can be used
to create topography without adding significant load to underlying structures and services.

85
9. Retaining & buried wall backfill – Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam can be used as
backfill behind retaining and buried structures to greatly reduce lateral pressures on the structure.

10. Slope stabilization – Unstable slopes can be remediated by removing a portion of the
existing soil and replacing it with lightweight EPS geofoam, thus unloading the head or top of the
landslide and improving its stability.

11. Stadium & theater seating – Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam can be used to form
tiered seating in locations such as auditoriums, movie theaters, gymnasiums and churches.

86
12. Levees – are frequently built on compressible alluvial soils along rivers because of river
depositional patterns.

13. Airport runway/taxiway – Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) geofoam can be used under airport
runways to replace unsuitable soils without overloading the underlying subgrade materials.

14. Foundations for lightweight structures –An innovative use of EPS geofoam are to replace
traditional agricultural pile footings on peat soils.

87
15. Special applications

a. Noise and vibration damping –EPS geofoam can be used to build free-standing walls or
embankments to reduce noise from highways.

b. Compressible application–EPS geofoam is available in a wide range of compressive

resistances.

c. Seismic application–EPS has two primary advantages that make it attractive for seismic
design: its light weight and its compressibility.

d. Permafrost embankments–Roadways constructed over permafrost are susceptible to

thaw settlement, which results in high maintenance costs and poor ride quality.

e. Rockfall/impact protection –Development in mountainous regions sometimes occurs

where there is a high probability of rock fall.

Geofoam Test

Reference number Test Property Description of Test

ASTM C165 compressive strength Specimens are prepared to the

required dimensions using a hot wire
saw (4" x 4" x 1" thick). The blocks
are dimensioned then placed into a
load frame and compressed at a rate
of approximately 0.05 inches per
minute for each inch of thickness.
ASTM C203 Breaking load Four specimens are cut from a larger
block sample with a hot wire saw. A
bar of rectangular cross section is
tested in flexure via one of the two
methods: Test Method I—The bar
rests on two supports and is loaded
by means of a loading fitting or piece
midway between the supports. Test
Method II—The bar rests on two
supports and is loaded at the two
quarter points (by means of two
loading fittings), each an equal
distance from the adjacent support
point. The distance between the
loading fittings is one half of the
support span.

88
ASTM C303 Dimensions and Three specimens are cut from a
density larger block sample with a hot wire
saw. Specimens are weighed, and
then dimensioned with calipers.
Density is calculated from these
values.
ASTM D1621 compressive strength Specimens are prepared to the
required dimensions using a hot wire
saw (4" x 4" x 1" thick). The blocks
are dimensioned then placed into a
load frame and compressed at a rate
of approximately 0.05 inches per
minute for each inch of thickness.
ASTM D1622 Dimensions and Three specimens are cut from a
density larger block sample with a hot wire
saw. Specimens are weighed, and
then dimensioned with calipers.
Density is calculated from these
values.

89
StrataWeb (Geocell

- It can be used as a foundation reinforcement mat for improvement of load bearing

capacities of weak soils and as an erosion control barrier for slope surfaces.

- The Geoweb system consists of a robust three-dimensional structure housing a network of

interconnected cells that confine and compact soil. The confinement action prevents
erosion and improves the structural performance of the soil or aggregate infill providing
an alternative to reinforced concrete or armour.

90
Manufacturing of geoweb

Strata Web manufacturing involves extruding the base polymer using laser controlled
processes to ensure accuracy throughout the batch. After, extrusion the sheets are
perforated through a high power punching machine and then finally the joints are welded
using advanced ultrasonic welding machines which provides the highest weld strength
possible.

Applications of Geoweb

1. Erosion Control - The confinement action of StrataWeb reduces erosion on slopes arising due
to rains, wind and other factors. StrataWeb protection system can be engineered to suit slope
conditions, from very steep 60 degree slopes to very gradual 27 degrees slopes, and provide a
cost effective solution. After the slope is dressed and compacted StrataWeb can be expanded and
installed rapidly using Strata connectors and anchor systems.

