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AN EXPLORATION OF TWO INFINITE FAMILIES
OF SNARKS
Lander Ver Hoef
University of Alaska Fairbanks
March 1st, 2019
Lander Ver Hoef (UAF) Snarks March 1st, 2019 1 / 50

Basic definitions
b a
Graph
c d
1
See Introduction to Graph Theory, West, 2000
Basic definitions
b a
Degree
c d
1
Basic definitions
b a
3-regular
c d
1
Basic definitions
b a
Proper k-edge-coloring
c d
1
Basic definitions
b a
Path P
c d
1
Basic definitions
b a
Cycle
C
c d
1
Basic definitions
b a
Length
P C
c d
1
Basic definitions
b a
Connected
c d
1
Basic definitions
b a
Bridgeless
c d
1
Definition of a Snark
A snark is a 3-regular bridgeless graph with no proper 3-edge-coloring.

The Origin of Snark Hunting
Martin Gardner (1976)

P.G. Tait (1880)
Julius Petersen (1898)
1
See “Snarks,” Watkins, 1989 for more.
The Petersen Graph

The Petersen Graph

The Petersen Graph

The Petersen Graph
y z

Early Snarks
Danilo Blanuša (1946)

Blanche Descartes (AKA W.T. Tutte) (1948)
George Szekeres (1973)
BDS and flower snarks in 1975, by Rufus Isaacs.
Loupekine Snarks in 1976.
1
See “Snarks,” Watkins, 1989 for more.
Berge-Fulkerson Conjecture
Berge-Fulkerson Conjecture
For every bridgeless 3-regular graph, there exist 6 perfect matchings with
the property that every edge appears in exactly two perfect matchings.

Berge-Fulkerson Conjecture Example

Berge-Fulkerson Conjecture Example

Berge-Fulkerson and 3-edge-colorability
b a
c d

Berge-Fulkerson and 3-edge-colorability
b a b a b a
c d c d c d
b a b a b a
c d c d c d

k-poles

Parity Lemma
Lemma (Parity Lemma)

In any proper 3-edge-coloring of a k-pole, if ni is the number of
semi-edges of color i, then
n1 ≡ n2 ≡ n3 ≡ k mod 2.
1
From Blanche Descartes, “Network-colouring,” 1948
Lemma (Loupekine’s Lemma)
If {ab, bc, cb 0 , b 0 a0 } is a path in some snark S, and A, B, C , B 0 , A0 are the
corresponding dangling edges in the 5-pole S 0 after b, c, b 0 are deleted from
S, then in any 3-edge-coloring of S 0 , one of the pairs of A, B and A0 , B 0
must have matching colors, and the other must have mismatched colors.
a b c b0 a0
S0 B C B0
A A0
1
From Rufus Isaacs, “Loupekine’s Snarks: A bifamily of non-Tait-colorable graphs,”
1976
Loupekine Snarks

Loupekine Snarks

Loupekine Snarks

Loupekine Snarks

Introduction to Voltage Graphs
u 0 v
1 2

u0
v0
u 0 v
1 2

u0
v0
u1 v4 u4
u 0 v v1
1 2
v3
v2
u2 u3

u0
v0
u1 v4 u4
u 0 v v1
1 2
v3
v2
u2 u3

u0
v0
u1 v4 u4
u 0 v v1
1 2
v3
v2
u2 u3

u0
v0
u1 v4 u4
u 0 v v1
1 2
v3
v2
u2 u3

Originating Graph

Originating Graph

Originating Graph
d
g a
f b
r c e
t
s

The 5-pole K
a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s

The Voltage Graph Gv
p1
h g
a
r
b f
d e
c
p2
s
t
`
p3

An Example Construction, F4
a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s2 s1
g2 f2 e2 t1 c0 b0 a0
t2
`2 `1
h2 d2 d0 h0
`3 `0 t
a2 c2 0 e0 g0
b2 t3 f0
s3 s0
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

The Voltage Graph Gdv
p1
h g
a
r
b f
d e
c
p2
s
t
m/2

An Example with Diameters, R4
a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s2 s1
g2 f2 e2 t1 c0 b0 a0
t2
h2 d2 d0 h0
a2 b2 c2 t0 e0 f0 g0
t3
s3 s0
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

A Small Example on 22 Vertices, R2
r1
s1
g1 f1 e1 c0 b0 a0
t1
h1 d1 d0 h0
t0
a1 b1 c1 e0 f0 g0
s0
r0

The Three Valid 3-edge-colorings of K ’s Semi-edges
a h g
i
b f
d
c e
j

The Three Valid 3-edge-colorings of K ’s Semi-edges
A A A
A0 A0 A0
B B B
B0 B0 B0
C C C

The Graphs Fm and Rm are Snarks.
Theorem
The graphs Fm are snarks for all m ≥ 3.
Theorem
The graphs Rm are snarks for all even m ≥ 2.

