Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 305 (2015) 56–62

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Short communication

Thermal history of the Acoculco geothermal system, eastern Mexico:

Insights from numerical modeling and radiocarbon dating
Carles Canet a,⁎, Frederic Trillaud b, Rosa María Prol-Ledesma a, Galia González-Hernández a, Berenice Peláez a,
Berenice Hernández-Cruz a, María M. Sánchez-Córdova c
a
Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Del. Coyoacán, 04150 México D.F., Mexico
b
Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Del. Coyoacán, 04150 México D.F., Mexico
c
Posgrado en Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Del. Coyoacán, 04150 México D.F., Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Acoculco is a geothermal prospective area hosted by a volcanic caldera complex in the eastern Trans-Mexican
Received 10 July 2015 Volcanic Belt. Surface manifestations are scarce and consist of gas discharges (CO2-rich) and acid-sulfate springs
Accepted 14 September 2015 of low temperature, whereas hydrothermal explosive activity is profusely manifested by meter-scale craters and
Available online 25 September 2015
mounds of hydrothermal debris and breccias. Silicic alteration extends for several square kilometers around the
zone with gas manifestations and explosive features, affecting surficial volcanic rocks, primarily tuffs and
Keywords:
Heat flow regime
breccias. In the subsurface, an argillic alteration zone (ammonium illite) extends down to a depth of ∼600 m,
Water-rock interaction and underneath it a propylitic zone (epidote–calcite–chlorite) occurs down to ∼1000 m.
1D finite difference analysis Thermal logs from an exploratory borehole (EAC-1, drilled in 1995 down to 1810 m) showed a conductive heat
Sealed geothermal reservoir transfer regime under high geothermal gradient (∼140 °C/1000 m). In contrast, the thermal profile established
Geothermal exploration from temperatures of homogenization of fluid inclusions—measured on core samples from the same drill
Hydrothermal explosions hole—suggests that convection occurred in the past through the upper ~1400 m of the geothermal system. A
drop in permeability due to the precipitation of alteration minerals would have triggered the cessation of the
convective heat transfer regime to give place to a conductive one. With the purpose of determining when the
transition of heat transfer regime occurred, we developed a 1D model that simulates the time-depth distribution
of temperature. According to our numerical simulations, this transition happened ca. 7000 years ago; this date is
very recent compared to the lifespan of the geothermal system. In addition, radiocarbon chronology indicates
that the hydrothermal explosive activity postdates the end of the convective heat transfer regime, having
dated at least three explosive events, at 4867–5295, 1049–1417 and 543–709 y cal. BP. Therefore, hydrothermal
explosions arise from the self-sealing of the Acoculco geothermal system, involving a natural hazard that could
affect future geothermal-power infrastructure.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction changes allow to reconstruct the thermal history of geothermal systems

Geothermal fields are complex and inherently dynamic systems that
can evolve over short periods of time (cf. Barbier, 1997). On the one
hand they can undergo physical changes as a consequence of exploita-
tion operations, e.g. changes in fluid flow and temperature distribution.
These changes take place on a time scale of years and have direct effects
on the efficiency and sustainability of geothermal power exploitation,
explaining thereby why they are subject of predictive modeling studies
(e.g. Rybach and Mongillo, 2006; Axelsson, 2010; Lei and Zhu, 2013). On
the other hand there are changes that geothermal systems underwent
prior to exploitation, i.e. in relation to their geological evolution and
on a time scale from thousands to millions of years (e.g. Norton and
Knight, 1977). The understanding and timing of these ‘geological’
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 55 56224133; fax: +52 55 55502486.
E-mail address: ccanet@geofisica.unam.mx (C. Canet).
(e.g. Dalrymple et al., 1999), which in turn can be used to ascertain at
what evolutionary stage a particular system is, thus determining the
potentiality and type of a current geothermal play (e.g. Stimac et al.,
2001). Therefore the knowledge of the thermal evolution of geothermal
systems offers a useful approach that can assist in exploring and evalu-
ating potential geothermal resources.
Numerical models such as those by Norton and Knight (1977) and
by Norton and Hulen (2001) proved that cooling of a magmatic source
by pure conductive heat transfer is a process that can take millions of
years. However hydrothermal circulation is able to generate enough
convective heat fluxes to shorten drastically the cooling time. Rock
permeability is the key factor determining the dominating mechanism
of heat transfer in a geothermal system. Indeed, if the threshold value
of 0.001 millidarcy (10− 8 m2) is exceeded, convective heat flow
prevails (Norton and Knight, 1977). Permeability of rocks overlying a
magmatic heat source may change over time similarly to the heat flow