2. Slope liner Protection - is used on the slope which cannot be damaged or punctured,
StrataWeb liner protection system is the perfect solution. Strata Web can be laid on the liner
without any requirement for puncturing the liner and is anchored at the crest of the slope. The
crest anchorage is engineered to withstand all the sliding forces arising in Strata Web.

91
3. Load Support- Due to the confinement effect and honeycomb structure, StrataWeb spreads
the loads forming on top over a larger area effectively increasing the modulus of the infill
material. Strata Web is very effective for pavements, ground improvement below embankments,
access roads etc. over poor subgrades such as expansive soils, black cotton areas, etc. It can be
engineered for heavy loading and several site conditions.

4. Retaining Wall - In several projects, where changes of grade challenges are encountered,
retaining walls are required. Typical concrete retaining walls are expensive to construct and
require substantial time. A StrataWeb retaining wall is an optimized solution for such projects.
The wall can be designed either as geogrids reinforced soil wall or as a gravity wall.

92
Advantages of geoweb

 The Geoweb geocell cellular confinement system is manufactured to ISO 9001 quality
standards. Its robust UV resistant structure is ideal for use in harsh environments.
 The Geoweb system can be installed quickly, particularly through the use of the patented
ATRA Key connection system or high strength tendons, saving on installation costs.
 It is an eco-friendly soil stabilisation solution that blends into the natural environment.
 Its strong, three-dimensional structure means it can easily withstand construction
activities.
 With different types of infill, perforations allow infill to interlock with the cell walls,
increasing frictional resistance, creating a better armoured slope.
 In saturated conditions, the removal of excess water increases infill friction, reducing
down slope sliding forces, resulting in a more stable system.

Geofoam Video

The_Geofoam_solution.3gp (Command Line)

Installation of Geoweb

GEOWEB®_Geocell_Channel___Slope_Installation_(Full).mp4 (Command Line)

References:

http://www.strataindia.com/strataweb.html?gclid=EAIaIQobChMInZLNiNyD2wIVlSQrCh3S9A
oEEAMYASAAEgKQHvD_BwE
https://www.geocomp.com/GeoTesting/Lab_Services_Geosynthetics_Geocomposite
https://www.geocomp.com/GeoTesting/Lab_Services_Geosynthetics_Geofoam
https://www.geofabrics.co/products/geoweb%C2%AE
http://www.climaxindia.com/geocomposites.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zoTkaRm26S0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oQp3QsUl3ws

93
 CHAPTER 10

GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS

Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL)

– Very low- permeability material supported by geotextiles and /or geomembranes,
mechanically held together by needling, stitching.
– is type of geosynthetic that is specially used for water proofing of man-made lakes, land
yards, underground garages, building roof gardens, water tanks, oils depots, and chemical
pile yards.

Types of Clay Liners

1. Compacted clay liner

2. Geosynthetics clay liner

94
Geosynthetic clay liner aka (Clay Geosynthetic barrier GBR-C)

– Typically a thin layer of bentonite power between two geotextile

– Bentonite can be granular or powder (Na/Ca/Activated)
– The geotextiles can be woven or nonwovenpolmer
– Also coated geotextiles, and geomembrane / geofilm related types

Geosynthetic Clay Liners Function

 Impermeability/encapsulation
- Water (low permeability k ∼ 𝑥. 10−11 𝑚/𝑠)
- castight (if saturated)
- caption exchange capacity and sorption capacity

GCL Application

 Ground water protection: roads, railways, chemical storage areas, waste treatment areas
etc.
 Landfill capping
 Mine tailing
 Ponds for storm water, waste liquids
 Water pressure wall

95
Roadside protection

Landfill capping

96
Bentonite
 A distinct type of fine-grained clay soil typically containing not less than 80%
montmorillonite clay, usually characterized by high swelling upon wetting.

