Conjunction

3.1 Conjunction

Apart from references, substitutions, ellipses, reiterations and collocations, conjunctions

also provide formal links in discourse. Conjunctions help to create unity and
meaningfulness in discourse. How did you define the term conjunction in your grammar
lessons in secondary school? Here, the definition is slightly different. For purposes of
our discussion here, a conjunction will be defined as a cohesive device that links items
of a cohesive tie by referring backward and forward, and by specifying a meaning
relationship between the two items. It is unlike other cohesive devices which link
information by referring either backward or forward. Apart from that, the other cohesive
devices do not specify a meaningful relationship between the two items in a cohesive
tie.

3.2 Categories of conjunction

According to Chimombo (1986), there are two main categories of conjunction which are
further divided into different types of conjunction. Let us start with the categories.

3.2.1 Conjunctive adjuncts

These are words or phrases that are used to connect sentences together. In other
words, conjunctive adjuncts are sentence connectors. The example below illustrates
this.

The wedding was officiated. Afterwards, there was a reception.

In this example, there are two propositions (the wedding officiation and the reception)
that are connected by the word afterwards. Each one of these propositions appears in
an independent sentence of its own. There is no structural relationship between the two
propositions. That is, the basic quality that distinguishes conjunctive adjuncts from the
other category of the conjunction.

3.2.2 Conjunctions
These are words or phrases that are used to connect clauses within sentences. Put
differently, conjunctions are clause connectors. You can see the basic differences
between these two categories of the conjunction, can’t you? Do not get confused. Let us
have an example of a conjunction. For you to see the difference clearly, I will use the
same propositions used in the above example on conjunctive adjuncts. The two
propositions can also be connected in the following way: There was a reception after
the wedding was officiated. Or After the wedding was officiated, there was a reception.

Unlike in the previous case, there is a structural relationship between the two
propositions that are connected by the word after. The difference between conjunctions
and conjunctive adjuncts must be clear to you now. If it is still not clear, try to come up
with many constructions in which conjunctive adjuncts are used and then try to change
the constructions by connecting them using conjunctions instead. List down some of the
changes that have to be put in place in order for this to take place.

Chimombo (1986) observes that the difference between conjunctive adjuncts and
conjunctions is a source of problems to second language learners of English. This is
because second language learners of English tend to use conjunctive adjuncts and
conjunctions interchangeably, which makes their language sound bad. As you must
have noticed already, when you use a conjunctive adjunct in place of a conjunction, the
construction is ungrammatical. For instance, if you say any of the following:

*The wedding was officiated. After, there was a reception.

*There was a reception afterwards there was a wedding.

*Afterwards there was a wedding, there was a reception.

In the examples above, explain why each of the constructions is ungrammatical. If you
have challenges in answering this question, go back to sections 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 and
read again the explanations provided for the two categories of conjunctions and their
examples.
3.2.2.1 Types of conjunction

As already mentioned above, the two categories of the conjunction are further divided
into different types of conjunction. Each type consists of both conjunctive adjuncts and
conjunctions. Remember the basic difference between conjunctive adjuncts and
conjunctions. You will now look at these different types of conjunction.

3.2.2.1.1 Additive

Additive conjunctive adjuncts or additive conjunctions are used to add information to

what has already been said. Examples of these include the following: and, furthermore,
added to that, moreover, plus, also, and in addition to that. As you can see from this list,
some of the words or phrases are conjunctive adjuncts, while others are conjunctions.
Can you separate these words and phrases on the basis of the two categories? You
may have to use them in constructions in order for you to see the differences clearly. Do
this for all the rest of the types of conjunction that follow.

Here is one example where and is used as a conjunction:

Yohane and Maria went to town yesterday.

In this example, the word is used to add information in the sense that it is not only
Yohane who went to town, Maria too. Other examples of additive conjunctions include
the following:

a) Simple negative relation – is expressed by ‘nor’ or ‘and … not’. These add

together two negative propositions. For example:

Chisomo did not want to go. Nor did I, for that matter.

Chisomo did not want to go. And I didn’t (either), for that matter.

b) Simple alternative relation is expressed by ‘or’ or ‘or else’. For example: You
would better study hard. Or else you will fail the exams.
 c) Complex emphatic conjunctive adjunct include ‘furthermore’ ‘moreover’ ‘in
addition’ and ‘besides’ to express an additive relation and ‘alternatively’ to
express and alternative. For example:

I really want to buy a tape recorder, so I may draw my savings out of the
bank. Alternatively, I may ask my father to lend me the money.

d) The de-emphatic afterthought is expressed by ‘incidentally’ or ‘by the way’

e) Conjunctive adjuncts that express apposition include the expository ‘that is’ ‘I
mean’ or ‘in other words’ and the exemplificatory ‘for example’ ‘for instance’ and
‘thus’.