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.09.019
0377-0273/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 C. Canet et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 305 (2015) 56–62
regime. Changes of permeability in geothermal systems obey primarily
fluid-rock interactions. Alteration minerals are the rock-preserved
evidence of these interactions and their formation involves the convec-
tion of huge masses of high-temperature hydrothermal fluids (e.g.
Moore and Gunderson, 1995). However, the very process of crystalliza-
tion of alteration minerals may result in the occlusion of permeability,
preventing the convection of hydrothermal fluids and causing the self-
sealing of the geothermal system (Facca and Tonani, 1967; Muffler
et al., 1971; Norton and Hulen, 2001).
Acoculco is a geothermal prospective area in the state of Puebla,
Mexico, in which to date there has been no progress toward commercial
exploitation. Thermal logs of an exploratory borehole drilled in 1995 by
the Comisión Federal de Electricidad—the Mexican state-owned
electricity supplier—in Acoculco (well EAC-1) show a conductive heat
transfer regime under high geothermal gradient (López-Hernández
et al., 2009); that is why this area has been regarded as a candidate
site for future hot-dry-rock development and has been virtually ruled
out for a conventional one (Pulido et al., 2011). According to Lopez-
Hernandez and Castillo-Hernandez (1997), Acoculco may be a case of
self-sealed geothermal field, for which fracture filling by precipitation
of alteration minerals produced a general decrease in rock permeability,
resulting in a ∼ 500 m-thick lithocap that disabled the convective
regime. In contrast, fluid inclusion analyses done on core samples
from the same drill hole gave temperatures of homogenization (TH)
systematically above—at equivalent depths—those of thermal log
(López-Hernández et al., 2009), but consistent with the temperatures
indicated by the alteration mineralogy (Canet et al., 2015), describing
a tortuous geothermal profile with conspicuous temperature peaks.
Therefore, fluid inclusions and alteration minerals in Acoculco, taken
altogether, bear witness to a convective geothermal regime that might
have occurred under a higher geothermal gradient (Canet et al., 2015).
To understand the thermal evolution of Acoculco and therefore
to evaluate its geothermal potential, it is important to determine
when the transition of heat transfer regime—from convective to
conductive—occurred. To that end we developed a 1D model simulating
the time-depth distribution of temperature. The output curves are
compared with the experimental data provided by fluid inclusions and
by the borehole thermal log. The time estimates obtained by such an
approach are then compared with radiocarbon dates of hydrothermal
explosion features, which were reported by Canet et al. (2015) and
represent the most recent manifestation of hydrothermal fluids
reaching the ground surface.
2. Study area
2.1. Geological setting: the Acoculco caldera
The Acoculco geothermal system is hosted by a volcanic caldera
complex that extends over the Puebla–Hidalgo state boundary, at the
eastern portion of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) (Fig. 1).
This complex is ∼ 18 km in diameter and contains up to ∼ 900 m of
Pliocene to Pleistocene calcalkaline volcanic rocks overlying a Mesozoic
sedimentary basement (López-Hernández et al., 2009). The basement
rocks include, from base to top: (a) Jurassic sandstones with interbed-
ded pelites, biopelites and hydrocarbon-rich limestones and dolomites,
conformably overlain by (b) Cretaceous calcarenites and reef lime-
stones, with minor pelites and siltstones (Viniegra-Osorio, 1965;
Morales and Garduño, 1984). A granitic intrusion of presumed Late
Cretaceous age metamorphosed the sedimentary section beneath the
caldera complex (Campos-Enríquez et al., 2003).
The Pliocene to Pleistocene volcanic rocks are, for the most part,
products of the caldera, resulting from two main periods of volcanic ac-
tivity (López-Hernández et al., 2009). The older episode (3.0–2.6 Ma)
produced up to ∼600 m of dacitic to rhyodacitic lavas and pyroclastic
deposits. The earlier episode occurred at 1.7–1.26 Ma producing rhyolit-
ic domes, ignimbrite deposits and minor dacite lava flows, with an
57