Test of geosynthetic clay liner

Reference
Number Test Property Description of Test

ASTM Moisture content, A moist GCL specimen is placed in a suitable

D4643 Water content container and its mass is determined. It is then
placed in a microwave oven, subjected to an
interval of drying, and removed from the oven
and its new mass is determined. This procedure
is repeated until the mass becomes nearly
constant.
ASTM Mass per unit area The mass per unit area is determined by
D5993 weighing (oven-dried) specimens of known
initial size after drying in an oven over a
sufficient time period to remove the moisture
from the GCL. The mass per unit area of the
clay component of the GCL can be estimated by
subtracting the manufacturers reported nominal
mass per unit area of the synthetic component(s)
from the total GCL mass per unit area.
ASTM Tensile strength A 4 inch wide specimen is gripped across its
D6768 entire width in the clamps of a constant rate of
extension (CRE) type tensile testing machine
and pulled at 12 inches per minute until the
specimen ruptures.

97
ASTM Bonding peel strength The top and bottom layers of a geosynthetic
D6496 clay liner are gripped individually in tensile
grips and pulled at a constant rate of extension
by a tensile testing machine until the top and
bottom layers of the specimen separate. The
average bonding peel strength of the test
specimen can be calculated from machine
scales, dials, recording charts or an interface
computer.

Proposal for installation

 Certification for
- road side protection
- landfill capping (both slope <1;3 and
flatter areas)
- clean water ponds
 Education for installers
- including the safety issues

Reason for failure/ mis-function

 Mistakes in installation: wrinkles, too small overlapping, shrinkage

 Inadequate cover and protection layer
 Too steep slope
 Erosion

98
Video of Geosynthetic Clay Liner

ELCOSEAL®_Geosynthetic_Clay_Liner_Installation_Procedures.mp4 (Command Line)

Geosynthetic_Clay_Liner,_GCL.mp4 (Command Line)

References:

https://www.geocomp.com/GeoTesting/Lab_Services_Geosynthetics_clay_liner
https://www.slideshare.net/srujanirulzzworld/use-of-geo-synthetic-clay-liners-in-waste
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/geosynthetic_clay_liner Youtubes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sj9YDCtCzws

99
 CHAPTER 11

FILTRATION, DRAINAGE, RETAINING WALL

Filtration – Geosynthetic allows water to pass across its plane, but retain the soil particles.
Permittivity.

Functions of a Filter
 Retain particles of the base soil to be filtered
 Avoid piping
 Allow free flow of water
- upstream of the filter ( Avoid external and internal clogging)

Mechanism of filtration function

 Geosynthetics can perform effectively as the alternative to graded granular filter.
 Design criterion or filtration with geotextile is the same as the designing with graded
granular filter.
 When liquid or water flows across the plane of geotextile

Filtration Behaviour
 Clogging
- The voids of a medium are progressively filled by solid matter to the point that the
passage of water is compromised
- Decrease in hydraulic conductivity

 Internal clogging
- By mineral particles
- By precipitation and chemical deposition in the voids by water containing iron, de-
icing salts
- By biological growth encrustation in aerobic conditions

100
Filter application

 Wrapping of trench drain

 Wall drain

 Erosion protection

101
  Earth and Rockfill dams

 Vertical consolidation drain

Advantage:
 Size of the drain can be reduced.
 Quantity of aggregate can be reduced.
 Excavation of soil can be reduced.
 Perforated pipe may not be required.
 Prevent contamination and segregation of aggregate
 Cost of construction can be reduced.

102
Drainage- geosynthetic allows water to pass along its lane.

Permittivity Transmissivity
It occurs across the plane of geosynthetics It occurs along the plane of geosynthetics
It is useful in filtration function It is useful in drainage function
Unit is sec-1 Unit is m2/sec

Application of drainage:
 Around trench drains and edge drains
 Beneath pavement bases and base courses
 Retaining walls and bridge abutments
 Drain and well pipes
 Slope stabilization
 Earth dams and Levees

Drainage and filtration layers are used in civil engineering application to remove moisture or
particles from the system. geosynthetic provide a widely accepted, effective and economic
alternative to traditional aggregate and sand filtration layer.

