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Dietary Fiber
Dietary Fiber
Dietary fiber intake provides many health benefits. However, average fiber intakes
for US children and adults are less than half of the recommended levels. Individuals
with high intakes of dietary fiber appear to be at significantly lower risk for
developing coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and
certain gastrointestinal diseases. Increasing fiber intake lowers blood pressure and
serum cholesterol levels. Increased intake of soluble fiber improves glycemia
and insulin sensitivity in non-diabetic and diabetic individuals. Fiber
supplementation in obese individuals significantly enhances weight loss. Increased
fiber intake benefits a number of gastrointestinal disorders including the following:
gastroesophageal reflux disease, duodenal ulcer, diverticulitis, constipation, and
hemorrhoids. Prebiotic fibers appear to enhance immune function. Dietary fiber
intake provides similar benefits for children as for adults. The recommended dietary
fiber intakes for children and adults are 14 g/1000 kcal. More effective
communication and consumer education is required to enhance fiber consumption
from foods or supplements.
© 2009 International Life Sciences Institute
Affiliations: JW Anderson is with the Department of Internal Medicine and Nutritional Sciences Program, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Kentucky, USA. P Baird is with the University of Connecticut, Stamford Campus, Stamford, Connecticut, USA and Westchester Community
College, Valhalla, New York, USA. RH Davis is with the Department of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA. S Ferreri is
with the Division of Pharmacy Practice and Experiential Education, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. M
Knudtson is with the University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA. A Koraym is with the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio,
USA and Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA. V Waters is a Certified Personal Trainer, Los Angeles, California, USA. CL Williams is
with Healthy Directions, Inc., New York, New York, USA.
Correspondence: JW Anderson, University of Kentucky, 913 Taborlake Court, Lexington, KY 40502, USA. E-mail: jwandersmd@aol.com,
Phone: +1-859-269-6642, Fax: +1-859-422-4670.
Key words: coronary heart disease, diabetes, dietary fiber, gastrointestinal disorders, obesity
doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00189.x
188 Nutrition Reviews® Vol. 67(4):188–205
Table 1 Dietary fiber intake related to relative risk for disease based on estimates from prospective cohort
studies.
Disease No. of subjects Relative 95% CI Reference
(no. of studies) risk†
Coronary heart disease 158,327 (7) 0.71 0.47–0.95 24
Stroke‡ 134,787 (4) 0.74 0.63–0.86 1,2,27,28
Diabetes 239,485 (5) 0.81 0.70–0.93 23
Obesity 115,789 (4) 0.70 0.62–0.78 64
†
Relative risks adjusted for demographic, dietary, and non-dietary factors.
‡
Estimates related to whole-grain consumption,1,2 total dietary fiber,27 and cereal fiber.28
recommendation for adequate intake (AI) is 14 g/ fiber intake was very similar to the effects of whole grains
1000 kcal.15 This AI includes non-starch polysaccharides, but “fellow travelers” with fiber, such as magnesium, other
analogous carbohydrates (e.g., resistant starches), lignin, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants, may have important
and associated substances.16,17 Using the energy guideline complementary beneficial effects.23,24
of 2000 kcal/day for women and 2600 kcal/day for men,
the recommended daily dietary fiber intake is 28 g/day for
Coronary heart disease prevalence
adult women and 36 g/day for adult men.15
The purpose of this review is to summarize the
Based on astute comparisons of CHD prevalence and
research data related to the effects of dietary fiber on
dietary habits, Trowell postulated that high-fiber foods
health. Most of the available data on disease prevalence
were protective against CHD (as cited in Anderson24).
and events are from epidemiological studies. While
Over the three decades following that suggestion, pro-
limited data are available on the effects of consumption of
spective cohort studies documented that high levels of
high-fiber foods or specific food sources of fiber, exten-
fiber intake and, especially, consumption of whole grains
sive data are available relating to the effects of fiber
are associated with a significantly lower prevalence of
supplements on serum lipid values, weight management,
CHD. Seven cohort studies presenting observations for
post-prandial glycemia, and gastrointestinal function.