overall thickness of ∼300 m. Simultaneous with caldera formation ba-
saltic andesite was erupted outside the caldera structure; subsequently
(1.0–0.24 Ma) basalts were extruded, covering partially the caldera
products (López-Hernández et al., 2009).
2.2. The Acoculco geothermal system
Surface manifestations in Acoculco consist of gas discharges
and bubbling, acid-sulfate springs of low temperature (Fig. 2A), concen-
trated at two zones separated from each other by about 1750 m. In
such manifestations CO2 is the predominant gas and the 3He/4He ratio
(R/Rair) attains up to 8.5; this value is among the highest reported for
the whole TMVB and suggests an active magmatic source (Polak et al.,
1982). Besides that, there are meter-sized craters with associated
mounds of sand- to gravel-sized debris of altered volcanic rock that
bear witness to recent, explosive hydrothermal activity (Fig. 2B and
C). These geothermal landforms are found only at the northernmost
zone with gas emission (referred to as Alcaparrosa) and fossilize
charcoal-rich paleosols (Fig. 2C). Beneath the debris deposits there is a
~ 15 cm thick horizon of fine grained (average: 5.3 ϕ = 25 μm),
unconsolidated particles of alteration minerals, likely deposited as a
hydrothermal explosion ash fall. In addition, a land-slide scarp exposing
pervasively altered volcanic rocks that occurs further up-slope from the
craters might have been triggered by violent hydrothermal explosions.
Perhaps the most striking surface feature of Acoculco is hydrother-
mal alteration, which extends for an area of several square kilometers
by the center of the caldera complex (Fig. 1), affecting tuffs, breccias
and, to a lesser degree, lavas (Canet et al., 2015). Silicic alteration is
the most widespread type of alteration that undergone the surficial
rocks. This alteration occurs as a pervasive replacement of the pyroclas-
tic deposits by an assemblage of opal, tridimite and anatase, developed
under temperature conditions below ~ 150 °C and near-neutral pH
(Canet et al., 2015). Advanced argillic alteration has a much more
restricted distribution in Acoculco, occurring principally nearby the ac-
tive gas manifestations. This type of alteration is expressed by secondary
mineral assemblages rich in kaolinite and sulfates (alunite and
ammoniojarosite), and it could be the consequence of a steam-heated
overprint in the geothermal system. Advanced argillic overprints devel-
op above the water table associated with the oxidation of H2S in steam
condensate, under low pH (2–3) and at near 100 °C (e.g. White and
Hedenquist, 1995).
Concerning the subsurface rocks, two major zones of alteration can
be distinguished according to Canet et al. (2010): (a) a shallow zone
with ammonium illite, and (b) a deeper zone with an alteration assem-
blage of epidote–calcite–chlorite. The shallow zone extends to a depth
of 500–600 m below ground surface (m bgs), and consists of pervasive
ammonium-argillic alteration of the ignimbrites and lavas, indicating
temperatures above 200 °C. The deeper zone was recognized down to
at least ∼1000 m bgs. It shows a typical propylitic assemblage of alter-
ation suggesting temperatures of ∼240 °C. Underneath, metamorphism
of limestones produced marbles as well as skarns with wollastonite,
garnet and diopside (López-Hernández et al., 2009); this calc-silicate
paragenesis suggests temperatures above ~350 °C (e.g. Einaudi, 1982).
The geothermal interest of Acoculco, in line with the above consider-
ations, led the Comisión Federal de Electricidad to drill two exploratory
wells: EAC-1 in 1995 and EAC-2 in 2008, attaining depths of 1810
and 1900 m bgs, respectively (cf. Viggiano-Guerra et al., 2011).
The two wells were drilled very close to each other, being located
both in the southernmost zone with active gas emission, known as Los
Azufres (Fig. 1). According to the review by López-Hernández et al.
(2009), the bottom-hole temperature of EAC-1, measured after well
completion, attained 307 °C. This implies a geothermal gradient of
~140 °C/1000 m, which is about three times the average for the TMVB
(Ziagos et al., 1985). On the other hand, the downhole temperature
profile indicates a pure conductive heat transfer regime (Fig. 3; López-
Hernández et al., 2009).
58 C. Canet et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 305 (2015) 56–62