3 criterions for the design of geosynthetics filtration or drainage system:

1. Retention criterion – the geosynthetics must retain soil
2. Permeability criterion- allow water to pass
3. Clogging resistance criterion – the geosynthetic to soil long-term flow compatibility
should not excessively clog the fabric.

1. Soil retention – a process in which the particles movement is resisted by granular forces.

Oe (geotextile) < B D(soil)

where:
Oe = effective opening size in the geotextile for which e is the present openings that are
smaller than the opening size O (mm), usually the O90 or O95;
B = a coefficient (dimensionless); and
D (soil) = representative soil particle size (mm),
usually the medium to larger fractions or D85.

103
2. Permeability Criteria

Ψ = Geotextile permittivity
k = Coefficient of permeability(cm/sec)

Permittivity – in accordance with AASHTO T88, from the grain size analysis, for
percent in-sit passing 0.075 mm sieve,

Ψ ≥0.5 sec-1 for < 15% passing 0.075 mm

Ψ ≥0.2 sec-1 for 15% to 50% passing 0.075 mm
Ψ ≥0.1 sec-1 for more than 50% passing 0.075 mm

3. Clogging resistance criterion - use the largest available opening size satisfying the retention
criteria

104
Reinforcement wall
- The purpose of retaining wall is to retain soil and resist pressure of the soil that it is
holding back.
- A structure that is 70 degrees or higher a reinforced wall combine a wrapping system of
geogrids and geotextiles to create a slope which would not be possible otherwise.

Types of Geosynthetics used in Retaining Walls

1. Geogrid

Typical schematic diagrams of retaining walls with geogrid reinforcement:

(a) geogrid wraparound wall; (b) wall with gabion facing; (c) concrete-panel-faced wall

105
 HDPE geogrid-reinforced wall with precast concrete panel facing under construction
(Courtesy of Tensar International Corporation, Atlanta, Georgia)

2. Geotextile

Construction of a retaining wall with geotextile reinforcement (Courtesy of

Jonathan T. H. Wu, University of Colorado at Denver, Denver, Colorado)

106
General Design Consideration
1. Satisfying internal stability requirement
2. Checking external stability

Internal stability checks involve determining tension and pull out resistance in the reinforcing
elements and ascertaining the integrity of facing elements.
External stability checks include checks for overturning, sliding and bearing capacity failure.

Internal stability check

1. Determine the active pressure at any depth z
𝜎 ′ 𝑎 =𝛾1z𝐾𝑎 (11-1)
Where
∅′ 1
𝐾𝑎 = Rankine active pressure coefficient = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − )
2

2. Select a geogrid or geotextile with allowable tensile strength,

𝑇𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (11-2)
𝑅𝐹𝑖𝑑 𝑥 𝑅𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑥 𝑅𝐹𝑐𝑏𝑑

Where
𝑅𝐹𝑖𝑑 = reduction factor for installation damage
𝑅𝐹𝑐𝑟 = reduction factor for creep
𝑅𝐹𝑐𝑏𝑑 = reduction factor for chemical and biological degradation

3. Obtain the vertical spacing of the geotextile or geogrid layer, 𝑆𝑉 , as

For geotextile
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑆𝑉 = (11-3)
(𝛾1 𝑧𝐾𝑎 )(𝐹𝑆(𝐵))

For geogrid
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑟
𝑆𝑉 = (11-4)
(𝛾1 𝑧𝐾𝑎 )(𝐹𝑆(𝐵))

Where 𝐶𝑟 = coverage ratio for geogrid

The coverage ratio is the fractional plan area at any particular elevation that is
actually occupied by geogrid. For example if there is 0.3 m wide space between
each 1.2 m wide piece of geogrid, the coverage ratio is
1.2
𝐶𝑟 = =0.8
1.2+0.3