over 158,000 individuals indicate that CHD disease
Thus, the general implications of fiber consumption will
prevalence is significantly lower (29%) in individuals with
be reviewed and the potential health benefits of specific
the highest intake of dietary fiber compared to those with
high-fiber foods and supplements will be examined.
the lowest intake (Table 1). Specifically, the relative risk,
computed by variance weighting (fixed-effect meta-
CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH AND FIBER analysis25) is 0.71 for individuals in the highest quintile
for dietary fiber intake compared to those in the lowest
Cardiovascular diseases, including coronary heart disease quintile.23 The effects of cereal fiber intake or whole-grain
(CHD), stroke, and hypertension, affect more than intake on CHD prevalence are very similar, suggesting
80 million people and are the leading causes of morbidity that whole-grain intake may be the most protective
and mortality in the United States. In 2005, CHD was the source of fiber consumption.
leading cause of death and strokes were the third leading While these epidemiologic studies are consistent and
cause of death in the United States.18 While CHD is the persuasive, they do not provide specific information
most prevalent cause of death, it is probably the most about cause and effect. Prospective randomized con-
modifiable; an estimated 82% of CHD is attributed to trolled clinical trials (RCTs) are required to provide con-
lifestyle practices such as diet, physical activity, and vincing data. One previous RCT did indicate that lifestyle
cigarette abuse,19 and 60% is attributed to dietary changes slow the progression of CHD26 but the specific
patterns.20 effects of fiber have not been documented. In the modern
High levels of dietary fiber intake are associated with era of fiber research, an early RCT of Welsh men with a
significantly lower prevalence rates for CHD, stroke, and history of prior myocardial infarction did not find that
peripheral vascular disease;1,21,22 major risk factors, such doubling their fiber intake affected rates of ischemic
as hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and dyslipidemia, are cardiac events or death over a short study period of 2
also less common in individuals with the highest levels of years.27 While a high level of dietary fiber intake is asso-
fiber consumption.5 The impact of dietary fiber or whole ciated with reduced risk for CHD and high protective
grain consumption on the prevalence of these conditions values for major risk factors, further prospective RCTs are
is summarized in Table 1. In the analyses of prospective required to clearly document the links between dietary
cohort studies, the observed protective effect of dietary fiber intake and reduced events and deaths from CHD.
-10
meta-analyses recently assessed the effects of fiber intake
on blood pressure. A meta-analysis of the effects of fiber
-15 supplements on blood pressure in RCTs reported that the
effects of fiber supplements averaging 11.5 g/day were
-20 modest, with decreases in systolic blood pressure of
1.1 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure of 1.3 mm Hg;
-25
reductions were greater in hypertensive subjects and in
-30
older subjects.52 Similarly, a meta-analysis of 25 RCTs
0 1 2 3 6 9 12 24 indicated that dietary fiber intake was associated with
No. of months nonsignificant changes in systolic blood pressure
(-1.2 mm Hg) and significant reductions in diastolic
Figure 1 Long-term effects of soluble fibers on LDL-
cholesterol values. blood pressure (-1.7 mm Hg); significant reductions in
systolic (-6.0 mm Hg) and diastolic (-4.2 mm Hg) blood
pressure occurred in hypertensive subjects or with treat-
ment for ⱖ8 weeks.3 Thus, increasing dietary fiber intake
-5.5% and -5.2% for psyllium and -5.3% and -5.6% for
or fiber supplementation may have a modest independent
oat b-glucan. These analyses indicate that psyllium or oat
effect in reducing blood pressure, especially in hyperten-
b-glucan do not significantly affect serum HDL-
sive individuals.
cholesterol or triglyceride values.