f) The categories of similar and dissimilar comparison are expressed by the

following conjunctive adjuncts: ‘likewise’ ‘similarly’ or ‘in the same (a similar) way’
and ‘on the other hand’ or ‘by contrast’

Activity 1

Construct a sentence using a conjunction falling under each of the following categories
of additive conjunctions:

a) simple alternative relation

b) complex emphatic conjunctive adjunct

c) the de-emphatic afterthought

d) conjunctive adjunct that expresses apposition

e) the category of similar and dissimilar comparison

3.2.2.1.2 Temporal

Temporal conjunctive adjuncts or temporal conjunctions relate information to what has

already been said in terms of time. The following are some of the examples under this
type: formerly, then, in the end, finally, next, while, when, meanwhile and whilst. One
example using meanwhile as a conjunctive adjunct will do.

At nine o’clock yesterday, we were all sitting in the hall listening to the Vice
Chancellor’s presentation. Meanwhile, meals were being prepared by the kitchen
sfaff.

The conjunctive adjunct meanwhile is connected to two forms of information in terms of

time in that as the people were listening to the Vice Chancellors presentation at that
same time the kitchen staff were preparing meals. Other examples of temporal
conjunction include the following:

a) Sequential: ‘then’, and ‘and then’, next, afterwards, after that, subsequently

b) Simultaneous in time: (just) then, at the same time, simultaneously. For

example: I was peeling the potatoes for supper. At the same time, Tina was
preparing the pumpkin leaves.

c) Previous: earlier, before that, previously. For example: I must go to the market
to buy some bananas, but before that I have to buy stamps.

d) Conclusive: finally, at last, in the end, eventually.

e) Correlative: first, at first, first of all, to begin with’, given any of these, the
exception is that an item such as ‘then’, ‘second’ ‘in the end’ or ‘finally’. For
example: At first, Tadala did not write very good essays, but in the end his
essays were the best in the class.

f) Summary temporal relations: These are common in written discourse or in

formal spoken discourse, but not in informal speech. The summarizing relation is
expressed by ‘to sum up’, ‘in short’ or briefly and the resumptive relation by ‘to
resume’, or ‘to return to the point’.

Activity 2
Identify the correct temporal conjunction that you can use to fill in the gaps in each of
the sentences below.

a) He came home …………. me.

b) ……………….. the firefighters arrived, the building had already burnt down.

c) I was asleep ……………. she called me.

d) ……………. my mother was cleaning the floor, my brother was playing with his
toys.

e) …………… I see Ted, he complains about something.

f) I have been interested in science …………… my childhood.

3.2.2.1.3 Adversative

Adversative conjunctive adjuncts or adversative conjunctions contrast new information

to what has already been said. These include but, however, on the other hand, despite,
in spite of, conversely, nevertheless and notwithstanding. The following sentence
illustrates this using in spite of as a conjunction:

In spite of all the efforts by the organisers to dissuade him, Mystic still came out
tops in the competition.

In spite of has been used to contrast new information. You will notice that even though
Mystic was dissuaded from joining the competition, he went ahead and won. This
contrasting information is joined by the word in spite of. Other examples of adversative
conjunctions are as follows:

a) The simple adversatives are as follows: ‘yet’, ‘though’, or ‘only’. See the example
below.

He gets 10 hours of sleep every night. He always seems tired though.

b) The emphatic adversatives include the following: ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’ or
‘despite this’. For example:

Today we are easily convinced that the earth is round. It is not difficult, however,
to understand why the ancients believed that it was flat.

c) Contrastive adversatives include ‘in fact’ ‘actually’ and ‘as a matter of fact’ ‘but’,
‘on the other hand’, or ‘at the same time’. For example:

Very few teachers vary the activities they expect students to engage in, in their
classrooms. In fact many just continue with ‘chalk and talk’ regardless or other
possibilities.

d) The adversatives of correction ‘on the contrary’, ‘instead’ ‘rather’ are used to
correct the meaning of the previous proposition, not to show dissimilarity. See
how ‘on the contrary’, ‘instead’ and ‘rather’ are used in the following sentences:

i. New highways do not necessarily bring benefits to the citizens of a

community. On the contrary, they can do real harm by introducing more
traffic into a district and increasing air pollution.

ii. The players should have tried even harder to score a goal after half time.
Instead they just gave up and the other team had an easy time. iii. Many
English people, even those who have lived abroad for many years, are
incapable of doing without tea. At least that is what they claim.

iv. Most Europeans don’t mind the heat in Africa. Rather, it’s the humidity that
they don’t like.

e) Dismissive adversative is expressed by the closed ‘in either case’ ‘whichever way
it is’ or ‘either way’ or by the open-ended ‘in any case’ ‘anyhow’ or ‘at any rate’.
See the following examples:
 i. You can sleep in the sitting room or in our son’s bedroom. Either way, you
will be comfortable.

ii. The player gave up trying in the second half. Anyhow, the other team had
scored so many goals by half time that there was no way they could win.