Introduction to the Blowup Construction
1
See Hägglund, “On snarks that are far from being
3-edge-colorable,” 2016
Introduction to the Blowup Construction
ti ti+1 ti+2
ri ri+1 ri+2
ti ti+1 ti+2
si si+1 si+2
1
Relation to Fm and Rm
1
Relation to Fm and Rm
g1 r1 g0
h1 f1 h0 f0
a1 e1 a0 e0
t1
b1 d1 b0 d0
c1 s1 c0
K χ
1
The Graphs Giving Fm and Rm as Blowups

Classifying the Order of Aut(Fm )
Theorem
The order of the automorphism group of Fm is 2m+1 m.

The Automorphisms τ and σi
r2 a1
h1
g1
b1
g2
f1
f2 c1
h2 d1
e2 e1 r1
s2
a2
d2 s1
b2 t2
t1 c0 b0 a0
c2 `2
r3 `1
s3 `3 d0 h0
t3
`0 t
e3 `4 0
e0 g0
s0 f0
f3 t4
d3
g3
c3 s4 c4
h3 d4
b3 e4
b4 r0
a3
f4
a4
r4 h4
g4

r2 a1
h1
g1
b1
g2
f1
f2 c1
h2 d1
e2 e1 r1
s2
a2
d2 s1
b2 t2
t1 c0 b0 a0
c2 `2
r3 `1
s3 `3 d0 h0
t3
`0 t
e3 `4 0
e0 g0
s0 f0
f3 t4
d3
g3
c3 s4 c4
h3 d4
b3 e4
b4 r0
a3
f4
a4
r4 h4
g4

a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s2 s1
g2 f2 e2 t1 c0 b0 a0
t2
`2 `1
h2 d2 d0 h0
`3 `0 t
a2 c2 0 e0 g0
b2 t3 f0
s3 s0
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s2 s1
g2 f2 e2 t1 c0 b0 a0
t2
`2 `1
h2 d2 d0 h0
`3 `0 t
a2 c2 0 e0 g0
b2 t3 f0
s3 s0
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s2 s1
g2 f2 e2 t1 c0 b0 a0
t2
`2 `1
h2 d2 d0 h0
`3 `0 t
a2 c2 0 e0 g0
b2 t3 f0
s3 s0
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

The Automorphisms γi
r2 a1
h1
g1
b1
g2
f1
f2 c1
h2 d1
e2 e1 r1
s2
a2
d2 s1
b2 t2
t1 c0 b0 a0
c2 `2
r3 `1
s3 `3 d0 h0
t3
`0 t
e3 `4 0
e0 g0
s0 f0
f3 t4
d3
g3
c3 s4 c4
h3 d4
b3 e4
b4 r0
a3
f4
a4
r4 h4
g4

Lower bound
τ and σ0 generate Dm , which has order 2m

γi has order 2 for each i
Thus, the automorphism group of Fm must contain at least
m · 2 · 2m = 2m+1 m automorphisms.

Vertex Orbits
r2 a1
h1
g1
b1
g2
f1
f2 c1
h2 d1
e2 e1 r1
s2
U a2
d2 s1
b2 t2
V c2
t1 c0 b0 a0
`2
r3 `1
X `3 d0 h0
s3 t3
Y e3 `4
`0 t
0
e0 f0 g0
s0
Z f3
d3 t4
g3
c3 s4 c4
h3 d4
b3 e4
b4 r0
a3
f4
a4
r4 h4
g4

Vertex Orbits
r2 a1
h1
g1
b1
g2
f1
f2 c1
h2 d1
e2 e1 r1
s2
U a2
d2 s1
b2 t2
V c2
t1 c0 b0 a0
`2
r3 `1
X `3 d0 h0
s3 t3
Y e3 `4
`0 t
0
e0 f0 g0
s0
Z f3
d3 t4
g3
c3 s4 c4
h3 d4
b3 e4
b4 r0
a3
f4
a4
r4 h4
g4