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Acoculco volcanic complex, eastern Mexico, with the location of the exploratory well EAC-1 (19°55′16.30″ N/98°08′34.85″ W) and of the two main zones with
manifestations of geothermal activity (i.e. bubbling, acid-sulfate warm springs); the surface distribution of hydrothermal alteration minerals is also shown (after López-Hernández et al.,
2009; Canet et al., 2015). TMVB, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.

3. Methods integration of all the boundary conditions under the main assumption
of a pure conduction heat transfer, to solve the following heat balance
3.1. Modeling constraints, experimental data and computational methods equation:

To assess the evolution of geothermal activity in Acoculco, the time ∂T ∂T2

and 1D spatial (vertical) temperature distribution has been numerically
computed using the Finite Difference Method (Fig. 3). This has been
done from the surface down to 1800 m bgs, corresponding to the
depth interval over which experimental data are available from the
exploratory well EAC-1. Two sets of experimental data are used for
modeling the variation with time of geotherms i.e. depth-temperature
profiles: (a) TH of fluid inclusions, and (b) borehole temperature
log values. For modeling purposes, the former were chosen to
plot the initial profile (time = 0), while the latter represent the
current geotherm—or final profile—for the same location (19°55′
16.30″N/98°08′34.85″W). The microthermometric analysis of fluid in-
clusions was done by López-Hernández et al. (2009) in calcite and
quartz crystals from core samples recovered from the exploratory drill
hole. With regard to the borehole temperature log, the considered
data were those measured after well completion.
The two experimental curves are extrapolated by the model down to
4000 m bgs, which is the depth suggested by López-Hernández et al.
(2009) for the magmatic heat source. This extrapolation allows the
¼ Dth 2 ð1Þ
∂t ∂z
where T is the temperature depending on time (t) and depth (z), and Dth
is the thermal diffusivity, which also depends on z and is defined as
follows:
k
Dth ¼ ð2Þ
ρc
where k is the thermal conductivity, c the specific heat capacity and
ρ the mass density. The model used k as a numerical parameter,
whereas c and ρ are experimental values (given in Table 1). Thus,
depth-temperature profiles were obtained at different times.
The proposed model assumes an underground layered structure
such that each layer is isotropic and has constant material properties
(summarized in Table 1). Such stratified model is consistent with the
geological characteristics revealed by the exploratory well EAC-1,
which intersected ~ 1100 m of the meta-sedimentary and plutonic
 C. Canet et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 305 (2015) 56–62 59

Fig. 2. Surface manifestations of hydrothermal activity in the Acoculco geothermal system (Alcaparrosa zone). (A) Bubbling pool of warm, acid-sulfate water; (B) crater formed as a result
of a hydrothermal explosion on a landslide deposit; (C) hummocky deposit of sand- to gravel-sized debris of hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks; the top-right inset shows a close-up
view of a charcoal-rich paleosol horizon found at the basis of such deposit.

basement and the entire caldera sequence (~900 m). Thermal proper-
ties of rocks were taken from literature (Eppelbaum et al., 2014 and
references therein), but volumetric mass density was measured in
core and surface samples through the water displacement method
(Table 1). Besides, the model assumes fixed temperature boundary
conditions of 15 °C at the surface and of 750 °C at a depth of 4000 m
bgs; the former value corresponds to the annual average temperature
of the region (Peláez Pavón, 2015), whereas the latter is the presumed
temperature of the heat source considered as a silicic magma (e.g.
Scaillet et al., 1998). An additional assumption of the model is that
there is no heat source (or sink) besides that of magmatic nature that
is supposed to be at depths greater than 4000 m bgs.
Even though the boundary and initial conditions, under the above
assumptions, are sufficient to solve the Eq. (1), by themselves they do
not allow simulating the variation of geotherms between the initial
and the final thermal profiles. To get the best results that fit with the
experimental depth-temperature curves, an appropriate set of material
properties for each layer (k, c′ and ρ), compatible with the reported
lithologies, must be chosen. Given that k is directly related to the ther-
mal gradient, we considered it as an optimal parameter choice among