107
 4. Calculate the strength of each layer of geogrid or geotextile at a depth z

For geotextile
(𝐻−𝑍) 𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ]
L= ∅′
+ (11-5)
tan(45+ 1) 2𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹
2
For geogrid
L = 𝑙𝑟 + 𝑙𝑒
(𝐻−𝑍)
𝑙𝑟 = ∅′
tan(45+ 1 )
2

For determination of 𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ]
𝑙𝑒 =
2𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹

The total length of geogrid

(𝐻−𝑍) 𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ]
L= ∅′
+ (11-6)
tan(45+ 1) 2𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹
2

The approximate range for 𝐶𝑖 for various types of backfill

Gravel, sandy gravel 0.75-0.8
Well graded sand, gravelly sand 0.7-0.75
Filter sand, silt sand 0.55-0.6

External stability
1. Factor of safety against overturning
𝑊1 𝑥1
FS(𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝐻 (11-7)
𝑃𝑎 ( )
3
should be at least 3

2. Factor of safety against sliding

2
𝑊1 tan( ∅′ 1 )
3
FS(𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) = (11-8)
𝑃𝑎

Should be at least 1.5

3. Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure

1
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐 ′ 2 𝑁𝑐 + 2 𝛾2 𝐿2 𝑁𝛾
𝑞𝑢 𝑞𝑢
FS(𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) = = (11-9)
𝜎 ′ 𝑎 (𝐻) 𝛾1 (𝐻)

108
 The minimum value of FS(𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) = 3 to 5 is
recommended.

Example 1.

A geotextile –reinforced retaining wall 5 m high is shown in figure 1. for granular backfill,
𝛾1=15.7KN/𝑚3 and ∅′1 =36°.for the geotextile, Tult = 52.5KN/m. For the design of the wall,
determine 𝑆𝑉 ,L,and 𝑙𝑙 use reduction factors (see. Eq (A-1) in appendix A) 𝑅𝐹𝑖𝑑 =1.2, 𝑅𝐹𝑐𝑟 =2.5,
and 𝑅𝐹𝑐𝑏𝑑 =1.25. also use 𝐹𝑆(𝐵) =𝐹𝑆(𝑃) =1.5.

Solution
∅′ 1
𝐾𝑎 =𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − ) = 0.26
2

Determine the 𝑺𝑽 using eq. (11-3), 𝑻𝒂𝒍𝒍 (Eq.11-2)

𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑆𝑉 =
(𝛾1 𝑧𝐾𝑎 )(𝐹𝑆(𝐵))

𝑇
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝐹 𝑥 𝑅𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑥 𝑅𝐹
𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑟 𝑐𝑏𝑑

52.5
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
1.2 𝑥 2.5 𝑥 1.25
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 14𝐾𝑁/𝑚
When 𝐹𝑆(𝐵) =1.5

109
at z = 2 m
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙 14
𝑆𝑉 = = = 1.14 m
(𝛾1 𝑧𝐾𝑎 )(𝐹𝑆(𝐵) ) (15.7)(2)(0.26)(1.5)

at z = 4 m
14
𝑆𝑉 = = 0.57 m
(15.7)(4)(0.26)(1.5)

at z = 5 m
14
𝑆𝑉 = = 0.46 m
(15.7)(5)(0.26)(1.5)

So, use 𝑺𝑽 = 0.5 m for z = 0 to z = 5 m

Determine of L using (Eq.11-5)

(𝐻−𝑍) 𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ]
L= ∅′
+
tan(45+ 1) 2𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹
2

2
For 𝐹𝑆(𝑃) =1.5, tan∅′ 𝐹 = tan[(3) (36)] =0.445, and it follows that

L=0.51(H-z) +0.438 𝑆𝑉
H = 5 m, 𝑆𝑉 = 0.5 m
at z=0.5 m:
L = (0.51) (5-0.5) + (0.438) (0.5) = 2.514 m
at z =2.5 m:
L = (0.51) (5-2.5) + (0.438) (0.5) = 1.494 m
So use L = 2.5 m throughout