Vertex Orbits
r2 a1
h1
g1
b1
g2
f1
f2 c1
h2 d1
e2 e1 r1
s2
U a2
d2 s1
b2 t2
V c2
t1 c0 b0 a0
`2
r3 `1
X `3 d0 h0
s3 t3
Y e3 `4
`0 t
0
e0 f0 g0
s0
Z f3
d3 t4
g3
c3 s4 c4
h3 d4
b3 e4
b4 r0
a3
f4
a4
r4 h4
g4

Vertex Orbits Continued
a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

a h g
r
b f
d
c e
s
t
`

Upper bound
r2 a1
h1
g1
b1
g2
f1
f2 c1
h2 d1
e2 e1 r1
s2
a2
d2 s1
b2 t2
t1 c0 b0 a0
c2 `2
r3 `1
s3 `3 d0 h0
t3
`0 t
e3 `4 0
e0 g0
s0 f0
f3 t4
d3
g3
c3 s4 c4
h3 d4
b3 e4
b4 r0
a3
f4
a4
r4 h4
g4

Upper bound
`00

Upper bound
`00
`01

Upper bound
t00 t10
`00
`01
`04
t40 `02 t20
`03
t30

Upper bound
s00
r10
r00
s10
t00 t10
`00
s40 `01
`04
r40
t40 `02 t20
`03
s20
t30
r30
r20
s30

Classifying the Order of Aut(Rm )
Theorem
The order of the automorphism group of Rm is 2m+1 m.

Introduction to Oddness
a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s1
s2
g2 e2 t1 c0 a0
f2 t2 b0
`2 `1
h2 d2 d0 h0
`3 `0
a2 b2 c2 t0 e0 f0 g0
t3
s0
s3
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s1
s2
g2 e2 t1 c0 a0
f2 t2 b0
`2 `1
h2 d2 d0 h0
`3 `0
a2 b2 c2 t0 e0 f0 g0
t3
s0
s3
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

a1 h1 g1
r2 b1 f1
r1
c1 d1 e1
s1
s2
g2 e2 t1 c0 a0
f2 t2 b0
`2 `1
h2 d2 d0 h0
`3 `0
a2 b2 c2 t0 e0 f0 g0
t3
s0
s3
e3 d3 c3
r3
f3 b3 r0
g3 h3 a3

Characterizing Oddness of Fm
Theorem
The oddness of Fm is
m
ω(Fm ) = 2 if m ≡ 0 mod 4,
m+1
ω(Fm ) = 2 + 1 if m ≡ 1 mod 4,
m
ω(Fm ) = 2 + 1 if m ≡ 2 mod 4,
m+1
ω(Fm ) = 2 if m ≡ 3 mod 4.

Lower Bound
From Hägglund, “On snarks that are far from being 3-edge colorable,”
2016, we have that lmm
ω(Fm ) ≥
2
for all m.

Two-factor Construction Component One
ai+1 ri

Two-factor Construction Component Two
ai+2 ri

Example Construction
g2 r2
a2 h2
a1
r3
f2 h1
b2 b1
g3 e2 c1 g1
f3 c2 d2
s2 f1
h3 e3 d1
s3 e1 r1
t2
a3 d3 t3 s1 c b0 a0
t1 0
b3 `3 `2
r4 c3 `1
`4 d0 h0
e4 s4 t4 `0 t0
f4 `5 ` s0 e0
g4 6 f0 g0
d4 t5 t6 c6
h4 c4 s5 s6 d6
e5 b6 r0
b4 d5 e
a4 c5 6
a6
r5 f5 f6
b5 h6
g5 g6
h5 a5 r6

g2 r2
a2 h2
a1
r3
f2 h1
b2 b1
g3 e2 c1 g1
f3 c2 d2
s2 f1
h3 e3 d1
s3 e1 r1
t2
a3 d3 t3 s1 c b0 a0
t1 0
b3 `3 `2
r4 c3 `1
`4 d0 h0
e4 s4 t4 `0 t0
f4 `5 ` s0 e0
g4 6 f0 g0
d4 t5 t6 c6
h4 c4 s5 s6 d6
e5 b6 r0
b4 d5 e
a4 c5 6
a6
r5 f5 f6
b5 h6
g5 g6
h5 a5 r6

g2 r2
a2 h2
a1
r3
f2 h1
b2 b1
g3 e2 c1 g1
f3 c2 d2
s2 f1
h3 e3 d1
s3 e1 r1
t2
a3 d3 t3 s1 c b0 a0
t1 0
b3 `3 `2
r4 c3 `1
`4 d0 h0
e4 s4 t4 `0 t0
f4 `5 ` s0 e0
g4 6 f0 g0
d4 t5 t6 c6
h4 c4 s5 s6 d6
e5 b6 r0
b4 d5 e
a4 c5 6
a6
r5 f5 f6
b5 h6
g5 g6
h5 a5 r6

Characterizing Oddness of Rm
Theorem
The oddness of Rm is
m
ω(Fm ) = 2 if m ≡ 0 mod 4,
m
ω(Fm ) = 2 + 1 if m ≡ 2 mod 4.