Fig. 3. Temperature–depth profiles for the exploratory well EAC-1, Acoculco geothermal system. Profiles shown on the right correspond to experimental data (compiled by López-
Hernández et al., 2009): temperatures of homogenization (TH) of fluid inclusions and log temperatures measured after well completion. To the left is shown the modeled variation of
geotherm curves with time, considering that the initial profile is that given by fluid inclusions and the final one corresponds to the temperature log. The elapsed time between the initial
and final profiles is, according to the numerical simulation, of 7000 years.
60 C. Canet et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 305 (2015) 56–62

Table 1
Thermal proprieties, measured mass density and mineral composition of selected samples of hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks from the Acoculco geothermal zone.

# Sample Depth Volcanic rock type/description of alterationa Mineralsb Density Thermal Heat capacityc
(m) (kg/m3) conductivityc (J/(kg·K))
(W/(m·K))

1 AC-24b 0 Breccia with pervasive silicic alteration Op, Q, Ana (Ill) 2124 1.65 840
2 EAC-2 100 Ignimbrite with pervasive argillic (ammonium) alteration Q, Ill-NH4 (Kao, Py) 2341 1.65 840
3 EAC-1 N-2 325 Welded lapilli tuff, slightly altered (only the mafic minerals) Pl, Hb, Aug, Bio (Chl, Sme, Op, Cal) 2295 1.65 840
4 EAC-1 N-3 602 Dacite lava, with argillic alteration Q, Pl, FK, Ill (Py) 2290 1.87 840
5 EAC-1 N-4 825 Coarse ash tuff with propylitic alteration Pl, Q, Cal, Chl (Kao, Py) 2698 1.65 840
6 EAC-2P 1520 Marble, unaltered Cal (Q) 2359 2.37 890
7 EAC-1 N-6 1815 Granite, slightly altered Pl, FK, Q, Hb, Bio (Chl) 2761 2.68 950
a,b
From Canet et al. (2010, 2015).
b
Obtained by XRD and SWIR reflectance spectrometry. In order of abundance; minerals in trace amounts are given in parentheses. Key: Ana, anatase; Aug, augite; Bio, biotite; Cal, calcite;
Chl, chlorite; FK, K-feldspar; Hb, hornblende; Ill, illite (Ill-NH4, ammonium illite); Kao, kaolinite; Op, opal; Pl, plagioclase; Py, pyrite; Q, quartz; Sme, smectite s.l.
c
From Eppelbaum et al. (2014).