The limited data available for Konjac mannan (glu-
Other risk factors. In addition to having favorable effects
comannan) indicates that it has significant hypocholes-
on serum lipoproteins and blood pressure, dietary fiber
terolemic effects.37 Gum arabic (acacia gum),38 partially
consumption has favorable effects on body weight, vis-
hydrolyzed guar gum,39 and methylcellulose40 appear to
ceral adiposity, and insulin sensitivity,53,54 as discussed
have only modest hypocholesterolemic effects.
subsequently, as well as on inflammatory markers.55
These short-term studies with mean durations of 4–8
weeks indicate that the widely used psyllium or oat
Proposed mechanisms. The hypocholesterolemic effects
b-glucan decrease serum LDL-cholesterol values by
of dietary fiber have been studied extensively and are the
about 5.5%. These reductions would be expected to
best-characterized effects of fiber consumption on risks
reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease by 7–11%.41 The
for CVD. Soluble or viscous fibers appear to exert primary
best long-term data available for soluble fiber are for the
effects on serum cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol values
use of psyllium for 6 months and the use of guar for
by binding bile acids in the small intestine and increasing
12–24 months (Figure 1). Use of psyllium for 6 months
their excretion in the feces.56 Fermentation of fibers in the
maintains the LDL-cholesterol reduction of 6.7%42 and
colon with production of the short-chain fatty acid
long-term use of guar sustains reductions of LDL-
propionate may contribute to hypocholesterolemia by
cholesterol values of 16.1% at 1 year and 25.6% at 24
attenuating cholesterol synthesis.57
months.43–45 While the levels of guar used in these studies
may not be practical for widespread use, these data do
Comments
indicate that regular use of a soluble fiber can sustain
significant hypocholesterolemic effects for long-term
In the United States, CVD affects approximately one-
periods. These changes were maintained without changes
third of the adult US population and CHD is the leading
in body weight, HDL-cholesterol, or serum triglyceride
cause of death. Higher intakes of dietary fiber compared
values.45
to lower consumption levels are associated with signifi-
cantly lower rates of CVD and lower prevalence of CVD
Blood pressure. Increasing consumption of dietary fiber risk factors. Persons with the highest levels of fiber con-
is often accompanied by a reduction in systolic and dias- sumption have a 29% lower risk for CHD than those with
tolic blood pressure. Early studies suggested that high- the lowest intakes. Soluble fiber intake of about 6 g/day is
fiber diets were associated with a significant reduction in accompanied by reductions in serum LDL-cholesterol
blood pressure, but these studies were not well-controlled values of around 5.4% and estimated risk for CHD of
clinical trials.46,47 The effects of increasing oat fiber intake about 9%. Increased fiber intake modestly lowers the
on blood pressure have been reported in several studies, blood pressure of the general population but is accompa-
with the net results suggesting a modest-to-moderate nied by reductions of systolic and diastolic blood pres-
No. of weeks
High-fiber diet effects
Figure 2 Weight losses achieved with fiber-
The role of dietary fiber in preventing and managing supplemented diets versus control diets. Values are
obesity in humans is strongly supported by epidemiologi- means ⫾ SEM. Data in 15 studies obtained at 4 and 8 weeks
cal and physiological studies. Clinical trials using high- and additional data in 9 of those studies obtained at 12
fiber foods also provide support for the hypothesis that weeks. Significant differences were seen at 4 weeks
higher-level fiber consumption has a beneficial role in (P = 0.0063) and 8 weeks (P = 0.0088).
weight management.
Five RCTs (some of which were of suboptimal
quality) have assessed the effects of high-fiber foods or
fiber-enhanced food products in weight-loss studies. supplements on weight loss were as follows for placebo
These data were recently reported and summarized.64 and fiber-supplemented groups, respectively: 4 weeks,
Reported mean weight losses over an 8-week period were -1.7 kg (95% CI, -1.3 to -2.0 kg) and -3.0 kg (95%
approximately 1 kg greater with high-fiber diets than with CI, -2.6 to -3.4 kg) (P = 0.0129 versus placebo); 8 weeks,
control diets. The effects of a diet high in complex carbo- -2.4 kg (95% CI, -1.9 to -2.9 kg) and -4.9 kg (95%
hydrates (and higher in dietary fiber) provides persuasive CI, -3.5 to -4.5 kg) (P = 0.0104 versus placebo); and
data that this type of diet promotes greater weight loss 12 weeks, -2.7 kg (95% CI, -0.6 to -4.0) and -4.9 (95%
than a high simple-carbohydrate (and lower fiber) diet.81 CI, -0.1 to -8.0). The percentages of weight loss, com-
Since blinding of subjects is usually not possible when pared to initial body weight, for placebo and fiber-
high-fiber foods are compared with low-fiber foods, supplemented diets, respectively, were as follows: 4 weeks,
future studies may need to be more innovative in order to 2.0% and 3.2%; 8 weeks, 2.9% and 4.9%; and 12 weeks,
clearly address research questions related to weight man- 2.7% and 4.9% (Figure 2).64
agement.