Two-factor Construction Component One

Two-factor Construction Component Two

Other Parameters in the Lift

Other Open Questions
Are there other 5-poles like K where one particular “side” must
always match, and the other mismatch?
Can we say something about the automorphism groups of general
blowup graphs?

The Cycle Double Cover Conjecture
The Cycle Double Cover Conjecture

Every bridgeless graph admits a Cycle Double Cover (CDC), a collection of
cycles such that every edge appears in exactly two cycles.

CDC Conjecture Example

CDC Conjecture Example

Conditions to Avoid Triviality
Bridgeless;
Girth ≥ 5;
Cyclic connectivity ≥ 4.
1
See Nedela and Škoviera, “Decompositions and reductions of snarks,” 1996, and
Watkins, “Snarks,” 1989
Why Girth 3 isn’t Desirable

Why Girth 4 isn’t Desirable

Why Cyclic Connectivity 2 isn’t Desirable




Proof of Loupekine’s Lemma
S0 B C B0
A A0

S0 B C B0
A A0

S0 B C B0
A A0
a b c b0 a0

S0 B C B0
A A0
a b c b0 a0

The graph F4 in Three Dimensions
r0 t0 `0 g1
`1 f1
g0 f0 h1
t1 e1
h0 s1 a1
s0 e0 c1
a0 d1
d0 b1
c0
b0 r1

Orbits in Rm
r2
g2 a1
h2 h1
a2 f2 b1 g1
r3 e2 c1
b2 f1
d2 s2 d1
c2 e1 r1
t2 s1
g3 f3 e3 s3 t1 c0 b0 a0
t3
h3 d3 d0 h0
t0
a3 b3 c3 t4 s0 e0 f0 g0
s4
t5
r4 e4 c5
d4 s5 d5
f4 c4 e5 b5 r0
g4 a5
b4 f5
h4 h5
a4 g5
r5

Orbits in Rm
r2
g2 a1
h2 h1
a2 f2 b1 g1
r3 e2 c1
b2 f1
d2 s2 d1
c2 e1 r1
t2 s1
g3 f3 e3 s3 t1 c0 b0 a0
t3
h3 d3 d0 h0 χ0
t0
a3 b3 c3 t4 s0 e0 f0 g0
s4
t5
r4 e4 c5
d4 s5 d5
f4 c4 e5 b5 r0
g4 a5
b4 f5
h4 h5
a4 g5
r5

Upper Bound
r2
g2 a1
h2 h1
a2 f2 b1 g1
r3 e2 c1
b2 f1
d2 s2 d1
c2 e1 r1
t2 s1
g3 f3 e3 s3 t1 c0 b0 a0
t3
h3 d3 d0 h0
t0
a3 b3 c3 t4 s0 e0 f0 g0
s4
t5
r4 e4 c5
d4 s5 d5
f4 c4 e5 b5 r0
g4 a5
b4 f5
h4 h5
a4 g5
r5

Upper Bound
t00

Upper Bound
r00
s00
t00

Upper Bound
χ00
r00
s00
t00

Upper Bound
s10
χ00 χ01
r00
r10
s20
r20
s00
t00
χ05 χ02
s30
s50
r50
r40
r30
χ04 χ03
s40

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AN EXPLORATION OF TWO INFINITE FAMILIES

Lander Ver Hoef

University of Alaska Fairbanks

March 1st, 2019

Lander Ver Hoef (UAF) Snarks March 1st, 2019 1 / 50

A snark is a 3-regular bridgeless graph with no proper 3-edge-coloring.

Lander Ver Hoef (UAF) Snarks March 1st, 2019 3 / 50

Martin Gardner (1976)

Lander Ver Hoef (UAF) Snarks March 1st, 2019 5 / 50

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Danilo Blanuša (1946)

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Lemma (Parity Lemma)

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τ and σ0 generate Dm , which has order 2m

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