the material properties. A heuristic procedure, seeking to get the best dissolved in dead spectrophotometric-grade benzene) in 3-mL Teflon®
accuracy in the reproduction of the two experimental profiles, allowed vials in order to reduce the background signal. Analyses were performed
us to establish a set of k values suitable for the stratified model. These in a Quantulus 1220 ultra-low-level liquid scintillation spectrometer.
values, available in Table 2, are within the range found in the literature Each sample was analyzed for 2500 min distributed in 50 cycles, alter-
for the different rock types intersected by the EAC-1 exploratory well, as nating sample vials with Oxalic acid II (SRM 4990C) standard and back-
shown in Table 1. ground vials. The counting window was set to optimize the figure
In order to solve the diffusion Eq. (1) and to produce the simulated of merit with a 14C counting efficiency higher than 65% and the
geotherms depicted in Fig. 3, a program was written using the Python background less than 0.2 CPM/g C. The conventional radiocarbon date
scripting language (Python Software Foundation, n.d). The code is was calibrated using the Calib 7.0 software (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993)
available in a supplementary file and it may be freely used and/or with the calibration curve IntCal_13 (Reimer et al., 2013).
modified.
4. Results
3.2. Radiocarbon measurements
4.1. Thermal profiles: comparison and model results
Four soil samples and one charcoal sample were dated at the
Laboratorio Universitario de Radiocarbono, Universidad Nacional
Two distinct geotherms, representing different ages, arise from ex-
Autónoma de México (UNAM) by liquid scintillation spectrometry,
perimental data (Fig. 3). The initial or former profile is that defined by
following standard procedures reported in detail in Beramendi-Orosco
fluid-inclusion TH values; in this case the variation of temperature
et al. (2006). Sample descriptions and provenance are provided in
with depth is not linear, showing two conspicuous maxima of 178°
Table 3. Prior to benzene synthesis, soil samples were dried at 50 °C
and 282 °C at 400 and 1200 m bgs, respectively. Contrastingly, the
and sieved to pass mesh 10 (2 mm), before inspection under the micro-
final or current profile, which was obtained from the borehole thermal
scope in order to remove rootlets and other macro-contaminants. After
log, shows an almost constant, negative slope indicating a geothermal
this, samples were washed with distilled water at 40 °C for 24 h follow-
gradient of ~ 140 °C/1000 m. The offset between the two curves is
ed by acid wash with 1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) at 50 °C for 24 h, then
more pronounced at the depths of the TH maxima (400 and 1200 m
neutralized by washing with distilled water and dried at 50 °C. The
bgs) but becomes negligible from 1400 m bgs and below.
charcoal sample was dried and inspected under the microscope in
The simulated geotherms produced by the 1D model for times among
order to remove rootlets and other contaminants prior to the Acid-
1000 and 9000 years vary progressively between the two experimental
Alkali-Acid (AAA) pretreatment. The AAA method consists in treating
profiles, being the curve of 7000 years which has the best fit to the
samples with 1 M HCl at 50 °C for 24 h, 0.1 M sodium hydroxide
final profile (Fig. 3). Thence, the geothermal gradient progressively de-
(NaOH) at 50 °C for 4 h, and 1 M HCl at 50 °C for 24 h. Samples were neu-
creases (down to ~90 °C/1000 m not considering the extrapolated seg-
tralized by washing with distilled water and dried at 50 °C.
ment) with increasing time until reaching the steady state regime,
Prior to analysis, all samples were transformed to benzene (1.5 mL)
under a pure conduction heat transfer, at 250,000 y (after the initial
in a vacuum synthesis line and mixed with 0.5 mL of scintillation
profile); the slope of these curves, although always negative, varies
cocktail (2,5-diphenyloxazole + 1,4-Bis(5-phenyl-2-oxazolyl) benzene
with depth in response to the underground layered structure (Fig. 3).