Comments
Fiber supplement effects
Animal experiments, epidemiological data, and clinical
Sixteen RCTs previously examined the effects of fiber trials clearly indicate that higher fiber intake is associ-
supplements on weight loss for individuals on weight- ated with less weight gain than lower fiber intake. Intake
reducing diets.64 The numbers of subjects completing the of fiber tends to delay gastric emptying and create a
trials were 391 in control interventions and 423 in fiber- sense of fullness. Increased fiber intakes are associated
supplemented interventions. Usually volunteers in both with increases in satiating gut hormones. The limited
treatment arms were instructed in the use of energy- number of clinical trials comparing high-fiber foods
restricted diets. In most trials, the fiber was provided in with low-fiber foods have not provided consistent data
the form of tablets that were given three times daily. The indicating that these diets are more efficacious for
fiber intake ranged from 4.5 to 20 g/day and averaged weight loss than low-fiber control diets; however, ran-
about 2.5 g three times daily with meals. In most trials, the domized, placebo-controlled, clinical trials have clearly
fiber was predominantly in insoluble form but guar gum documented that fiber supplements are accompanied by
or glucomannan were used in several studies.64 significantly more weight loss than use of placebos.
The amount of weight loss achieved with fiber Thus, the weight of clinical evidence strongly indicates
supplements administered as an adjunct to an energy- that consumption of dietary fiber, especially from
restricted diet was modestly greater than the weight loss fiber supplements, has beneficial effects on weight
achieved with placebo. The estimated effects of fiber management.
polycarbophil
discomfort, bloating, and diarrhea and/or constipation.
0% soluble
Synthetic
While wheat bran often increases symptoms93 other fiber
Calcium
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
supplements such as methylcellulose,95 partially hydro-
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
lyzed guar gum,96 and psyllium97 have been reported to
alleviate symptoms. In clinical trials, reductions in symp-
toms in groups receiving placebo as well as those receiv-
Methyl-cellulose
ing fiber are usually dramatic and statistically significant,
Semisynthetic
100% soluble
thus confounding the assessment of the therapeutic inter-
vention. The sympathetic support of the primary care
Minimal
Partially
No data
No data
No data
No data
provider combined with highly selective therapeutic
interventions with dietary fiber in foods or supplements
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
can often be very effective in reducing symptoms.96
The inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) including
Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are chronic diseases
100% fermentable
expensive and associated with frequent side effects. Based
100% soluble
on experiments with animal models of IBD and prelimi-
nary clinical trials in humans, further trials are in
No data
No data
No data
progress using probiotics and prebiotics (such as inu-
Yes
lin).98 Judicious use of soluble fibers or psyllium may
No
No
No
No
No
No
offer benefits for persons with ulcerative colitis in
remission.99
Diverticular disease is the fifth most common gas-
100% fermentable
No; mild laxation
trointestinal condition in Western countries and is one of
100% soluble
the classical fiber-deficiency diseases. A generous intake
of dietary fiber is considered to be protective, ameliora-
No data
No data
No data
No data
No data
Slightly
Natural
Yes
dition’s intermittency and the various degrees of colon No
No
pathology for this chronic disease, high-quality clinical
trials are difficult to execute; the limited data support the
use of fiber supplements but are inconclusive.6 Because of
Partially fermentable
their anti-inflammatory properties, the inulin-type
Active ingredient
70% soluble
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Bulks stools
Forms a gel