Determine of 𝑙𝑙 using
𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ]
𝑙𝑙 =
4𝜎 ′ 𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹
2
𝜎 ′ 𝑎 =𝛾1z𝐾𝑎 , 𝐹𝑆(𝑃) =1.5 ; 𝜎 ′ 𝑜 = 𝛾1z ∅′ 𝐹 = 3 ∅′1 . So
𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ] 𝑆𝑉 (0.26)(1.5)
𝑙𝑙 = = 2 = 0.216 𝑆𝑉
4𝜎 ′ 𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹 4𝑡𝑎𝑛[ (36)]
3

𝑙𝑙 = 0.216 𝑆𝑉 = (0.219) (0.5) = 0.11 m ≤ 1 m

So use 𝒍𝒍 = 1 m

110
Example 2

Consider the results of the internal stability check given in example 1. For the geotextile –
reinforced retaining wall, calculate the factor of safety against overturning, sliding and bearing
capacity failure.

Solution
Factor of safety against overturning
𝑊1 𝑥1
FS(𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝐻
𝑃𝑎 ( )
3

𝑊1 = (5)(2.5)(15.7)= 196.25 KN/m

2.5
𝑥1 = = 1.25 m
2
1 1
𝑃𝑎 = 2 𝛾𝐻 2 𝐾𝑎 = 2 (15.7)(5)2 (0.26) = 51.03KN/m
196.25(1.25)
FS(𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔) = = 2.88< 3 (increase length of geotextile layer to 3m)
51.03( 5/3 )

Factor of safety against sliding

2 ′ 2
𝑊1 tan(3∅ 1 ) 196.25 tan( 𝑥36)
3
FS(𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) = = =1.71>1.5 (o.k.)
𝑃𝑎 51.03

Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure

1
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐 ′ 2 𝑁𝑐 + 2 𝛾2 𝐿2 𝑁𝛾 (note: we are assuming 𝐿′ 2 ≈L

Given: 𝛾2 = 18 KN /𝑚3 , 𝐿2 = 2.5 m, 𝑐 ′ 2=28KN/𝑚2 , and ∅′ 2=22°, 𝑁𝑐 =16.88,

and 𝑁𝛾 = 7.13.
1
𝑞𝑢 = (28)(16.88) + 2 (18)(2.5)(7.13) = 633KN/𝑚2
𝑞𝑢 633 633
FS(𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) = = 𝛾 (𝐻) = (15.7)(5) = 8.07 > 3 (O.K)
𝜎′ 𝑎 (𝐻) 1

111
Example 3

Consider a geogrid- reinforced retaining wall. Given: H= 6 m, 𝛾1=16.5KN/𝑚3 , ∅′1 =35°,Tall =

45KN/m,𝐹𝑆(𝐵) =𝐹𝑆(𝑃) =1.5, 𝐶𝑟 = 0.8, and 𝐶𝑖 = 0.75. for the design of the wall , determine 𝑆𝑣
and L.

Solution
∅′ 1 35
𝐾𝑎 =𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 − ) =0.27
2 2

Determine the 𝑺𝑽 using Eq. (11- 4)

𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑟 (45)(0.8)
𝑆𝑉 = = = 5.39/z
(𝛾1 𝑧𝐾𝑎 )(𝐹𝑆(𝐵)) (16.5)(𝑧)(0.27)(1.5)

at z = 2 m: 𝑆𝑉 = 5.39/2 = 2.7 m
at z = 4 m: 𝑆𝑉 = 5.39/4 = 1.35 m
at z = 5 m: 𝑆𝑉 = 5.39/5 = 1.08m=
𝑺𝑽 = 1 m