4.2. Hydrothermal explosions: radiocarbon dating

Table 2
Numerical parameters used to reproduce the geothermal profiles as a function of time
depicted in Fig. 3.
The age of different deposits and landforms that is related to hydro-
thermal explosions was constrained by radiocarbon dating of paleosol
Depth (m) k (W/m-°C) c (J/kg-K) ρ (kg/m3) Dth (10−7 · m2/s) horizons (Table 3). The oldest radiocarbon age (conventional date) is
0 to 50 1.84 840 2120 10.33 4440 ± 80 BP and corresponds to an ash-fall horizon likely deposited
50 to 250 1.41 840 2340 7.17 by a hydrothermal eruption. Moreover, two deposits of sand-sized
250 to 400 1.36 840 2300 7.04
hydrothermal debris, separated each other by 250 m on the footslope,
400 to 600 1.44 840 2300 7.45
600 to 800 1.46 840 2290 7.59 gave ages of 1230 ± 65 and 1380 ± 80 BP; the latter was confirmed
800 to 1000 1.68 840 2700 7.41 with the 14C analysis of a charcoal fragment separated from the same
1000 to 1500 1.84 890 2700 7.66 horizon (Table 3). The youngest hydrothermal event in the zone,
1500 to 1900 1.66 890 2360 7.90 dated to 680 ± 65 BP, produced conical mounds of gravel-sized hydro-
N1900 2.10 950 2760 8.01
thermal debris preserved on the toeslope (Fig. 2C).
 C. Canet et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 305 (2015) 56–62
Table 3
Radiocarbon ages of paleosol horizons fossilized by hydrothermal explosions in the Acoculco geothermal zone. A close−up photograph of the paleosol UNAM-1421 is provided in Fig. 2C
(top-right inset).
Sample Location Description
UNAM-1419 19°56′17.15″N Paleosol underneath a deposit of sand-sized hydrothermal debris
98°08′35.23″O
UNAM-1418 19°56′17.15″N Charcoal fragment from the paleosol horizon UNAM-1419
98°08′35.23″O
UNAM-1420 19°56′19.04″N Paleosol underneath a deposit of sand-sized hydrothermal debris
98°08′27.20″O
UNAM-1421 19°56′15.79″N Paleosol underneath a deposit of gravel-sized hydrothermal debris
98°08′34.44″O
UNAM-1422 19°56′17.24″N Paleosol underneath a silt-sized horizon of hydrothermal ash
98°08′25.28″O
5. Discussion
The shape of the geotherm established from fluid inclusions (‘initial
profile’ in Fig. 3), with marked TH maxima at 400 and 1200 m bgs that
may be taken as indicators for thermal paleoaquifers, suggests that
convection has occurred in the past through the upper ~1400 m of the
geothermal system of Acoculco. Furthermore, hydrothermal alteration
is much more intense and pervasive in the same (upper) portion of
the system (Canet et al., 2015), which can also be interpreted as
evidence of convection (e.g. Norton and Hulen, 2001). Contrastingly,
at depths greater than 1400 m bgs, the TH geotherm becomes roughly
linear and overlaps with the current geotherm (i.e. which is given by
the borehole thermal log; plotted as ‘final profile’ in Fig. 3), indicating
that: (a) at such depths conduction is the only operating heat transfer
mechanism, both for the present and the past, and (b) fixing tempera-
ture boundary conditions at depth is a reasonable assumption for the
1D model.
According to our numerical simulation, the elapsed time between
the initial and final profiles is of 7000 y; put another way, the transition
of heat transfer regime from convective to conductive in Acoculco likely
happened ca. 7000 years ago. This time lapse is too short to allow signif-
icant changes in the deep, magmatic heat source (cf. Norton and Knight,
1977), but it could reasonably account for rapid changes in the upper
portion of the geothermal system. In the case of Acoculco, a sudden
drop in permeability due to the precipitation of alteration minerals
would have triggered the cessation of the convective heat transfer
regime to give place to a conductive one (López-Hernández et al.,
2009; Canet et al., 2015). A noticeable effect of these rapid changes
is a decrease in the local geothermal gradient, manifested by an
offset between the two experimental geotherms (Fig. 3). This effect
only affects the rocks of the upper portion of the geothermal system
(~ 0–1400 m bgs), which began to cool when stopped the interaction
with hydrothermal fluids (ca. 7000 years ago). Without convection,
the cooling rate of the magmatic heat source may be decreased by an
order of magnitude (Norton and Knight, 1977).
Hydrothermal explosions occur in areas with modern geothermal
activity and produce a variety of features such as craters of variable
diameter (from several to hundreds of meters), buttes, and deposits of
debris and breccias of hydrothermally altered rocks (Muffler et al.,
1971 and references there in). They take place when hot water (over
~250 °C) that is contained in the rocks of the upper portion of a geother-
mal system boil and flash to steam, disrupting the confining rocks and
ejecting rock fragments, mud, water and steam (Muffler et al., 1971).