Activity 3

Join each of the following sets of sentences using one of the following conjunctions:

‘nevertheless’, ‘yet’, ‘however’, ‘still’, and ‘but’.

a) The rope was thin. It was strong.

b) He is rich. He is miserable.

c) I was annoyed. I kept quiet.

d) There was little chance of success. He persevered.

e) I can’t support your plan. I will not oppose it.

3.2.2.1.4 Causative or causal

Causative conjunctive adjuncts or causative conjunctions add information to what has

already been said in terms of cause. Included in this type are so, consequently,
because, for this/that reason, and as a result of this/that. The following example makes
use of consequently as a conjunctive adjunct:

The university does not have adequate funding this year. Consequently, it has
been agreed that there be no staff training this year.

In the example, having no staff training is caused by the university not having enough
funds. The conjunctive adjunct consequently therefore shows this relationship. Other
examples of causative or causal conjunction include the following:
a) Simple general causal relation is expressed by ‘so’, ‘then’, ‘hence’
and ‘therefore’. For example: Chikondi failed one course. So he has
to write supplementary exam.

b) The emphatic general causal conjunctive adjunct include

‘consequently’ and ‘because of this’. For example: Once the crops
have been harvested, the land becomes a communal grazing area
until it is time for the next planting season. Consequently, there is
widespread soil erosion.

c) Specific causal conjunction are three: reason which is expressed by

‘for this reason’ ‘on account of this’ ‘it follows’ or ‘on this basis’;
result, which is expressed by ‘as a result’ ‘in consequence’ or
‘arising out of this’; and purpose which is expressed by ‘for this
purpose’, ‘with this in mind’ or ‘to this end’. See the example below.

Patrick desperately wanted to be selected to go to secondary school. To

this end, he studied day and night in the last term of standard 8.

d) The conditional causal relation includes ‘then’, ‘in that case’ ‘in such
an event’, ‘that being so’, ‘under the circumstances and ‘otherwise’.
See the examples i) to iv) below.

i. Yohane: I really need two-inch nails for this job.

Maria: What if they are not in stock?

Yohane: Then I will have to make do with the next size.

ii. Yohane: It’s pouring with rain now.

Maria: In that case, I am going to let you play outside.

iii. Lucy lost her father just before she started writing her exams.

Under the circumstances, it’s amazing that she did so well.

 iv. You must work harder. Otherwise, you will be sacked.

e) The respective causal relation is expressed either by the direct

‘in this respect’, ‘in this regard’ or ‘with reference to this’ or by reverse polarity ‘in
other respect’ or ‘aside/apart from this’. See the example below.

We went to Blantyre last week and had two flat tyres on the way. Apart
from that we had a good time.

Activity 4

Choose the correct conjunction to fill in the gaps in each of the following sentences.

a) Luka bought the shoes ……… they were perfect. (owing to / since)

b) ……… it was really cold, I put on my gloves and my hat. (for / as)

c) She couldn't come …………. she had to work. (due to / because)

d) ………… its high price, we didn't rent the flat. (owing to / because)

e) ………… his great cooking, we love going to dinner at Taka's house.

(because of / since)

3.2.2.1.5 Continuative

Continuative conjunctive adjuncts or continuative conjunctions are used to indicate

some type of communication that shows a connection between two pieces of
information. The conjunction may indicate a new departure or a summary for example.
Some of the most common continuatives are anyway, by the way, well, to sum up, now,
of course, surely, right and after all. After presenting a lecture for some time, a lecturer
may say:

To sum up, let me say the following:…

In this instance, the lecturer uses the continuative ‘To sum up’ as a conjunctive adjunct.
That is not to imply that the continuative can also be used as a conjunction.

NB

Some of the conjunctions can be used both as conjunctive adjuncts and as

conjunctions, while others can only be used under one category. What is most important
in cases where a conjunction can appear in both categories is the punctuation of the
construction. For instance, with some conjunctions, while the comma appears before
the conjunction if it used as a conjunction, it appears after it if it used as a conjunctive
adjunct. The following examples illustrate this respectively:

Yankho bought milk yesterday, but he never used it.

Yankho bought milk yesterday. But, he never used it.

Activity 5

Construct a sentence using each of the following continuative conjunctive adjuncts or

continuative conjunctions:

a) Anyway

b) By the way

c) To sum up

d) After all

e) surely