Determine of L
From equation (11-6)
(𝐻−𝑍) 𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ]
L= ∅′
+
tan(45+ 1) 2𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹
2
at z=1 m:
(𝐻−𝑍) 𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ] (6−1) (1)(0.27)(1.5)
L= ∅′
+ = 35 +
tan(45+ 1) 2𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹 tan(45+ 2 ) 2(0.8)(0.75)(𝑡𝑎𝑛35)
2
= 3.08m ≈ 3.1m

at z =3 m:
(𝐻−𝑍) 𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ] (6−3) (1)(0.27)(1.5)
L= ∅′
+ = 35 +
tan(45+ 1) 2𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹 tan(45+ 2 ) 2(0.8)(0.75)(𝑡𝑎𝑛35)
2
= 2.04m ≈ 2.1m

at z =5 m:
(𝐻−𝑍) 𝑆𝑉 𝐾𝑎 [𝐹𝑆(𝑃) ] (6−5) (1)(0.27)(1.5)
L= ∅′
+ = 35 +
tan(45+ 1) 2𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ 𝐹 tan(45+ 2 ) 2(0.8)(0.75)(𝑡𝑎𝑛35)
2
= 1m
So use L = 3 m for z = 0 to 6 m.

112
Advantages of reinforced wall:

 Polymer do not corrode

 Used with man indigenous materials
 More deformable than the metal reinforcement
 Long term durability
 The geosynthetic is flexible
 Unskilled labour can place it
 Minimum excavation
 Heavy equipment is not needed

Reference:

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105108075/module8/Lecture35.pdf
Principles of Geotechnical Engineering by Braja M. Das
www.typargeosynthetic.com/applications/filtration-drainage.html

113
 CHAPTER 12

CAP AND ENCLOSURE

Cover system (“cap”)

1. Prevent physical contact and exposure to waste

2. Sufficient cap may be enough thickness of soil to prevent humans or animals from
digging into waste
3. Reduce ( or almost eliminate ) precipitation Infiltration
4. Reduce/prevents transport of contaminants to ground water by infiltrating water

Capping as remedial action

a. Landfills
b. Widespread soil contaminants

Landfill cap

 Made from geosynthetic lining materials (geotextiles and geomembrane)

 Form a protective barrier between the contents and the surface, therefore shielding
humans, wildlife, and the environment from the harmful toxins that are contained within.
 Provide a safe, cost effective, environmentally sound solution for repeatable, high quality
seals
 Separates clean rain water from the landfill waste, creating less leachate water that needs
to be treated

114
Caps layers

1. Vegetation
 Purposes:
- Erosion control
- Infiltration reduction by evaporation

 Characteristics:
- Shallow rooted plants
- Low nutrient needs
- heat resistant

2. Soil layer

 Purposes
- support vegetation
- protect underlying layers
 Typically 60-cm thick
 Crushed stone or cobbles may
Substitute in arid environments

3. Protection layer

 Also called “biotic barrier”

 90-cm layer of cobbles to stop
burrowing animals and deep roots.

115
4. Filter layer

 prevent clogging of drainage layer by fines from

soil layer
 may be geosynthetic filter fabric or 30-cm sand

5. Drainage layer

 minimizes contact between infiltrated water

and low k layers below
 prevents ponding of water on geomembrane liner
 drains by gravity to toe drain
 at least 30 cm of sand with k=10-2cm/sec or
equivalent geosynthetic

6. Low k layer

 “Composite liners”: both geomembrane

and low-k soil(clay)
 low k prevents infiltration of water into waste:
hydraulic barrier
 geomembrane: at least 0.5 mm thick
 compacted clay : at least 60 cm with ≤ 10-7cm/s

116
7. Gas vent layer

 needed if waste will generate methane

(Explosive) or toxic gas
 similar to drainage layer:

-30 cm of sand or equivalent geosynthetic

 connected to horizontal venting pipe

(Minimal number to maintain cap integrity)

Video:

Safe_landfill_capping_with_Bentofix®_-_Grimsby_England.mp4 (Command Line)

Reference:

https//ocw.mit.edu/courses/civil-and-environmental-engineering/1-34-waste-containment-and-
remediation-technology-spring-2004/lecture-notes/lecture08.pdf
https://m.youtube.com/results?=capping&sm=3

117
118