However, in conventional geothermal systems heat is efficiently
dissipated by hot-springs and/or geysers, thereby avoiding the
occurrence of major hydrothermal explosions. It is expected, therefore,
that these explosions occur in geothermal systems with very low
rock permeability (Muffler et al., 1971). Under this scenario, where
convection does not occur, energy brought from a deep heat source
accumulates in the upper portion of the system until fluid pressure
61
14
Total C C age Calibrated range (2σ)
% (BP ± 1σ) cal. BC/AD cal. BP Pr. %
2.2 1380 ± 80 AD 533–778 1172–1417 93.4
– 1370 ± 70 AD 540–778 1172–1410 97.9
1.1 1230 ± 65 AD 663–901 1049–1287 94.3
5.4 680 ± 65 AD 1241–1407 543–709 98.2
4.3 4440 ± 80 BC 3346–2918 4867–5295 100.0
exceeds the strength of the overlying rock violently disrupting them;
an effective mechanism that can lead to a hydrothermal explosion is a
sudden release in pressure, which in turn can be triggered by an earth-
quake or by hydrothermal fracturing (Christiansen et al., 2007).
In Acoculco, recent hydrothermal explosive activity is manifested in
small craters and mounds of hydrothermal debris and breccias, formed
in a zone with active gas emission where the surface volcanic rocks are
pervasively altered (Fig. 2). The incidence of hydrothermal explosions in
Acoculco is consistent with two defining characteristics of the present-
day geothermal field: (a) an active magmatic heat source that holds
high geothermal gradient; and (b) a very low permeability in the
volcanic rocks of the caldera sequence due to hydrothermal alteration.
The radiocarbon dating of paleosols revealed that the hydrothermal
explosive activity in Acoculco postdates the end of the convective heat
transfer regime, which happened, according to our 1D numerical
modeling, ca. 7000 years ago. At least three events of this activity are
recorded in the studied paleosols, dated to 4867–5295, 1049–1417
and 543–709 y cal. BP (Table 3). Accordingly, our general chronology
of events, constructed from the results of numerical simulations plus
14
C ages, indicates that hydrothermal explosions are consequence of
the self-sealing of the geothermal system, which is consistent with the
models of Muffler et al. (1971). Furthermore, we can deduce from this
chronology that (a) the change in heat transfer regime and, thus, in
the way to dissipate the excess thermal energy to the surface, occurred
rapidly and recently compared to the lifespan of the geothermal system;
and (b) the period of recurrence for hydrothermal explosions could be
within hundreds to a few thousands of years, implying a natural hazard
that should not be dismissed for any future geothermal-power
development.
6. Conclusions
Convection in Acoculco has occurred in the past through the upper
~1400 m of the geothermal system. A drop in permeability due to the
precipitation of alteration minerals triggered the cessation of convective
heat transfer to give place to a conductive regime. According to 1D
numerical simulations, this transition of heat transfer regime happened
ca. 7000 years ago; this date is very recent in comparison with the
lifespan of the geothermal system.
Hydrothermal explosive activity is manifested in Acoculco by meter-
scale craters and mounds of hydrothermal debris and breccias. These
features occur in a zone with thermal gas manifestations where the
surface volcanic rocks show pervasive alteration. Hydrothermal
explosions in Acoculco are consequence of the self-sealing of the
geothermal system: upon cessation of convection, excess thermal
energy accumulates triggering sudden events of flash boiling that
violently disrupt the confining rocks.
Radiocarbon chronology confirms that the hydrothermal explosive
activity in Acoculco postdates the end of the convective heat transfer
regime, having dated at least three explosive events, at 4867–5295,
62 C. Canet et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 305 (2015) 56–62
1049–1417 and 543–709 y cal. BP. Hence it follows that the period of
recurrence for hydrothermal explosions could be within hundreds to a
few thousands of years, implying a natural hazard that could affect
future geothermal-power infrastructure.
Acknowledgments
Funding was provided by the project 151453 (Fondo Mixto
Conacyt — Gobierno del Estado de Hidalgo). This research was framed
by the Red de Experimentos en Laboratorios Subterráneos (DGECI,
UNAM), led by Juan Carlos d'Olivo (ICN, UNAM). Lucy Mora and Kumiko
Shimada are thanked for the total carbon analyses of soil samples, and
Faustino Juárez for the rock density measurements. The authors would
like to thank Guillermo López Flores and Sergio Salinas for their valuable
assistance during fieldwork.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.09.019.
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